Mitigating the Negative Impact of Certain Erosion Events: Development and Verification of Innovative Agricultural Machinery

Abstract

This paper aims to solve the problem of erosion sediment that negatively affects the quality of fallowed soil through the development of a new type of agricultural machinery. The transported erosion sediment will be quantified locally to evaluate the danger of these negative effects on the fallowed soil and on the functionality of the grass cover. Subsequently, a new type of machinery will be proposed for the remediation of eroded sediment and conservation of the fallowed soil. In various fallow research areas with different management methods (such as biobelts, grassed valleys, and grassed waterways), agricultural land affected by eroded sediment was examined, and appropriate machinery was designed to rehabilitate the stands after erosion events. By identifying the physical and mechanical properties of the soil, as well as the eroded and deposited sediment/colluvium, the shape, material, attachment method, and assembly of the working tool for the relevant mobile energy device were designed. The developed tool, based on a plow–carry system using a tractor, features flexible tools that separate the eroded sediment from the fallow land surface, transfer it over a short distance, and accumulate it in a designated area to facilitate subsequent removal with minimal damage to the herbaceous vegetation. The calculated erosion event was 196.9 m³ (179.0 m³ ha⁻¹), corresponding to 295 tons (268.5 t ha⁻¹) deposited from the area of 90 ha. Afterward, the proposed machinery was evaluated for the cost of the removal of the eroded sediment. Based on experience from the field, we calculated that 174 m³ per engine hour results in EUR 0.22 m⁻³. From the performed experiment, it is evident that the proposed machinery offers a suitable solution for eroded sediment removal locally, which prevents further erosion and subsequent sediment deposition in water bodies where the costs for sediment removal are higher. Moreover, we have proven the potential negative impact of invasive plant species because their seeds were stored in the sediment. Finally, it is credible to state that the proposed agricultural machinery offers an effective solution for the eroded sediment relocation, which subsequently can be used for other purposes and monetized. This results in an increase in the profitability of the erosion sediment removal process, which is already in place at the source before further transportation to aquatic systems where the costs for removal are significantly higher.

1. Introduction

The European landscape has changed dramatically due to human use in the last few centuries and decades [1,2]. The impacts of human activity are most evident in the intensively farmed agriculture landscape, which currently covers approximately 50% of the territory of the European Union states [3], and it also dominates the rest of the world [4,5]. Negative impacts of conventional agricultural management are noticeable, not only in the context of global climate change but also in the context of erosion, which affects land degradation and the loss of natural soil fertility [6,7,8]. The negative effects of conventional agricultural management are evident, especially in Central and Eastern Europe with large field blocks and farms [9].

The most significant soil degradation processes are water and wind erosion, loss of organic matter, soil compaction, soil contamination, limitation of microbial activity in soils, soil waterlogging, accelerated water runoff, and built-up plots of agricultural land [10,11,12]. Damage to agricultural land is also increasingly the subject of lawsuits, based on which procedures for proper management and possible rehabilitation, recultivation, and revitalization are defined. Soil erosion is primarily attributable to the implementation of inappropriate agricultural practices [13,14]. Changes in the soil characteristics and development of the entire landscape are also strongly dependent on climate and vegetation development [15,16,17]. Soil erosion predominately occurs on the sloped parts of soil blocks due to intense rainfall, limited vegetation cover, and the planting of unsuitable crops [4,18,19]. Soil erosion and the amount of sediment deposited outside the source land irreversibly degrades the soil quality [20,21]. However, pollutants from synthetic fertilizers, heavy metals, and pesticides are also transported with erosion sediment, which can cause contamination of neighboring land, the eutrophication of water, and the disruption of ecosystems [22]. Environmental factors, such as topography, climate-influenced erosion, and sedimentation rates, have an impact on the soil quality [19]. Analyzing soil erosion is crucial in identifying vulnerable areas and assessing the amount of erosion sediments. Therefore, the knowledge of the temporal and spatial distribution of erosion is the basis for sustainable landscape management and soil conservation [23,24].

Soil erosion can be mitigated by preventive measures. Windbreaks are one of them. Their effectiveness is variable and contingent upon the tree composition, tree age, and windbreak structure [11,25,26]. Another method is soil protection with anti-erosion agrotechnical measures, including a selection of suitable crops with high soil coverage, biobelts, a combination of agricultural measures, or afforestation [8,19,27]. Scientific studies have shown that ground covered with vegetation has a significant effect on preventing soil erosion; there is a complex relationship between vegetation cover, the reduction in the kinetic energy of rainfall, and the subsequent catchment of erosional sediments [28,29,30,31,32]. Vegetation, especially herbaceous types, improves sediment deposition and stabilizes sediment layers [30,33,34]. Many scientific papers are devoted to the relationships between vegetation and erosion, or between erosional sediments in different ecosystems, such as coastal salt marshes [35], in areas exposed to tides and with built levees [36,37,38,39] in riparian ecosystems [40,41,42,43,44], and in abandoned field ecosystems in poor and sandy soils [45].

However, in most cases, it is too late to establish preventive measures, and, therefore, portions of field blocks are affected by land degradation and soil erosion processes, resulting in low fertility. On the other hand, agricultural land is also endangered by transport and erosion sediment deposition in lower elevations under risky eroded fields [19]. The sediment has a wide range of negative impacts on microhabitats. It is indisputable that an erosion event very quickly changes the soil conditions on eroded surfaces but also on land where the erosional sediment settles, i.e., fallows and other anti-erosion elements. Once an erosion event occurs, due to the sedimentation of the erosion residue, the physical properties of the soil, and above all, the properties of the affected fallow change; along with the eroded sediment, the seeds of non-native, invasive, and also standard resistant plants reach the fallow area. Moreover, the sediment plays a significant role in transporting neophytes, which can travel relatively long distances if the slope conditions are favorable. Neophytes represent a serious threat to native ecosystems and agroecosystems primarily due to a high tolerance to temperature extremes, salinity, and flooding conditions, easy spreading processes, and gaining dominance in ecosystems [46,47,48,49,50].

To avert the negative erosion impacts, it is imperative to implement follow-up measures and relocate the erosion sediments after particular events before long-term measures are established. However, an appropriate agricultural machinery that would enable the removal, subsequent recultivation, and revitalization of erosion sediment that works towards ensuring the functionality of the herbaceous cover of fallow has not yet been developed [51]. In the past, tractor backhoes with front blades were occasionally used, but they are unsuitable for grass-covered areas. Other machines, like landscape rakes or graders, fail to meet the requirements for removing sediment from dense grass cover without causing damage. At the same time, it is essential to evaluate the sediment event from the point of neophyte translocation and distribution in translocated soil from the point of possible rapid plant diversity changes. Therefore, the particular aims of this paper are (i) to evaluate the specific erosion event at a selected location in the agricultural landscape; (ii) to determine the reaction of the grassed fallow plant species to the layer of erosion sediment after the current erosion event in the agricultural landscape; and (iii) to create a prototype of an agricultural machinery that will be suitable for erosion sediment translocation and microhabitat revitalization.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The erosion event was evaluated in a field block located in the cadastral territory of Želetice, near Kyjov, in the southeastern part of Moravia, the Czech Republic (GPS 49.0148436 N, 16.9922917 E; Figure 1). The wider area is characterized by a mild warm summer climate according to the Köppen climate classification [52] and belongs to the warm region according to the detailed Quitt’s classification [53]. The average annual precipitation in the wider area of interest is only about 509 mm, and the average annual temperature fluctuates around 9.2 °C. The length of the vegetation period reaches 170 days, with the highest mean temperature in July (19.3 °C) and the highest mean precipitation also in July (66 mm). The lowest average temperature was measured in January (−1.9 °C), and the lowest average precipitation is in November (9.1 mm). There is snow cover in the area for about 37 days. The subsoil in the locations consists primarily of loess, while the soil is mostly fluvisol clay on alluvial deposits and colluvium with a variable layer of organic components.

The erosion event was evaluated for the broader location of about 90 hectares under conventional agricultural management. The area was sown with common rapeseed (Brassica napus Napus Group). The erosion rate in the area of interest is predicted in tons per hectare per year and marked by a color range from white for the lowest risk (0–5 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) to purple (˃30 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Eroded sediment is stored in the lowest area on the southern part of the location with an acreage of ca. 11,000 m², where the borders are marked in red (Figure 1). The average elevation in the area with eroded sediment is about 186 m above sea level. The arable land in the location with eroded sediment was sown by a perennial forage mixture (6600 m²) and a biobelt with an acreage of 4400 m².

2.2. Evaluation of Erosion Event

The amount of eroded sediment was evaluated by an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). In the first step, seven Ground Control Points were established in the area of interest with the Trimble R2 device receiving the Global Navigation Satellite System. Coordinates were collected in the X, Y, and Z axes where Z represents altitude in the Balt reference system. The geodesic and altitude dataset was used to determine the geometry and georeferencing of the actual orthophoto map (processed based on UAV images) and the digital surface model (DMP) and to combine the aerial photographs taken more efficiently.

In the second step, the area of interest was scanned by a UAV DJI Phantom 4 PRO+ V2.0 equipped with a barometric sensor for measuring flight height and a GPS compass. The camera was mounted on a gimbal for better image stabilization and could catch high-quality images (20MP Raw and JPG images). The detailed documentation from the 11,000 m² was carried out by an autonomous flight from 30 m above ground level. The minimum overlay of the images was at least 60–80% for a high-quality digital ground model, which was recorded from 1685 images during a 68 min flight.

Using photogrammetry and Structure from Motion (SfM), the set of disordered and variously overlapping images was processed and then reconstructed into three-dimensional models from which the parameters of the erosion furrows (depth, width, length) were subsequently measured, and the volume of removed soil was determined by a constructed 3D model of the surface before the erosion event. The images were processed by the SfM method using the Agisoft PhotoScan Professional software (version 1.2.4.2399.). The program identifies the positions, directions, and tilts of the camera placed on the drone. The data output in ASCII format or a point layer with XYZ coordinates was processed further in ArcMap software. Based on the differential analysis of the observed digital model of the surface and the created theoretical original surface, the volume of erosion was determined for the monitored part of the slope. For the possibility of calibrating the obtained data scanned with the use of a UAV, the profiles of the erosion grooves were focused with an erodometer (erosion bridge; for the detailed methodology, see in [54]). The strength of the erosion sediment deposited in the fallow research area was measured using pedological probes, which were integrated into the plots for phytocenological relevé.

The erosion event resulted from heavy rainfall from 20 August 2022 (0:00) to 21 August 2022 (17:00), when the sum of precipitation was 27.01 mm and maximum precipitation per hour was 11.95 mm. The evaluation and monitoring of the erosion event were carried out on 27 August 2022.

2.3. Vegetation Assessment

The monitored plots are located on conventionally managed agricultural land. Rapeseed was sown in August 2022 and harvested in June 2023 on the soil block that was the source of the erosion sediment. During the erosion event, the field was currently seeded by rapeseed, but the seeds had not yet germinated, so the field was not covered by any vegetation cover.

The location of interest where the eroded sediment had settled (11,000 m²) was sown with the earlier mentioned clover mixture consisting of Festuca pratensis (15%), Arrhenatherum alatius (5%), Phleum pratense (3%), Poa pratensis (10%), Festuca rubra (10%), Medicago sativa (15%), Anthyllis vulneraria (5%), Trifolium incarnatum (7%), Trifolium pratense (10%), Lotus corniculatus (5%), and Trifolium repens (15%). The clover grass mixture was sown in March 2020. The clover grass mixture was harvested twice during the previous vegetation season.

A vegetation assessment was performed in October 2022 on the plots affected by the deposition of erosion sediment. In total, 20 phytocenological plots (relevés) were recorded. The area of each relevé was 20 m² (4 × 5 m). All recorded species’ cover areas were estimated in percentages. The scientific names of plant species were used according to [55]. In addition, the area and thickness of erosional sediment were estimated in percentage and centimeters, respectively. An average of four measurements were conducted on each of the relevé. The plant species were classified into four functional groups (

Table 1. Groups of plant taxa according to RDA analysis.

Relationship to Characteristics of Erosional Sediments	Invasive Status of Taxa	Abbreviation—Taxa
Positive response—higher coverage and frequency of occurrence	invasive	AmaRetr—Amaranthus retroflexus, CirArve—Cirsium arvense, SymNovi—Symphyotrichum novi-belgii
	naturalized	CreTect—Crepis tectorum, DatStra—Datura stramonium, LacSerr—Lactuca serriola, LycArve—Lycopsis arvensis, PanMili—Panicum miliaceum
	casual	BraNapu—Brassica napus
	native	PoaAnnu—Poa annua, RumObtu—Rumex obtusifolius, SteMedi—Stellaria media, TarSect—Taraxacum sect. Taraxacum, VioArve—Viola arvensis
Neutral—other environmental factors had a greater influence on the coverage and frequency of occurrence	invasive	EriAnnu—Erigeron annuus, PorOler—Portulaca oleracea
	naturalized	ArcTome—Arctium tomentosum, CapBurs—Capsella bursa-pastoris, DesSoph—Descurainia sophia, LamAmpl—Lamium amplexicaule, LolMult—Lolium multiflorum, ThlArve—Thlaspi arvense, TriInod—Tripleurospermum inodorum, VerPers—Veronica persica, VerPoli—Veronica polita
	native	ArcMinu—Arctium minus, CreBien—Crepis biennis, CheAlbu—Chenopodium album, PerAmph—Persicaria amphibia, PerLapa—Persicaria lapathifolia, PolAvic—Polygonum aviculare, RumCris—Rumex crispus, SenJaco—Senecio jacobaea, TraOrie—Tragopogon orientalis, UrtDioi—Urtica dioica
Negative—lower coverage and frequency of occurrence	invasive	ArrElat—Arrhenatherum elatius, ConCana—Conyza canadensis
	naturalized	CicInty—Cichorium intybus, ConArve—Convolvulus arvensis, EchCrus—Echinochloa crus-galli, ResLute—Reseda lutea, SetPumi—Setaria pumila, SilLati—Silene latifolia
	native	AchMill—Achillea millefolium, ArtVulg—Artemisia vulgaris, CarAcan—Carduus acanthoides, DacGlom—Dactylis glomerata, DauCaro—Daucus carota, FesRubr—Festuca rubra, GalAlbu—Galium album, LolPere—Lolium perenne, PlaMajo—Plantago major, SteGram—Stellaria graminea, TriPrat—Trifolium pratens

), monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous, annuals or perennials, according to [56]. Information about the native or alien origin of the species in the Czech Republic adheres to [57].

Multivariate analyses of the ecological data were applied to the sampled data (species composition and characteristics of the erosion sediment). We used a linear regression model to find relationships between the sediment area in the plot (%) and sediment depth (cm) concerning the cover area of plant groups (annual dicots, annual monocots, perennial dicots, perennial monocots). DCA (Detrended Correspondence Analysis) segment analysis was performed, which calculates the length of the longest gradient (it indicates a gradient length of 2.9 SD units along the first axis). Hence, further processing by Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was deemed more suitable. The statistical significance of erosional sediment on species composition was tested by the Monte-Carlo test (999 permutations were calculated). The necessary calculations were performed using the Canoco 5.0 computer program.

2.4. Development of Appropriate Technology for Erosion Sediment Relocation

Within selected fallow research areas of different management methods (biobelts, grassed valleys, grassed waterways), agricultural land damaged by eroded sediment was analyzed, and a suitable design of machinery was proposed for rehabilitating stands after erosion events. Based on identifying the physical and mechanical properties of the soil-eroded and deposited sediment/colluvium, the shape, material, method of attachment, and aggregation of the working tool to the corresponding mobile energy device was designed. The developed tool was based on a plow–carry system using a tractor, comprised of flexible working tools separating (cutting off) the soil of the eroded sediment from the surface of the fallow land, pouring it over a shorter distance, and then accumulating it in a selected place with the aim of subsequent removal and minimal damage to the herbaceous vegetation.

The following relationships were used to determine the basic technical parameters of the blade and the performance of the tractor with the developed tool:

The working tool consists of a flexible standard spring with blades:

$$\mathrm{Standard} \mathrm{spring} \mathrm{radius} r r={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{H}}{2\sin \gamma }}(\mathrm{m})$$

where H is the height of the standard spring with the blade; we suggest 0.5–0.7 m.

roll angle β (45–65°)

cutting angle γ (45–55°)

The mounting design of the conceived tool should allow changing the angle of cutting and rolling—through hydraulic, correctly connected circuits—with regard to the cohesion and structure of the soil. The functionality of the tool will be affected by the limit of plasticity (W_p) and the adhesion of the soil, which adversely affects the resistance of the tool and, thus, the quality of the work.

The width of the tool (rows of standard springs) should be 200–300 mm longer than the width of the chassis of the towing mobile energy vehicle. The width of one part of the standard spring is approximately 100 mm. The placement of the standard springs on the frame must ensure minimum passage and the possibility of cutting—20 mm (a gap of 20 mm must be created between individual standard springs). The standard material will consist of strip spring steel, which helps overcome the resistance during the cutting, crowding, and the soil friction without changing the tool shape.

The traction force of the mobile energy device Ft must cover the total working resistance of the tractor system and the tool being developed, i.e., all partial resistances.

F_t ≧ ∑R_i ≧ R_p + R_r1 = R_p + R_sc + R_h + R_rb (N)

where

R_i—total working resistance of the system;

R_p—resistance to movement of the mobile energy device;

R_sc—resistance to soil cutting;

R_h—frictional resistance of the ground prism against the ground;

R_rb—resistance against the friction of the soil against the blade.

From the calculated values, it is possible to determine the traction power of the mobile energy device using the relationship

P_t = F_t · V_p [kW]

where

P_t—tractive power of the tractor (kW);

F_t—traction force (N);

V_p—tractor travel speed in m s⁻¹.

In practice, the tractor set is rarely loaded by simple traction force; it mostly consists of a supported machine connected to the tractor by means of a three-point hitch.

The labor costs of the machine were calculated based on the normal use of similar equipment used in combination with a tractor. At this stage, it is an estimate, as the price of the prototype during production has not been clearly determined. Therefore, only a simple calculation is used for the approximate calculation of costs without the purchase price per engine hours.

N_b = N_m + N_e + N_o

where

N_b—labor costs of the machine;

N_m—labor costs;

N_e—the cost of fuel and engine lubricants;

N_o—the cost of repairs.

The volume of sediment removal was calculated for the machine according to the formula

W_sk = (v . t_v)/(t_s . k₂)

where

W_sk—volume of sediment removal;

v—volume of piled-up soil (m³);

t_v—time usage in percentage;

t_s—total time of 1 work cycle in hours;

k₂—coefficient of loosening of the soil.

3. Results

3.1. Evaluation of Erosion Events with the Objective of Quantifying the Amount of Transported Erosional Sediment

As a result of eroded sediment accumulation at the location of interest, a decrease in the total natural production capacity of the soil was recorded. The fertility of colluviums is significantly impaired by the accumulation on previously formed horizons, often of considerable thickness. If erosional sediment washed away from surfaces, or soil horizons, degraded due to earlier processes, the newly formed erosional sediments (colluvium) are also infertile.

Based on the differential analysis of the focused digital model of the surface and the created theoretical original surface, the erosion volume was determined to be 179.0 m³ ha−1 for the monitored part of the slope above the collection area with an acreage of 1.1 ha. Therefore, the total amount of eroded sediment was 196.9 m³. For the possibility of calibrating the obtained data scanned with an unmanned drone, the profiles of erosion grooves were obtained using an erodometer (erosion bridge).

In erosion furrows and significant cuts, the average height of the soil horizon was 1.78 cm. The depth of the most exposed erosion grooves reached 26.4 cm, and the maximum width of erosion notches exceeded 76 cm. With a volumetric weight of 1.5 t m⁻³, 268.5 tons of material per hectare were removed. Therefore, the total amount for the area with the stored eroded sediment (1.1 ha) was 295 tons. The resulting value of the determined volume of eroded material does not include the contribution of surface erosion, which cannot be recorded and measured by the methods used.

3.2. Working Tool for Eroded Sediment Removal

Based on the working tool verification and validation, the concept was created and evaluated.

The working tool consists of a flexible standard spring with blades (Figure 2), where we suggest the following:

-

0.7 m standard spring height with H blade (working blade);

-

Roll angle β = 65°;

-

Cutting angle γ = 55°;

-

Material of standard spring with the blade-rolled steel thickness of 0.015 m and width of 0.10 m.

Power of the mobile energy device—min. 50 kW. The supporting frame of the Herkules Plus PB 1–250 machine was used to fix individual work tools (Figure 3), which has the following technical data:

-

Weight 800 kg;

-

Working width 2.0 m;

-

Transport width 2.5 m;

-

Lateral tilting + 0.2 m;

-

Attachment (aggregation) through a standard three-point hitch and the use of standard hydraulic systems of agricultural tractors.

3.3. Amount of Work Performed and the Costs

The machine work performance was assessed based on the collected erosional sediment and calculation. The calculation is based on the assumption of ideal conditions. The machine moved at an average speed of 7 km per hour during translocation. At a working width of 2.0 m, the machine can process one layer of erosion material at 1.4 ha hr⁻¹. When the machine cutting layer is optimally set, the performance of a mobile machine in combination with a sediment removal tool is 174 m³ per engine hour. The cost of the set was EUR 38 per hour (labor costs EUR 17, the cost of fuel and engine lubricants EUR 16, and the cost of repairs EUR 5). The machine can translocate a cubic meter of sediment at a cost of EUR 0.22. These are the costs for providing the service.

3.4. Impact of Erosion Sediment on Vegetation Composition

A total of 54 plant taxa were found on the monitored phytosociological plots (relevés; PR) after the erosion event. The perennial grass species Arrhenatherum elatius was the most dominant species in the study plots. Additionally, perennial dicotyledonous herbs were significantly represented here. The total number of taxa (mainly species) in the defined groups is 21 for annual dicotyledonous plants, 4 for annual monocotyledonous plants, 24 for perennial dicotyledonous plants, and 5 for perennial monocotyledonous plants. Invasive plant species were found in the studied areas (Amaranthus retroflexus, Arrhenatherum elatius, Cirsium arvense, Conyza canadensis, Echinochloa crus-galli, Erigeron annuus, Panicum miliaceum, Portulaca oleracea, Setaria pumila, and Symphyotrichum novi-belgii).

A positive relationship was found for annual dicots cover, which increased significantly with a higher sediment area and sediment depth in the plots (R2adj = 0.577, F1,18 = 26.9, p < 0.001, and R2adj = 0.378, F1,18 = 12.6, p < 0.01, respectively). A negative relationship was found in the case of perennial monocots, where the cover of plants significantly decreased with the sediment area and depth (R2adj = 0.657, F1,18 = 37.4, p < 0.001, and R2adj = 0.546, F1,18 = 23.9, p < 0.001, respectively). Covers of annual monocots and perennial dicots were not affected by the sediment area or depth (Figure 4 and Figure 5).

The results of the CCA, which was used to assess the presence and cover of plant taxa and the area and thickness of erosional sediment, were significant at the α = 0.001 significance level for all canonical axes. The graphical representation of the results of the CCA is in Figure 6. Based on the CCA, the detected plant taxa can be divided into three groups. The species were divided according to the relationship to the area, the thickness of the erosional sediment, and the invasive status of the taxa.

4. Discussion

Soil erosion is one of the main drivers of agricultural land degradation in intensively managed agricultural landscapes [58,59,60]. Soil degradation processes are related to the main drivers of erosion, namely, water, wind, tillage, and harvesting, and frequently, a co-occurrence of multiple different processes [58]. All of those factors are affected by inappropriate agricultural management practices [10,59,61]. Overall, ~110 million hectares are covered by agricultural land in the European Union, of which 43 million hectares are prone to a single driver of erosion, 15.6 million hectares to two drivers, and 0.81 million hectares to three or more drivers [58]. The average rate of soil loss by sheet and rill erosion in Europe is 2.46 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ [10]. At the same time, on a global scale, 75 billion tons of crop soil are lost worldwide to erosion by wind and water and through agricultural management [59].

On a local scale, an erosion event occurring during heavy rainfall can cause soil loss of hundreds of tons from areas of relatively small field blocks. That was also the case for the area we analyzed—where the volume of the erosion event was determined to be 196.9 m3 (179.0 m³ ha⁻¹), which corresponds to 295 tons (268.5 m³ ha⁻¹) of transferred soil material relocated by water erosion from a wider locality of ca. 90 hectares. After recalculation, the erosion amount was ca. 3.3 t ha⁻¹ in one erosion event within a few days. In contrast, the recommended sustainable threshold is 2 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. However, more than 25% of EU land has erosion rates higher than the recommended sustainable threshold, and more than 6% of agricultural lands suffer from severe erosion (11 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) [62]. These erosion events and soil losses are associated with enormous costs of sediment removal if the erosion events are not effectively mitigated by preventive measures.

One considerable cost of soil erosion originates from the sediments delivered to aquatic systems (e.g., rivers, lakes, and seas), which may generate a wide range of environmental and economic impacts [60]. For example, estimations from France suggest that the feasibly quantifiable total off-site costs of soil erosion are about EUR 800–4300 ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ of farmed land [63]. Concerning the EU (including the UK), the cost of an estimated 135 million m³ of accumulated sediments due to water erosion is likely to exceed EUR 2.3 billion annually [60]. In contrast, our proposed solution consists of a newly designed working tool for eroded sediment removal directly from the location where it was deposited by an erosion event before it reaches aquatic systems. Thus, it is possible to repurpose the eroded sediment. We calculated that the cost of sediment translocation and summarization is about EUR 0.22 m⁻³. However, the raw soil material can be reused for different purposes, potentially generating revenue from the sale of sediment. The limitations in this context include a slower working pace, with the work rate calculated at 174 m³ per engine hour. However, this reduced performance is compensated for by a more meticulous and precise approach to the area being treated. However, we demonstrated that the eroded sediment must be considered as a source of invasive plant species, which reduces the ecological potential for its possible monetization. The composition of natural flora and fauna constantly changes, with species dispersing and settling in new areas while becoming extinct in other areas. Human activities often disrupt these processes and cause rapid and substantial changes in species composition [64]. Human activities can result in an erosion event on arable land and the subsequent settling of part of the erosion sediment. In the year of the erosion event, the vegetation reacts to the deposition of the erosion sediment by changing the species composition and the cover. With increasing values of erosion sediment characteristics, the coverage of perennial monocotyledonous species decreases, and conversely, the coverage of annual dicotyledonous species increases. The representation of perennial dicots is similar, but there is a change in the species composition. Some species considered invasive (Amaranthus retroflexus, Cirsium arvense, and Symphyotrichum novi-belgii) are more easily established in areas with settled erosion sediment. There are also species that can be assumed to have been washed down from the surrounding fields and to have been part of the erosional sediment. These include Brassica napus, Datura stramonium, Lycopsis arvensis, Panicum miliaceum, Stellaria media, and Viola arvensis. According to [65], up to 13,000 weed seeds are present in 1 m² of arable soil at a depth of up to 5 cm. As they further point out, the plant species present in the soil seed bank in the soil do not correlate with the presence of species in the vegetation. In areas with settled sediment, wind-dispersed species (Crepis tectorum, Lactuca serriola, and Taraxacum sect. Taraxacum) also became more established. On the contrary, a number of species retreated under the influence of deposited erosional sediment. These were mainly the grasses Arrhenatherum elatius, Dactylis glomerata, Echinochloa crus-galli, Festuca rubra, Lolium perenne, and Setaria pumila. The decrease in coverage was also noticeable in perennial dicotyledonous herbs, which are valuable as fodder (Achillea millefolium, Cichorium intybus, Daucus carota, Plantago major, and Trifolium pratens). But even some perennial dicotyledonous herbs, which are undesirable in forage stands, reacted by decreasing the coverage and frequency of their occurrence (Artemisia vulgaris, Carduus acanthoides, Conyza canadensis, Convolvulus arvensis, Galium album, Reseda lute, Silene latifolia, and Stellaria graminea). Managing the agricultural landscape causes several problems, such as accelerated erosion of farmland and the associated deposition of erosional sediment.

As a result, the vegetation is exposed to a new disturbance, where it responds by changing the species composition, but questions remain: what are the long-term consequences of the deposited erosion sediment, and how can it be removed? What strategies can be employed to address such a situation? With regard to ensuring the functionality of fallow grass as an anti-erosion measure, it is necessary to minimize the risk of the influence of erosive sediment and to rehabilitate, recultivate, and subsequently revitalize damaged land using appropriate techniques and procedures, taking into account the requirements of a suitable grass cover.

Finally, we are indicating a general need to rethink mitigation strategies for sustainable agricultural landscapes in Western Europe [66] and in other regions affected by the risk of erosion events. To mitigate the impacts of soil erosion, the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy has introduced conservation measures that reduce soil loss through water erosion by 20% on arable lands [10]. However, the solutions should be implemented on small farms where it is possible to use them in addition to conservation measures and with the proposed agricultural machinery. The regular maintenance of grassed soil carried out this way after erosion events makes it possible to use them in practice with techniques for precision farming aimed at supporting the biodiversity of agroecosystems.

5. Conclusions

Soil erosion poses a threat to agricultural land throughout Europe. It is one of the main challenges for agricultural managers of larger farms but also for small landowners with limited possibilities to deal with particular erosion events. As we have proven, the detrimental effects of erosion extend beyond the mere transportation of eroded sediment. The disruption of plant communities in areas affected by erosion can also facilitate the dispersal of seeds of invasive species and subsequent infestation by invasive plants. Hence, we designed and tested agricultural machinery specifically to effectively remove eroded sediment from the affected area. This solution enables easy transportation in areas where the soil erosion cannot be prevented by other mitigation measures. Moreover, the costs of agricultural operations related to sediment removal can be compensated for in accordance with bioeconomic principles by using removed material for the substrate in agriculture and forestry or for other purposes, which is crucial, especially for small landowners. This will also ensure the circular return of the material. In the future, the research aim is to test the machine in various climatic conditions and soil types. More photos and graphs for the article can be found in Supplementary Materials.