Coastal Management: A Review of Key Elements for Vulnerability Assessment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. What Is Coastal Management?
- CEM (Coastal and Estuarine Management)
- CICAP (Cross Intersectoral Coastal Area Planning)
- CLAM (Coastal Lake Assessment and Management),
- CPM (Coastal Planning and Management)
- CZM (Coastal Zone Management)
- ICAM (Integrated Coastal Area Management)
- ICARM (Integrated Coastal Area and River Basin)
- ICARM (Integrated Coastal Area and River Basin Management), ICM (Integrated Coastal Management)
- ICOM (Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management)
- ICP (Integrated Coastal Planning)
- ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management)
- IMCAM (Integrated Marine and Coastal Area Management), IMCZ (Integrated Management of Coastal Zones)
- MCEBM (Marine and Coastal Ecosystem-Based Management)
- ICM (Integrated Coastal Management)
- ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management), WMP (Wetland Management Planning)
- Policy formulation, where goals are set, authorization is given to initiate the strategic process, guide the realization of the program and include executive and legislative actions.
- Strategic planning, or preliminary planning, explores the feasibility and impact of the ICZM program.
- Program development, or a master plan, detailing the ICZM program and allocating responsibilities.
- Implementation starts when the master plan and budgets are approved.
- For Ecosystem-based Management (EbM), the methodology has three stages [18]:
- Visioning (laying foundations). Identification of the area and its key issues. Ensuring that sectors work with a common understanding of the ecosystem. Consulting existing management practices and setting overall objectives.
- Planning (design). Assessment of the ecosystem and governance to create a legal framework for multi-sectoral management. Identifying measurable objectives, prioritizing threats and choosing management strategies.
- Implementation (apply and adapt). Monitoring, evaluation, and adaptation. Continued communication and education. Ensuring financial sustainability.
3. International Regulations
4. Coastal Vulnerability Indices
- Based on indices or indicators. Quantitative or semi-quantitative assessment that obtains results through a combination of variables;
- Based on dynamic computer models. Modeling of current and future conditions of geophysical, biological, and/or socioeconomic processes;
- Decision support tools based on GIS (Geographic Information Systems). They are used for data processing, analysis, and visualization, which support emergency management planning. Some systems mentioned in the previous point are also considered here;
- Visualization tools. Builds scenarios based on climate change impacts to support management decision makers;
- Vulnerability curves. They show the expected value of damage that an element could suffer from certain intensities of natural hazards [56];
- Modeling tools. Hydrodynamic modeling used to project the impact of waves in normal and critical conditions on the coast. That is, the extension of flooding inland and beach erosion. Seenath et al. [57] recognize that using hydrodynamic models is more appropriate to represent flood risk in detail, by generating flow dynamics.
- Category 1 variables are mainly qualitative and easy to characterize over time. These variables alone provide an overview of the level of vulnerability of the coast.
- Category 2 variables allow a more precise analysis and representation of the study of coastal conditions. These qualitative and quantitative variables require more time for consultation, analysis, and characterization.
- Category 3 variables, for the most part, are dependent on those that precede them, as they are calculated parameters that require the lower categories in order to be obtained. They also require a greater computational resource, making their processing and retrieval times longer. Example: “Degree of anthropization”.
5. Most Relevant Variables for Coastal Vulnerability Studies
6. Decision Support Systems (DSS)
- DST (Optimal Decision Support Tools). Examples: MCDA (Multiple Decision Analysis Methods), Artificial Neural Network (ANN), GIS (Geographic Information Systems) for data integration, AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Processes), WLC (Weighted Linear Combination).
- DSS (Decision Support Systems). Examples: Those mentioned in Table 3, plus others such as Theseus and those summarized in its first table [126], SIDSS (Smart Irrigation Decision Support System) [127], Marxan [128], CATSIM (Catastrophe Simulation) [129], among others, many of which are composed of at least one DST.
- DSI (Calculation of decision support indices) (See previous section).
- The independent approach to processes, when in fact they are linked by nature. By not considering the influence that one has on the other could alter the results or make them static. For example, in the face of flooding, a DSS would separately obtain the losses of land value, loss of life, and other effects of flooding or the example of predators mentioned in Table 3, concerning the limitations of the Ecopath DSS with Ecosim.
- It is very difficult to include cost–benefit analyses, since the combination of mitigation measures is non-linear and difficult to represent, as the benefits may span entirely different scales.
- Users may make a poor analysis by relying on the results for each calculated scenario only. It is recommended that multiple scenarios be run, e.g., 10-, 50- and 100-year storms, and to multiply the maps by the probability of occurrence, and then sum these to obtain average vulnerability maps.
DSS | Target | Method | Variables | Study Units | Limitations | Types of Information |
DIVA (Dynamic Interactive Vulnerability Assessment) [131] | Assesses the biophysical and socioeconomic consequences of sea level rise and socioeconomic development, considering coastal erosion, coastal flooding, wetland change, and salinity intrusion. Explicitly incorporates a range of adaptation options, including beach regeneration in response to erosion. | DIVA is based on climate and socioeconomic scenarios, including coastal tourism, sea level, land use, coastal population, and GDP. For erosion, it uses the Bruun rule. | It associates up to 100 data values with each segment by having a global database, and up to 2100 global and regional scenarios. | Divides the world’s coastline into 12,148 coastal segments of varying length. | DIVA can consider erosion on sandy beaches as continuous, even though it may be supported by rocks or on a barrier island. The results can also be used for comparison between different regions and nations of the world, but not for coastal management analysis, where more complex morphodynamic methods are needed. | Geomorphological, biophysical, and socioeconomic. |
MARXAN with zones (Software for optimal conservation based land-and sea-use zoning) [132] | Provides land use zoning options for biodiversity conservation, to minimize the total cost of implementing the zoning plan while ensuring a variety of conservation and land-use objectives are achieved. | A staged approach is used, building multiple scenarios to which cost and zoning data structures are added. | The number of variables required depends on each defined study unit. Only some studies require more than 30 different biodiversity variables. | Habitats are created that can be subdivided into biogeographic regions, depth zones, or planning units. Each one with its respective characteristics and input data. | It does not simultaneously consider different types of zones, to reflect the range of management actions seen as part of a conservation plan. The planning units and their features are limited by the memory address space of the application (currently 2 GB). | Socioeconomic and ecological data from coastal and marine systems. |
MicroLEIS DSS (Mediterranean Land Evaluation Information System) [133] | Focuses on soil protection through improved agricultural land use, by determining the suitability of soil for different types of crops in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Based on geoenvironmental factors that automate the evaluation process and results in a table of attributes. | Its design is based on integrating many software tools: climate, soil and crop databases, statistics, multi-criteria tools, neural networks, web and GIS applications, and other information technologies. | The terrain attributes used in MicroLEIS DSS correspond to the following three main factors: soil/site, climate, and crop/management. | Cultivation area/local scale | It has only been tested on Mediterranean soil. It is mainly used by students rather than decision makers. | Soil morphology and biophysics. |
INVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs). [130] | Allows geographical, economic, and ecological accounting of ecosystem services, according to specific land use or land cover types. To obtain habitat quality and carbon sequestration, for example, thus determining potential changes in ecosystem services caused mainly by changes in land use. | Integrates 17 models that value ecosystem services, biophysical processes, and processes with economic value. Where each service is modeled separately. | Each model that makes up INVEST requires input of data on ecosystem services and biophysical properties of land use types. | Ecosystem area/municipal or local level | Requiring very specific, detailed data, their assumptions are often simplified with a considerable margin of uncertainty. | Ecological and socioeconomic. |
Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE) [134] | Combines software for ecosystem trophic mass balance analysis (Ecopath, version 6.6.8 ), with a dynamic modeling capability (Ecosim) to explore past and future impacts of fishing and environmental disturbances, as well as to explore optimal fishing policies. | Ecopath parameterizes models based on two equations: one to describe the production term, one for the energy balance for each group. Ecosim expresses the biomass dynamics through a series of coupled differential equations. | Biomass accumulation rate per year, seasonal species migration data, seasonal production and consumption rates. | Ecosystems/local level | Cumulative changes in ecosystem processes, among others, cannot be predicted in the software. For example, if the presence of a predator is reduced, the number of its prey may increase, but only for a certain time, as predicting the behavior of other factors, such as the presence or increased hunting of other predators is not possible to estimate in the first conception. | Ecological, social and legislative aspects of fishing |
7. Conclusions and Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Reference | Author Variables | Renamed Variables |
[60] | Elevation, Sea-Level Trends, Geology, Geomorphology, Horizontal Shoreline Displacement (Erosion/accretion), Wave Heights, Tidal Ranges | Elevation, Sea level change rate, Geology, Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Wave height, Tidal range |
[54] | Sea-level rise, Storm surge, # of cyclones in last 0 years, River discharge, Foreshore slope, Soil subsidence, km of coastline, Population close to CL, Cultural heritage, Growing coastal population, Uncontrolled planning zones | Sea level change rate, Storm surge, Number of cyclones in a time period, River discharge over a period of time, Coastal slope, Subsidence, Coastal length, Total population, Cultural heritage, Population growth rate, Inland fringe with uncontrolled planning zones |
[61] | Shoreline type, Rivers, Solid geology, Drift geology, Elevation, Orientation, Inland buffer, Significant wave height, Tidal range, Difference in modal and storm waves, Frequency of onshore storms, Settlement, Cultural heritage, Roads, Railways, Landuse, Conservation designation, Landform, Storm probability, Morphodynamic state (Dean’s parameter), Population total, Absent or Present of population | Shoreline type, Presence or absence and type of river, Geology, Elevation, Coastal orientation, Inland buffer, Wave height, Tidal range, Regular wave, Storm surge, Frequency of storms, Type of population, Cultural heritage, Presence or absence and type of roads, Presence or absence of railways, Landuse, Designated managers for conservation areas, Total population, coastal landform, Storm probability, Morphodynamic state, Presence or absence of population |
[62] | Predominant morphodynamic state, Exposure to erosion (width of the dry beach), Coastal evolution, Sand bars, Mean dune height, Mean dune width, Vegetation succession continuity, Short-term evolution, Medium term evolution, Long-term evolution, Run-up, Dune discontinuity, Basin Area, Mean river discharge, Distance from the river mouth, Storm surge effect on beach system, Storm surge effect on dune system, Topographic | Morphodynamic state, Dimensions of beach, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Presence or absence and total number of sand bars, Dimensions of coastal dune, Dune vegetation succession, Run-up, Dune discontinuity, Basin area, River discharge over a period of time, Proximity to the river or river mouth, Storm surge, Elevation |
[63] | Coastal geomorphology, Observed erosion trends, Geology, Digital elevation model, Land use, Hydrographic network, Exposure to waves climates and eventually cyclones, Wave height, Tides, Sea level rise | Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Geology, Topography, Landuse, Sediment contribution from rivers, Storm Frequency, Wave height, Tidal range, Sea level change rate |
[64] | Beach width, Dune width, Coastal slope, Distance of vegetation behind the back beach, Distance of built structures behind the back beach, Vegetation cover, Rocky outcrop parameter, Sea defences, Commercial properties, Residential properties, Economic value of site, Population, Coastal erosion, Flood (event) impact | Dimensions of beach, Dimensions of coastal dune, Coastal slope, Distance of vegetation behind the back beach, Distance of built structures behind the back beach, Vegetation cover, Rocky outcrop percent, Percentage of coastal protection structures built, Cadastre, Economic value of site, Total population, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Flood frequency |
[65] | Area X (Total area at elevation X, corresponding to each coastal segment), Coastal slope, Coastal plain characteristics, Wetland data, Wetland migratory potential, Coastal population (living within a zone of 2.5 km on average from the coast), Average coastal population density, erosion and shoreline recession, Vegetation cover, Administrative units, Location of primary rivers in the coastal system | Total area at given elevation, Coastal slope, Coastal geomorphology, Wetland type, Wetland migratory potential, Total population, Population density, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Vegetation cover, Administrative units, Presence or absence and type of river |
[66] | Geomorphology, Coastal slope, Shoreline change rate, Rate of sea level change, Mean tide range, Bathymetry, Storm surge height | Coastal geomorphology, Coastal slope, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Sea level change rate, Tidal range, Bathymetry, Storm surge |
[67] | Shoreline change, Mean sea-level change rate, Significant wave height, Mean tidal range, Regional elevation, Bathymetry, Geomorphology, Storm surges | Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Sea level change rate, Wave height, Tidal range, Elevation, Bathymetry, Coastal geomorphology, Storm surge |
[68] | Shoreline change rate, Sea-level change rate, Coastal slope, Significant wave height, Tidal range, Coastal regional elevation, Coastal geomorphology, Tsunami run-up | Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Sea level change rate, Coastal slope, Wave height, Tidal range, Elevation, Coastal geomorphology, Tsunami run-up |
[69] | Population, Land-use/Land-cover, Road network, Cultural heritage, Coastal slope, Geomorphology, Elevation, Shoreline change, Sea level change, Significant wave height, Tidal range | Total population, Landuse, Distance from the road network to the coast, Cultural heritage, Coastal slope, Coastal geomorphology, Elevation, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Sea level change rate, Wave height, Tidal range |
[70] | Geomorphology, Historical shoreline change rate, Regional coastal slope, Relative sea-level change, Mean significant wave height, Mean tidal range | Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Coastal slope, Sea level change rate, Wave height, Tidal range |
[71] | Geomorphology, coastal slope, relative sea-level rise rate, shoreline erosion/accretion rate, mean tide range, mean wave height | Coastal geomorphology, Coastal slope, Sea level change rate, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Wave height |
[72] | Geomorphology, Land use/land cover, Offshore Bathymetry, Coastal slope, Shoreline change, Mean tidal range | Coastal geomorphology, Landuse, Coastal slope, Bathymetry, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range |
[73] | Shoreline change rate, Sea level change rate, Significant wave height, Tidal Range, Coastal slope, Coastal regional elevation, Coastal geomorphology, Tsunami run up, Storm surge | Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Sea level change rate, Wave height, Tidal range, Coastal slope, Elevation, Coastal geomorphology, Tsunami run-up, Storm surge |
[74] | Geomorphology, Shoreline type, Topographic-bathymetric profile, Granulometric distribution, Significant wave height, Wave period, Currents, Wind, Dean’s parameter, Dimensionless settling velocity (Ω), Presence of vegetation in the sand dune, beach width, Anthropization, Shoreline change rate, Orientation, Coastal protection structures | Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline type Topographic-bathymetric profile, Granulometric distribution, Wave height, Wave period, Current regime, Wind speed, Morphodynamic state, Dimensionless settling velocity (Ω), Presence or absence of vegetation on the dune, Dimensions of beach, Degree of anthropization, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Coastal orientation, Presence or absence of coastal protection structures |
[75] | Geomorphology, Slope, Population, Erosion rates | Coastal geomorphology, Coastal slope, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Total population |
[76] | Poverty, Age, Development density, Asian and immigrants, Rural/urban dichotomy, Race, Gender, Population decline, Ethnicity (Indian) and farming, Infrastructure employment reliance, Income, Mean tidal range, Coastal slope, Rate of relative sea level rise, Shoreline erosion and accretion rates, Mean wave height, Geomorphology (erodability) | Percentage of people in poverty, Vulnerability of the population according to age, Commercial development density, Percentage of immigrants, Type of population, Vulnerability of the population according to race, Vulnerability of the population according to gender, Population growth rate, Percentage of population dedicated to agriculture, Employment and unemployment, Income, Tidal range, Coastal slope, Sea level change rate, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Wave height, Coastal geomorphology |
[77] | Average elevation, Geology: lithology and sediment type, Geomorphology, Vertical displacement: geological or tectonic and anthropogenic subsidence, Sea level rise, Horizontal displacement of the coastline, Significant wave height, Tidal range, Natural protection level: dunes and mangroves, Hazard from extreme waves, Hazard from storm tides, Total population, Population density, GDP (Gross Domestic Product), Economic participation rate, Human development index: health, education and income, Marginalization index, Poverty, Economics units (tourism sector), Total gross production, tourism gross value added, Productive sectors, Protected natural areas | Elevation, Geology, Coastal geomorphology, Subsidence, Sea level change rate, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Wave height, Tidal range, Presence or absence of natural protection, Storm surge, Total population, Population density, GDP (Gross Domestic Product), Economic participation rate, Human development index, Marginalization index, Percentage of people in poverty, Amount of infrastructure destined for tourism, GDP (Gross Domestic Product), Gross added value (tourism), Economic Activities, Designated conservation areas |
[78] | Population density, Population in flood area, Closeness to inundation area, Population close to coastal, Population under poverty, % of urbanized area, Rural population, Cadastre survey, Cultural heritage, % of disable, Land use, Proximity to river, Ground WL (Natural reservations), Over used area, Degraded area, Unpopulated land area, Types of vegetation, Forest change rate, Topography(slope), Heavy rainfall, Flood duration, Return periods, Soil moisture, Evaporation rate, River discharge, Flow velocity, Storm surge, Rainfall, Flood water depth, Sedimentation load, Yearly volume | Population density, Total population in flood area, Distance to flood area, Total population, Percentage of people in poverty, Landuse, Type of population, Cadastre, Cultural heritage, Disabled population, Proximity to the river or mouth, Designated conservation areas, Overused area, Degraded area, Unpopulated area, Types of vegetation, Rate of forest change, Coastal slope, Frequency of storms, Flood duration, Return periods, Soil moisture, Evaporation rate, River discharge over a period of time, Flow velocity, Storm surge, Precipitation, Flood depth, Sedimentation load, Sediment contribution by rivers |
[79] | Relief, Rock types, Landform, Relative sea-level change, Shoreline displacement, Tidal range, Annual maximum wave height | Elevation, Geology, Coastal landform, Sea level change rate, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Wave height |
[80] | Reduction of sediment supply, River flow regulation, Engineered frontage, Groundwater consumption, Land use pattern, Natural protection degradation, Coastal protection structures, Rate of SLR, Geomorphology, Coastal slope, Significant wave height, Sediment budget, Tidal range, Proximity to coast, Type of aquifer, Hydraulic conductivity, Depth to groundwater level above sea, River discharge, Water depth at down stream | Sediment contribution by rivers, Degree of intervention in river flow, Percentage of infrastructure built, Percentage of groundwater, Landuse, Degradation of natural protection, Percentage of coastal protection structures built, Sea level change rate, Coastal geomorphology, Coastal slope, Wave height, Percentage of coastline in erosion or accretion, Tidal range, Distance of built structures behind the back beach, Type of aquifer, Hydraulic conductivity, Depth of groundwater, River discharge over a period of time, Depth of downstream water |
[11] | Population density, Type of infrastructure, Material for housing, Shoreline type, Elevation, Distance of built structures to the coastline, Artificial protection structures, Presence or absence of coastal dunes, Presence or absence of mangrove, Presence or absence of coral reef, Dune height, Vegetation | Population density, Type of population, Material for housing, Shoreline type, Elevation, Distance of built structures behind the back beach, Presence or absence of coastal protection structures, Presence or absence of natural protection, Dimensions of coastal dune |
[81] | Coastal Slope, Geomorphology, Geology, Sea level change, Shoreline change, Significant wave height, Tidal range | Coastal slope, Coastal geomorphology, Geology, Sea level change rate, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Wave height, Tidal range |
[82] | Geomorphology, Coastal slope, Relative sea-level rise, Shoreline changes, Mean tidal range, Mean significant wave height, Population < 14 years old, Population > 75 years old, Women, Single parent family, Family with > 2 children, Tenants, Average density, Unemployed, No education, Foreigners | Coastal geomorphology, Coastal slope, Sea level change rate, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Wave height, Vulnerability of the population according to age, Vulnerability of the population according to gender, Characteristics of families, Percentage of tenants, Population density, Employment and unemployment, Percentage of population without education, Percentage of immigrants |
[83] | Storm threat (tropical cyclones, storm surge), Sea-level rise, Subsidence, Flooding, drought, People per city, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), National GDP, Existing examples (adaptative capacity), Per capita GDP (adaptative capacity) | Storm surge, Sea level change rate, Subsidence, Flood frequency, Drought frequency, Total population, GDP (Gross Domestic Product), Contribution to national (GDP), Adaptative capacity |
[84] | Significant wave height, retreat and accretion rates, Land use | Wave height, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Landuse |
[85] | Historical shoreline change rate, Beach width and height, Underwater slope, Sand bars, Beach sediments, Mean significant wave height | Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Dimensions of beach, Coastal slope, Presence or absence and total number of sand bars, Type of sediment, Wave height |
[86] | Historical rate of shoreline change, Coastal slope, Coastal regional elevation, Geomorphology, Rate of relative SLR, Mean tidal range, Significant wave height, Storm surge, Tsunami run-up, Population density, Tourist density | Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Coastal slope, Elevation, Coastal geomorphology, Sea level change rate, Tidal range, Wave height, Storm surge, Tsunami run-up, Population density, Tourist density |
[87] | Sea-level rise, Geomorphology, Coastal elevation, Coastal slope, Shoreline erosion, Coastal land use, Mean tide range, Mean wave height | Sea level change rate, Coastal geomorphology, Elevation, Coastal slope, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Landuse, Tidal range, Wave height |
[44] | Elevation, Slope, Geomorphology, Soil texture, Proximity to coastline, Coastal vegetation, Shoreline change, Population density, LULC, Dependent population (age range between 0 and 14, and 6+), Tourist spots, Road network, Literacy rate | Elevation, Coastal slope, Coastal geomorphology, Geology, Distance of built structures behind the back beach, Vegetation cover, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Population density, Landuse, Vulnerability of the population according to age, Tourist density, Distance from the road network to the coast, Literacy rate |
[88] | Geomorphology, Coastal slope, Shoreline change, Mean spring tide range, Significant wave height | Coastal geomorphology, Coastal slope, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Wave height |
[89] | Elevation, Slope, Geomorphology, Shoreline change, Sea level rise, Mean tide range, Bathymetry, Storm surge height | Elevation, Coastal slope, Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Sea level change rate, Tidal range, Bathymetry, Storm surge |
[90] | Sea level rise, Wave height, Settlement, Cultural heritage, Roads and railway, Landuse, Designated conservation areas | Sea level change rate, Wave height, Type of population, Cultural heritage, Presence or absence and type of roads, Landuse, Designated conservation areas |
[59] | Elevation, Geology, Landform, Local subsidence, Shoreline erosion/accretion, Mean tide range, Wave height, Annual tropical storm probability, Annual hurricane probability, Hurricane frequency-intensity index, Tropical cyclone mean forward velocity, Annual mean number of extratropical cyclones, Mean hurricane surge | Elevation, Geology, Coastal landform, Subsidence, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Wave height, Storm probability, Hurricane probability, Frequency of storms, Intensity of the phenomenon, Wind speed, Number of extratropical cyclones, Storm surge |
[91] | Beach morphology, Shoreline position, Dune field configuration, Wave exposure, Presence of rivers and/or inlets, Terrain elevation, Vegetation, Coastal engineering structures, Occupation percentile, Soil permeability | Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Presence or absence of natural protection, Presence or absence and total number of sand bars, Proximity to the river or mouth, Elevation, Vegetation cover, Presence or absence and type of coastal protection structures, Landuse, Soil permeability |
[92] | Geomorphology, Coastal Slope, Relative rate of Sea Level Rise, Erosion/Advancement, Average Tidal Height, Average Wave Height | Coastal geomorphology, Coastal slope, Sea level change rate, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Wave height |
[93] | Elevation, Geology, Geomorphology, Shoreline erosion/accretion, Mean tide range, Mean wave height | Elevation, Geology, Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Wave height |
[94] | Elevation, Dune coverage, Shoreline covered by artificial protection structures, Recent shoreline change, Land cover | Elevation, Percent of coastal dune coverage, Coverage of artificial protection structures (%), Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Landuse |
[95] | Type of cliff, Type of beach, Coastal defences, Exposure to swell waves, Exposure to storm waves, Outcrop flooded, Land-use | Type of cliff, Shoreline type Coverage of artificial protection structures (%), Regular waves, Storm surge, Percentage of rock outcrops flooded, Landuse |
[6] | Coastline length, Continentality (total coastline/total municipal area), Coastline complexity, Coastal features, Coastal protection measures, Emergency relief-historic cases, Fluvial drainage, Flooding areas, Demographic, Population density, Children population (0- years old population), Elderly population (population older than 70 years old), ‘Non-local’ population or people born in a different place that they live now, Poverty, Municipal wealth | Coastal length, Total municipal area, Sinuosity and circularity, Coastal landform, Presence or absence of coastal protection structures, Historical, present cases and future directions, Total length of fluvial drainage, Total flood area, Total population in flood area, Population density, Vulnerability of the population according to age, Percentage of immigrants, Percentage of people in poverty, Percentage of built infrastructure |
[96] | Rate of the Sea Level Rise, Mean Tidal Range, Significant Wave Height, Shoreline Change Rate, Geomorphology, Regional Coastal Slope, Land Use and Land Cover, Population, Coastal Settlements and Economic Activities | Sea level change rate, Tidal range, Wave height, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Coastal geomorphology, Coastal slope, Landuse, Population density, Economic Activities |
[97] | Population, Population growth rate, Age, Gender, Employment, Source of income, Household size, Sea level rise assessment, Significant wave heights, Coastal topography, Geological Characteristics | Total population, Population growth rate, Vulnerability of the population according to age, Vulnerability of the population according to gender, Employment and unemployment, Income, Household characteristics, Sea level change rate, Wave height, Topography, Geology |
[98] | Coastal slope, Subsidence, Displacement, Geomorphology, Wave Height, Tidal range | Coastal slope, Coastal geomorphology, Wave height, Tidal range, Sea level change rate, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion) |
[70] | Geomorphology, Historical shoreline change rate, Regional coastal slope, Relative sea-level change, Mean significant wave height, Mean tidal range | Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Coastal slope, Sea level change rate, Wave height, Tidal range |
[5] | Coastal slope, Elevation, Rate of shoreline change, Sea level Rise (SLR), Significant wave height, Cyclone track density (Cyclone intensity per year per 0 km radius), Mean tidal range, Landuse, Population density, ate of employed people (%), rate of economic household (%), rate of literacy (%), rate of adult, Rate of children, Disabled people (%) | Coastal slope, Elevation, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Sea level change rate, Wave height, Track of tropical cyclone, Intensity of the phenomenon, Tidal range, Landuse, Population density, Employment and unemployment, Household characteristics, Literacy rate, Vulnerability of the population according to age, Percentage of disabled people |
[99] | Dune crest height, Beach/dune volume after the wave action of a given return-period storm, Beach width, Dune width, Run-up associated with a given return period, Long-term shoreline evolution, Tidal level, Period, Beach slope, Grain size | Dimensions of coastal dune, Dune volume after storm impact, Dimensions of beach, Run-up, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Wave period, Coastal slope, Granulometric distribution |
[100] | Land cover, Backshore relief/elevation, Shoreline/seabed type, Beach types, Relative sea level change, Shoreline stability erosion/accretion, Mean tidal range, Mean wave height, Protective structures | Landuse, Elevation, Geology, Shoreline type, Sea level change rate, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Wave height, Presence or absence and type of coastal protection structures |
[101] | Geomorphology, Coastal slope, Rate of shoreline change, Rate of SLR, Mean significant wave height, Mean tidal range | Coastal geomorphology, Coastal slope, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Sea level change rate, Wave height, Tidal range |
[102] | Sediment transport rate, Subsidence, Rate of the sea level rise, Significant wave height, Tidal range, Shoreline retreat, Seasonal distribution of wave storms, Seawater temperature | Sediment transport rate, Subsidence, Sea level change rate, Wave height, Tidal range, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Frequency of storms, Intensity of the phenomenon |
[103] | Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline change rate, Coastal slope, Significant wave height, Sea-level-rise, Mean tidal range, Population, Settlement Type, Coastal Protection | Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Coastal slope, Wave height, Sea level change rate, Tidal range, Total population, Type of population, Presence or absence of coastal protection structures |
[104] | Sea surface elevation, Land surface elevation, Slope, Sea level change, Significant wave height, Wave direction, Wave period, Tidal range, Wind speed (at 0 m height) Geology, pH of soil, Bulk density of soil, The organic carbon content of the soil, Clay percentage of soil, Sand percentage of soil, Silt percentage of soil, Rainfall, Geomorphology, LULC NDVI, Distance from stream, Distance from road, Population density, Settlement density, Literacy rate, Percentage agricultural worker, Availability of electricity, Availability of drinking water facility, Availability of hospital, Agricultural land density, LULC Changed to Settlement, LULC Changed to Agriculture | Sea surface elevation, Elevation, Coastal slope, Sea level change rate, Coastal geomorphology, Wave height, Wave direction, Wave period, Tidal range, Wind speed, Subsidence or soil geology, pH of soil, Bulk density of soil, The organic carbon content of the soil, Type of coast, Silt percentage of soil, Precipitation, Coastal geomorphology, Landuse, Distance from stream, Distance from the road network to the coast, Population density, Settlement density, Literacy rate, Percentage agricultural worker, Availability of electricity, Availability of drinking water facility, Availability of hospital |
[105] | Bathymetry, Geomorphology (landform), Lithology (Rock type), Island, Mangrove, Vegetation, Shoreline change rate, Coastal length, Coastal slope, Sea level rise, Infrastructure, Agriculture, Road, Population density, Gender composition | Bathymetry, Coastal geomorphology, Subsidence or soil geology, Presence or absence of natural protection, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Coastal length, Coastal slope, Sea level change rate, Road length, Population density, Coastal space and resources between gender |
[106] | Sea level inundation, Shoreline change rate, Tide range, Elevation, Coastal slope, Geomorphology, Heavy to extreme rainy days | Flood depth, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Elevation, Coastal slope, Coastal geomorphology, Precipitation |
[107] | Geomorphology, Shoreline change rate, Coastal slope, Rate of sea level change, Mean tide range, Bathymetry, Salinity concentration in ground water, Storm surge height, Coastal protection through mangrove afforestation | Coastal geomorphology, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Coastal slope, Sea level change rate, Tidal range, Bathymetry, Salinity concentration in ground water, Storm Surge, Presence or absence of natural protection |
[108] | Coastal Elevation, Rate of Shoreline change, Coastal Slope, Tidal Range, Sea level rise, Storm Surge, LULC | Elevation, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), coastal slope, Tidal range, Sea level change rate, Storm Surge, Landuse |
[109] | Coastal Elevation, Coastal Slope, Bathymetry, Shoreline Change, Coastal Geomorphology, Coastal Land Use, Historical Sea Level, Mean Tidal Range, Mean Significant Wave Height, Storm surge height | Elevation, Coastal slope, Bathymetry, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Coastal geomorphology, Landuse, Sea level change rate, Tidal range, Wave height, Storm surge |
[110] | Elevation, Slope, Drainage density, Proximity to coastline, Rainfall deviation, Cyclone track density, Storm surge height, Flood inundation risk, Population density, Household density, Poverty ratio, % of child population, Dependency ratio, % of agricultural land, Cropping intensity, Literacy rate, Workforce participation rate, % of population living in permanent houses, Road length per sq. km, % of Doctors/lakh/population, % of Household having electricity facility, % of Household having banking facility | Elevation, Coastal slope, Drainage density, Distance of built structures behind the back beach, Precipitation, Track of tropical cyclone, Storm surge, Flood probability, Population density, Household density, Percentage of people in poverty, Vulnerability of the population according to age, Landuse, Literacy rate, Employment and unemployment, Housing services, Road length |
[111] | Geomorphology, Elevation, Absolute Sea Level Rise, Historical erosion-accretion, Tidal range, Population density | Coastal geomorphology, Elevation, Sea level change rate, Shoreline displacement (erosion/accretion), Tidal range, Population density |
[112] | Geomorphology, Natural habitats, Coastal relief, Sea level rise, Wind, wave and surge, Urbanized area, Agricultural GDP, Population density, Population growth rate, Vulnerable population, Per capita GDP, Communication, Transportation, Education, Medical service | Coastal geomorphology, Presence or absence of natural protection, Elevation, Sea level change rate, Wind speed, Wave Height, Storm surge, Landuse, Population density, Population growth rate, GDP (Gross Domestic Product), Housing services |
References
- Martínez, M.L.; Intralawan, A.; Vázquez, G.; Pérez-Maqueo, O.; Sutton, P.; Landgrave, R. The coasts of our world: Ecological, economic and social importance. Ecol. Econ. 2007, 63, 254–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNFCCC. Policy Brief: Technologies for Averting, Minimizing and Addressing Loss and Damage in Coastal Zones. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Executive Committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage. Available online: https://unfccc.int/ttclear/misc_/StaticFiles/gnwoerk_static/2020_coastalzones/cfecc85aaa8d43d38cd0f6ceae2b61e4/2bb696550804403fa08df8a924922c2e.pdf (accessed on 29 December 2023).
- Gracia, A.; Rangel-Buitrago, N.; Oakley, J.A.; Williams, A.T. Use of ecosystems in coastal erosion management. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2018, 156, 277–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dube, K.; Nhamo, G.; Chikodzi, D. Rising sea level and its implications on coastal tourism development in Cape Town, South Africa. J. Outdoor Recreat. Tour. 2021, 33, 100346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mullick, M.R.A.; Tanim, A.H.; Islam, S.M.S. Coastal vulnerability analysis of Bangladesh coast using fuzzy logic based geospatial techniques. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2019, 174, 154–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Szlafsztein, C.; Sterr, H. A GIS-based vulnerability assessment of coastal natural hazards, state of Pará, Brazil. J. Coast. Conserv. 2007, 11, 53–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hamid, A.I.A.; Din, A.H.M.; Abdullah, N.M.; Yusof, N.; Hamid, M.R.A.; Shah, A.M. Exploring space geodetic technology for physical coastal vulnerability index and management strategies: A review. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2021, 214, 105916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anfuso, G.; Martínez-del-Pozo, J.Á.; Rangel-Buitrago, N. Morphological cells in the Ragusa littoral (Sicily, Italy). J. Coast. Conserv. 2013, 17, 369–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mukhopadhyay, A.; Dasgupta, R.; Hazra, S.; Mitra, D. Coastal hazards and vulnerability: A review. Int. J. Geol. Earth Environ. Sci. 2012, 2, 57–69. [Google Scholar]
- Roukounis, C.N.; Tsihrintzis, V.A. Indices of Coastal Vulnerability to Climate Change: A Review. Environ. Process. 2022, 9, 29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cruz, C.J.; Mendoza, E.; Silva, R.; Chávez, V. Assessing Degrees of Anthropization on the Coast of Mexico from Ecosystem Conservation and Population Growth Data. J. Coast. Res. 2019, 92, 136–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dias, J.A.; Cearreta, A.; Isla, F.I.; de Mahiques, M.M. Anthropogenic impacts on Iberoamerican coastal areas: Historical processes, present challenges, and consequences for coastal zone management. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2013, 77, 80–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barzehkar, M.; Parnell, K.E.; Soomere, T.; Dragovich, D.; Engström, J. Decision support tools, systems and indices for sustainable coastal planning and management: A review. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2021, 212, 105813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silva, R.; Chávez, V.; Bouma, T.J.; van Tussenbroek, B.I.; Arkema, K.K.; Martínez, M.L.; Oumeraci, H.; Heymans, J.J.; Osorio, A.F.; Mendoza, E.; et al. The Incorporation of Biophysical and Social Components in Coastal Management. Estuaries Coasts 2019, 42, 1695–1708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barragán, J. Política, Gestión y Litoral: Una Nueva Visión de la Gestión Integrada de Áreas Litorales; Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura: Madrid, Spain, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- CBD. Integrated Marine and Coastal Area Management (IMCAM) Approaches for Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity; Compiled by AIDEnvironment, National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management/Rijksinstituut voor Kust en Zee (RIKZ), Coastal Zone Management Centre, The Netherlands; Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity: Montreal, QC, Canada, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Pérez-Cayeiro, M.L.; Chica Ruiz, J.A.; Arcila Garrido, M.; López Sánchez, J.A. Análisis de la evolución de las metodologias de gestión integrada de áreas litorales en los periodos comprendidos entre 1990–1999 y 2000-2012. Rev. Gestão Costeira Integr.—J. Integr. Coast. Zone Manag. 2016, 16, 207–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNEP. Taking Steps toward Marine and Coastal Ecosystem-Based Management: An Introductory Guide; UNEP: Nairobi, Kenya, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Clark, J.R. Integrated Management of Coastal Zones. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 327; FAO: Rome, Italy, 1992; p. 167. [Google Scholar]
- McFadden, L.; Green, C. Defining ‘vulnerability’ conflicts, complexities and implications for Coastal Zone Management. J. Coast. Res. 2007, SI 50, 120–124. [Google Scholar]
- Kaluwin, C.; Smith, A. Coastal vulnerability and integrated coastal zone management in the Pacific island region. J. Coast. Res. 1997, SI 24, 95–106. [Google Scholar]
- Satta, A. An Index-Based Method to Assess Vulnerabilities and Risks of Mediterranean Coastal Zones to Multiple Hazards. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Venice, Venice, Italy, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Muñoz, J.M.B. La Gestión de las Áreas Litorales en España y Latinoamérica; Universidad de Cádiz: Cádiz, Spain, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Ministerio del Medio Ambiente. Política Nacional Ambiental para el Desarrollo Sostenible de los Espacios Oceánicos y las Zonas Costeras e Insulares de Colombia. Available online: https://siam.invemar.org.co/static/media/uac/Politica_ZC_PNAOCI.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- LexologyPro. Basic Facts about the New Croatian Construction Law. Available online: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=443fcd8f-7544-44e5-8abe-0c2616c0cd5f (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- Gobierno de Cuba (Council of State of Cuba). Decreto-Ley 212 de la Gestión de la Zona Costera. Available online: https://www.micons.gob.cu/sites/default/files/MICONS/Marco-Normativo/DECRETO-LEY-No.212.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- LAW no. 4. The Environment Law and Its Executive Regulation (Egypt). Available online: https://www.gafi.gov.eg/English/StartaBusiness/Laws-and-Regulations/PublishingImages/Pages/BusinessLaws/enviromental.pdf (accessed on 1 January 2024).
- Mediterranee. Mediterranee De la loi Littoral à la Gestion Intégrée des Zones Côtières. 2010. Available online: https://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/5122 (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- Government of Indonesia. The Law of Indonesia on Coastal Zone and Small Islands Management (CSIM), Enacted in 2007. Available online: https://seaknowledgebank.net/e-library/indonesia-national-act-272007-coastal-zone-and-small-islands-management-csim (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- Milione-Fugali, C. El Medio Ambiente Como Valor Jurídico en el Marco de la Constitución Italiana. Nuevas Políticas Públicas. Anuario Multidisciplinar para la Modernización de las Administraciones Públicas, 233–249. Available online: www.juntadeandalucia.es/institutodeadministracionpublica/anuario/articulos/descargas/04_NOT_03_MILLIONE.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- Rivera Arriaga, E.; Azuz-Adeath, I.; Díaz Mondragón, S. Análisis de la Propuesta de Modificación legal de la Zona Federal Marítimo Terrestre de México; EPOMEX, Universidad Autónoma de Campeche: Campeche, Mexico, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Barrada-Ferreirós, A. Las Nuevas Leyes de Marruecos Sobre Espacios Marítimos. Revista General de Marina, 1, 95–113. Available online: https://armada.defensa.gob.es/archivo/rgm/2020/07/rgmjul20cap09.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- Republic of South Africa. National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act 24 of 2008. Available online: https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/31884138.pdf (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- DFF&E. Working for the Coast project. Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment. Republic of South Africa. 2021. Available online: https://www.dffe.gov.za/projectsprogrammes/workingfor_thecoast#:~:text=The-coastal-protection-zone-consists,be-undertaken-without-an-authorization (accessed on 20 February 2024).
- Barragán, J.M.; de Andrés, M. Aspectos básicos para una gestión integrada de las áreas litorales de España: Conceptos, terminología, contexto y criterios de delimitación. Rev. Gestão Costeira Integr. J. Integr. Coast. Zone Manag. 2016, 16, 171–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barragán, J.M.; de Andrés, M. Expansión urbana en las áreas litorales de América Latina y Caribe. Rev. Geogr. Norte Gd. 2016, 129–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNEP. Law No. 3830 Amending the Coastal Law No. 3621 of 1990. Available online: https://leap.unep.org/countries/tr/national-legislation/law-no-3830-amending-coastal-law-no-3621-1990 (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- IMPO. Normativa y Avisos Legales del Uruguay. Available online: https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/leyes/19772-2019 (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- OCM. The Coastal Zone Enhancement Program. Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. Office for Coastal Management. Available online: https://coast.noaa.gov/czm/act/sections/ (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- OCM. Coastal Zone Management Programs. Office for Coastal Management. Available online: https://coast.noaa.gov/czm/mystate/ (accessed on 11 January 2023).
- Asamblea Nacional. Decreto-no-20220309123243 Gaceta Oficial de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela. p. 10. Available online: http://www.asambleanacional.gob.ve/index.php/leyes/sancionadas/decreto-no-1468-con-fuerza-de-ley-de-zonas-costeras#:~:text=EsteDecretoLeytienepor,integrantedelespaciogeográficovenezolano (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- Humphrey, S.; Burbridge, P.; Blatch, C. US lessons for coastal management in the European Union. Mar. Policy 2000, 24, 275–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MITECO. Evolución de las Zonas Costeras en Europa; Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Agencia Europea de Medio Ambiente (AEMA): Madrid, Spain, 2008; p. 108.
- Ahmed, I.; Nawaz, M.M.; Iqbal, N.; Ali, I.; Shaukat, Z.; Usman, A. Effects of motivational factors on employees job satisfaction a case study of University of the Punjab, Pakistan. Int. J. Bus. Manag. 2010, 5, 70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harvey, N.; Caton, B.; Coastal Management in Australia. In Coastal Management. The University of Adelaide. Available online: https://www.adelaide.edu.au/press/ua/media/518/uap-coastal-ebook.pdf (accessed on 11 January 2023).
- Coccossis, H. Assessment of Integrated Coastal Management in Africa. Available online: https://aquadocs.org/handle/1834/270 (accessed on 31 December 2023).
- Harvey, N.; Hilton, M. Coastal Management in The Asia-Pacific Region. In Global Change and Integrated Coastal Management: The Asia-Pacific Region; Harvey, N., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2006; pp. 39–66. [Google Scholar]
- Isobe, M. Toward Integrated Coastal Management in Japan. Available online: https://nautilus.org/esena/toward-integrated-coastal-management-in-japan/ (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- Barragán Muñoz, J.M. Progress of coastal management in Latin America and the Caribbean. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2020, 184, 105009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Short, A.D.; Klein, A.H.d.F. Brazilian Beach Systems: Review and Overview. In Brazilian Beach Systems; Short, A.D., Klein, A.H.d.F., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; pp. 573–608. [Google Scholar]
- Janssen, M.A.; Ostrom, E. Resilience, vulnerability, and adaptation: A cross-cutting theme of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2006, 16, 237–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adger, W.N. Vulnerability. Glob. Environ. Change 2006, 16, 268–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brock, J.C.; Purkis, S.J. The Emerging Role of Lidar Remote Sensing in Coastal Research and Resource Management. J. Coast. Res. 2009, 25, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Balica, S.F.; Wright, N.G.; van der Meulen, F. A flood vulnerability index for coastal cities and its use in assessing climate change impacts. Nat. Hazards 2012, 64, 73–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Preston, B.L.; Yuen, E.J.; Westaway, R.M. Putting vulnerability to climate change on the map: A review of approaches, benefits, and risks. Sustain. Sci. 2011, 6, 177–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ordaz, M.; Torres, M.; Domínguez, R. Vulnerabilidad y Riesgo por Inundaciones; Colegio de Ingenieros Civiles de México: Ciudad de México, Mexico, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Seenath, A.; Wilson, M.; Miller, K. Hydrodynamic versus GIS modelling for coastal flood vulnerability assessment: Which is better for guiding coastal management? Ocean Coast. Manag. 2016, 120, 99–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nguyen, T.T.X.; Bonetti, J.; Rogers, K.; Woodroffe, C.D. Indicator-based assessment of climate-change impacts on coasts: A review of concepts, methodological approaches and vulnerability indices. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2016, 123, 18–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gornitz, V.M.; Daniels, R.C.; White, T.W.; Birdwell, K.R. The Development of a Coastal Risk Assessment Database: Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise in the U.S. Southeast. J. Coast. Res. 1994, IS12, 327–338. [Google Scholar]
- Gornitz, V.M.; Beaty, T.W.; Daniels, R.C. A coastal hazards data base for the U.S. West Coast. Available online: https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc708676/ (accessed on 13 December 2023).
- McLaughlin, S.; Cooper, J.A.G. A multi-scale coastal vulnerability index: A tool for coastal managers? Environ. Hazards 2010, 9, 233–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rizzo, A.; Aucelli, P.P.C.; Gracia, F.J.; Anfuso, G. A novelty coastal susceptibility assessment method: Application to Valdelagrana area (SW Spain). J. Coast. Conserv. 2018, 22, 973–987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Le Cozannet, G.; Garcin, M.; Bulteau, T.; Mirgon, C.; Yates, M.L.; Méndez, M.; Baills, A.; Idier, D.; Oliveros, C. An AHP-derived method for mapping the physical vulnerability of coastal areas at regional scales. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2013, 13, 1209–1227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kantamaneni, K.; Phillips, M.; Thomas, T.; Jenkins, R. Assessing coastal vulnerability: Development of a combined physical and economic index. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2018, 158, 164–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Torresan, S.; Critto, A.; Dalla Valle, M.; Harvey, N.; Marcomini, A. Assessing coastal vulnerability to climate change: Comparing segmentation at global and regional scales. Sustain. Sci. 2008, 3, 45–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashraful Islam, M.; Mitra, D.; Dewan, A.; Akhter, S.H. Coastal multi-hazard vulnerability assessment along the Ganges deltaic coast of Bangladesh–A geospatial approach. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2016, 127, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kumar, A.A.; Kunte, P. Coastal vulnerability assessment for Chennai, east coast of India using geospatial techniques. Nat. Hazards J. Int. Soc. Prev. Mitig. Nat. Hazards 2012, 64, 853–872. [Google Scholar]
- Kumar, T.S.; Mahendra, R.S.; Nayak, S.; Radhakrishnan, K.; Sahu, K.C. Coastal Vulnerability Assessment for Orissa State, East Coast of India. J. Coast. Res. 2010, 2010, 523–534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mani Murali, R.; Ankita, M.; Amrita, S.; Vethamony, P. Coastal vulnerability assessment of Puducherry coast, India, using the analytical hierarchical process. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2013, 13, 3291–3311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pendleton, E.A.; Barras, J.A.; Williams, S.J.; Twichell, D.C. Coastal Vulnerability Assessment of the Northern Gulf of Mexico to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Change; Report Series 2010–1146; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2010; p. 26.
- Thieler, E.R.; Hammar-Klose, E.S. National Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise; Preliminary Results for the U.S. Gulf of Mexico Coast; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2000.
- Sankari, T.S.; Chandramouli, A.R.; Gokul, K.; Surya, S.S.M.; Saravanavel, J. Coastal Vulnerability Mapping Using Geospatial Technologies in Cuddalore-Pichavaram Coastal Tract, Tamil Nadu, India. Aquat. Procedia 2015, 4, 412–418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pradeep, C.; Vigneshwaran, S.; Thirumlaivasan, D. Coastal Vulnerability Assessment for Northern Tamil Nadu Coast using open source numerical software-DELFT 3D. Int. J. Earth Sci. Eng. 2014, 7, 1135–1145. [Google Scholar]
- Cuevas Jiménez, A.; Euán Ávila, J.I.; Villatoro Lacouture, M.M.; Silva Casarín, R. Classification of Beach Erosion Vulnerability on the Yucatan Coast. Coast. Manag. 2016, 44, 333–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hegde, A.V.; Reju, V.R. Development of Coastal Vulnerability Index for Mangalore Coast, India. J. Coast. Res. 2007, 23, 1106–1111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boruff, B.J.; Emrich, C.; Cutter, S.L. Erosion Hazard Vulnerability of Us Coastal Counties. J. Coast. Res. 2005, 21, 932–942. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silva, R.; Villatoro, M.; Ramos, F.; Pedroza, D.; Ortiz, M.; Mendoza, E.; Delgadillo, M.; Escudero, M.; Félix, A.; Cid, A. Caracterización de la Zona Costera y Planteamiento de Elementos Técnicos para la Elaboración de Criterios de Regulación y Manejo Sustentable; Instituto de Ingeniería, UNAM: Ciudad de México, Mexico, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Balica, S.; Wright, N.G. A network of knowledge on applying an indicator-based methodology for minimizing flood vulnerability. Hydrol. Process. 2009, 23, 2983–2986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abuodha, P.; Woodroffe, C. International Assessments of the Vulnerability of the Coastal Zone to Climate Change, Including an Australian Perspective. 2006. Available online: https://ro.uow.edu.au/scipapers/159 (accessed on 22 January 2024).
- Özyurt, G.; Ergin, A. Improving Coastal Vulnerability Assessments to Sea-Level Rise: A New Indicator-Based Methodology for Decision Makers. J. Coast. Res. 2010, 26, 265–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koroglu, A.; Ranasinghe, R.; Jiménez, J.A.; Dastgheib, A. Comparison of Coastal Vulnerability Index applications for Barcelona Province. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2019, 178, 104799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mavromatidi, A.; Briche, E.; Claeys, C. Mapping and analyzing socio-environmental vulnerability to coastal hazards induced by climate change: An application to coastal Mediterranean cities in France. Cities 2018, 72, 189–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WWF. Mega-Stress for Mega-Cities: A Climate Vulnerability Ranking of Major Coastal Cities in Asia; World Wildlife Fund (WWF): Gland, Switzerland, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Anfuso, G.; Martínez Del Pozo, J.Á. Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability Through the Use of GIS Tools in South Sicily (Italy). Environ. Manag. 2009, 43, 533–545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bagdanavičiūtė, I.; Kelpšaitė, L.; Soomere, T. Multi-criteria evaluation approach to coastal vulnerability index development in micro-tidal low-lying areas. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2015, 104, 124–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kunte, P.D.; Jauhari, N.; Mehrotra, U.; Kotha, M.; Hursthouse, A.S.; Gagnon, A.S. Multi-hazards coastal vulnerability assessment of Goa, India, using geospatial techniques. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2014, 95, 264–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yin, J.; Yin, Z.; Wang, J.; Xu, S. National assessment of coastal vulnerability to sea-level rise for the Chinese coast. J. Coast. Conserv. 2012, 16, 123–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nageswara Rao, K.; Subraelu, P.; Venkateswara Rao, T.; Hema Malini, B.; Ratheesh, R.; Bhattacharya, S.; Rajawat, A.S.; Ajai, P. Sea-level rise and coastal vulnerability: An assessment of Andhra Pradesh coast, India through remote sensing and GIS. J. Coast. Conserv. 2008, 12, 195–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoque, M.A.-A.; Ahmed, N.; Pradhan, B.; Roy, S. Assessment of coastal vulnerability to multi-hazardous events using geospatial techniques along the eastern coast of Bangladesh. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2019, 181, 104898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McLaughlin, S.; McKenna, J.; Cooper, J. Socio-economic data in coastal vulnerability indices: Constraints and opportunities. J. Coast. Res. 2002, 36, 487–497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sousa, P.H.G.O.; Siegle, E.; Tessler, M.G. Vulnerability assessment of Massaguaçú Beach (SE Brazil). Ocean Coast. Manag. 2013, 77, 24–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghoussein, Y.; Mhawej, M.; Jaffal, A.; Fadel, A.; El Hourany, R.; Faour, G. Vulnerability assessment of the South-Lebanese coast: A GIS-based approach. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2018, 158, 56–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diez, P.G.; Perillo, G.M.E.; Piccolo, M.C. Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise on the Coast of the Buenos Aires Province. J. Coast. Res. 2007, 2007, 119–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sekovski, I.; Del Río, L.; Armaroli, C. Development of a coastal vulnerability index using analytical hierarchy process and application to Ravenna province (Italy). Ocean Coast. Manag. 2020, 183, 104982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ng, K.; Borges, P.; Phillips, M.R.; Medeiros, A.; Calado, H. An integrated coastal vulnerability approach to small islands: The Azores case. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 690, 1218–1227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gallego Perez, B.E.; Selvaraj, J.J. Evaluation of coastal vulnerability for the District of Buenaventura, Colombia: A geospatial approach. Remote Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ. 2019, 16, 100263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reyes, S.R.; Blanco, A.C. Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability to Sea Level Rise Using Remote Sensing (Rs) and Geographic Information Systems (Gis): A Case Study of Bolinao, Pangasinan, Philippines. In Asian and Pacific Coasts 2011; World Scientific: Singapore, 2011; pp. 377–384. [Google Scholar]
- Doukakis, E. Coastal vulnerability and risk parameters. Eur. Water 2005, 11, 3–7. [Google Scholar]
- Sancho, F.; Oliveira, F.S.B.F.; Freire, P. Coastal Dunes Vulnerability Indexes: A New Proposal. Coast. Eng. Proc. 2012, 1, management.68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohamad, M.F.; Lee, L.H.; Samion, M.K.H. Coastal vulnerability assessment towards sustainable management of Peninsular Malaysia coastline. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Dev. 2014, 5, 533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohd, F.A.; Maulud, K.N.A.; Karim, O.A.; Begum, R.A.; Khan, M.F.; Jaafar, W.; Abdullah, S.M.S.; Toriman, M.E.; Kamarudin, M.K.A.; Gasim, M.B. An assessment of coastal vulnerability of Pahang’s coast due to sea level rise. Int. J. Eng. Technol 2018, 7, 176–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fatorić, S.; Chelleri, L. Vulnerability to the effects of climate change and adaptation: The case of the Spanish Ebro Delta. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2012, 60, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Charuka, B.; Angnuureng, D.B.; Brempong, E.K.; Agblorti, S.K.M.; Antwi Agyakwa, K.T. Assessment of the integrated coastal vulnerability index of Ghana toward future coastal infrastructure investment plans. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2023, 244, 106804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohanty, B.; Sarkar, R.; Saha, S. Preparing coastal erosion vulnerability index applying deep learning techniques in Odisha state of India. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 2023, 96, 103986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ariffin, E.H.; Mathew, M.J.; Roslee, A.; Ismailluddin, A.; Yun, L.S.; Putra, A.B.; Yusof, K.M.K.K.; Menhat, M.; Ismail, I.; Shamsul, H.A.; et al. A multi-hazards coastal vulnerability index of the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 2023, 84, 103484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thirumurthy, S.; Jayanthi, M.; Samynathan, M.; Duraisamy, M.; Kabiraj, S.; Anbazhahan, N. Multi-criteria coastal environmental vulnerability assessment using analytic hierarchy process based uncertainty analysis integrated into GIS. J. Environ. Manag. 2022, 313, 114941. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mahmood, R.; Ahmed, N.; Zhang, L.; Li, G. Coastal vulnerability assessment of Meghna estuary of Bangladesh using integrated geospatial techniques. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 2020, 42, 101374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahmed, M.A.; Sridharan, B.; Saha, N.; Sannasiraj, S.A.; Kuiry, S.N. Assessment of coastal vulnerability for extreme events. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 2022, 82, 103341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hossain, S.K.A.; Mondal, I.; Thakur, S.; Fadhil Al-Quraishi, A.M. Coastal vulnerability assessment of India’s Purba Medinipur-Balasore coastal stretch: A comparative study using empirical models. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 2022, 77, 103065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghosh, S.; Mistri, B. Assessing coastal vulnerability to environmental hazards of Indian Sundarban delta using multi-criteria decision-making approaches. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2021, 209, 105641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bera, R.; Maiti, R. An assessment of coastal vulnerability using geospatial techniques. Environ. Earth Sci. 2021, 80, 306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.; Wu, T.; Arkema, K.K.; Han, B.; Lu, F.; Ruckelshaus, M.; Ouyang, Z. Coastal vulnerability to climate change in China’s Bohai Economic Rim. Environ. Int. 2021, 147, 106359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Malara, G.; Zema, D.A.; Arena, F.; Bombino, G.; Zimbone, S.M. Coupling watershed-coast systems to study evolutionary trends: A review. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2020, 201, 103040. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chang, Y.; Chu, K.-w.; Chuang, L.Z.-H. Sustainable coastal zone planning based on historical coastline changes: A model from case study in Tainan, Taiwan. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2018, 174, 24–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, S.; Kettner, A.J.; Syvitski, J.P.M.; Fekete, B.M. WBMsed, a distributed global-scale riverine sediment flux model: Model description and validation. Comput. Geosci. 2013, 53, 80–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barrio-Parra, F.; Rodriguez-Santalla, I.; Taborca, R.; Ribeiro, M. Modelado Costero: El Papel del Viento en la Evolución de la Línea de Costa del Hemidelta Norte del Delta del Ebro. Available online: https://costasypuertos.com/articulos/2015/868102.pdf (accessed on 29 January 2024).
- Tuncer, G.; Karakas, T.; Balkas, T.I.; Gökçay, C.F.; Aygnn, S.; Yurteri, C.; Tuncel, G. Land-based sources of pollution along the black sea coast of Turkey: Concentrations and annual loads to the black sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 1998, 36, 409–423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saengsupavanich, C.; Coowanitwong, N.; Gallardo, W.G.; Lertsuchatavanich, C. Environmental performance evaluation of an industrial port and estate: ISO14001, port state control-derived indicators. J. Clean. Prod. 2009, 17, 154–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alexander, D. Towards the development of a standard in emergency planning. Disaster Prev. Manag. Int. J. 2005, 14, 158–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Samaras, A.G. Towards integrated modelling of Watershed-Coast System morphodynamics in a changing climate: A critical review and the path forward. Sci. Total Environ. 2023, 882, 163625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Alvarez-Cuesta, M.; Toimil, A.; Losada, I.J. Modelling long-term shoreline evolution in highly anthropized coastal areas. Part 1: Model description and validation. Coast. Eng. 2021, 169, 103960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alvarez-Cuesta, M.; Toimil, A.; Losada, I.J. Reprint of: Modelling long-term shoreline evolution in highly anthropized coastal areas. Part 2: Assessing the response to climate change. Coast. Eng. 2021, 169, 103985. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kebede, A.S.; Nicholls, R.J.; Allan, A.; Arto, I.; Cazcarro, I.; Fernandes, J.A.; Hill, C.T.; Hutton, C.W.; Kay, S.; Lázár, A.N.; et al. Applying the global RCP–SSP–SPA scenario framework at sub-national scale: A multi-scale and participatory scenario approach. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 635, 659–672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Neill, B.C.; Kriegler, E.; Riahi, K.; Ebi, K.L.; Hallegatte, S.; Carter, T.R.; Mathur, R.; van Vuuren, D.P. A new scenario framework for climate change research: The concept of shared socioeconomic pathways. Clim. Change 2014, 122, 387–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kriegler, E.; Edmonds, J.; Hallegatte, S.; Ebi, K.L.; Kram, T.; Riahi, K.; Winkler, H.; van Vuuren, D.P. A new scenario framework for climate change research: The concept of shared climate policy assumptions. Clim. Change 2014, 122, 401–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zanuttigh, B.; Simcic, D.; Bagli, S.; Bozzeda, F.; Pietrantoni, L.; Zagonari, F.; Hoggart, S.; Nicholls, R.J. THESEUS decision support system for coastal risk management. Coast. Eng. 2014, 87, 218–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Navarro-Hellín, H.; Martínez-del-Rincon, J.; Domingo-Miguel, R.; Soto-Valles, F.; Torres-Sánchez, R. A decision support system for managing irrigation in agriculture. Comput. Electron. Agric. 2016, 124, 121–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neri Suárez, M. El Sistema de Áreas Naturales Protegidas del Estado de Puebla: Representatividad Ecológica e Identificación de Áreas Prioritarias para la Conservación. Available online: https://colposdigital.colpos.mx:8080/jspui/handle/10521/2207 (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- Ruíz-Ramírez, J.D. Herramientas actuales de análisis para la vulnerabilidad costera ante el aumento del nivel del mar: Revisión para el caribe mexicano. Caos Concienc. 2016, 10, 29–46. [Google Scholar]
- Arcidiacono, A.; Ronchi, S.; Salata, S. Ecosystem Services Assessment Using InVEST as a Tool to Support Decision Making Process: Critical Issues and Opportunities. In Computational Science and Its Applications–ICCSA 2015; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2015; pp. 35–49. [Google Scholar]
- Hinkel, J.; Nicholls, R.J.; Tol, R.S.J.; Wang, Z.B.; Hamilton, J.M.; Boot, G.; Vafeidis, A.T.; McFadden, L.; Ganopolski, A.; Klein, R.J.T. A global analysis of erosion of sandy beaches and sea-level rise: An application of DIVA. Glob. Planet. Change 2013, 111, 150–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Watts, M.E.; Ball, I.R.; Stewart, R.S.; Klein, C.J.; Wilson, K.; Steinback, C.; Lourival, R.; Kircher, L.; Possingham, H.P. Marxan with Zones: Software for optimal conservation based land- and sea-use zoning. Environ. Model. Softw. 2009, 24, 1513–1521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De la Rosa, D.; Mayol, F.; Diaz-Pereira, E.; Fernandez, M.; de la Rosa, D. A land evaluation decision support system (MicroLEIS DSS) for agricultural soil protection: With special reference to the Mediterranean region. Environ. Model. Softw. 2004, 19, 929–942. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Christensen, V.; Walters, C.J. Ecopath with Ecosim: Methods, capabilities and limitations. Ecol. Model. 2004, 172, 109–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beatley, T.; Brower, D.; Schwab, A.K. An Introduction to Coastal Zone Management; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Dal Cin, R.; Simeoni, U. Coastal zoning and vulnerability: Application to the Middle Adriatic (Italy). In Coastlines of Italy; American Society of Civil Engineers: New Yourk, NY, USA, 1989; pp. 98–110. [Google Scholar]
- Anfuso, G.; Postacchini, M.; Di Luccio, D.; Benassai, G. Coastal Sensitivity/Vulnerability Characterization and Adaptation Strategies: A Review. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, 72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Country | Law | Year | Main Purposes | Restricted Area |
---|---|---|---|---|
Algeria | Coastal Law | 2002 (in force) | Law on spatial planning, protection, sustainable development, sustainable use of resources and urban planning [22]. | 100 m. Article 18 of the Law states that the strip may be extended up to 300 m. |
Brazil | National Coastal Management Law | 1997 (in force) | To plan and manage economic activities in the coastal zone in an integrated, decentralized and participatory manner, to guarantee the use, control, conservation, protection, preservation and recovery of natural resources and coastal ecosystems [23]. | 33 m inland from the high tide line. Also applies to river and lake margins. |
Chile | Supreme Decree 475, National Policy on the Use of the Coastal Border | 1994 (in force) | To integrate geographical areas, economic development, and environmental conservation related to the coast, plus various sectors of activity and scales of administrative management (national, regional and local) [23]. | Areas protected for fishing purposes: An 8 m strip, inland from the highest tide line. Where this is bordered by public property, this strip increases to 88 m. |
Colombia | National Environmental Policy for the sustainable development of ocean areas and coastal zones | 2000 (in force) | To assign sustainable uses to the nation´s maritime and coastal territory. Harmonize and articulate sectoral coastal development planning, and the conservation and restoration of the goods and services provided by its ecosystems [24]. | 50 m inland from the mean high tide mark |
Croatia | Physical Planning Act | 2007 | To provide prerequisites for balanced development in accordance with economic, social, and environmental factors. Regulation of building permits [25]. | Coastal Protected Area (ACP). Articles 50 and 51 prohibit construction work on the strip 70–100 m inland from the mean high tide mark |
Cuba | Law 212 on Coastal Zone Management | 2000 (in force) | To promote sustainable development criteria in coastal zone activities. Territorial and urban planning and tourism development schemes [26]. | Varies: from 20 m inland of artificial structures to 300 m inland from river mouths |
Egypt | Environmental Law | 1994 | To regulate construction and human activities [27]. | 200 m from the coastline |
France | Coastal Law | 1986 | Coastal planning, protection, and management. Halt or contain coastal urbanization. Preservation of natural spaces [28]. | 100 m from the mean high tide mark. This may be extended where there is coastal erosion. |
Indonesia | Law Concerning the Management of Coastal Zones and Small Islands | 2007 | Planning, use, monitoring, and control of coastal and island resources to improve public welfare [29]. | At least 100 m inland from highest tide line, depending on the shape and condition of the beach, in the mangrove belt: 400 m |
Israel | National Master Plan for the Mediterranean Coast | 1983 | To prevent development on the coast and resolve conflicts of interest between land uses that require a coastal location [22]. | 100 m may be extended according to the physical characteristics of the coast. |
Italy | Galasso Law #431/1985 | 1985 | Protection of the environment as an elementary value for the legal system [30]. | Special attention paid to the 300 m coastal strip, prohibiting any new building. |
Mexico * | General Law of National Goods Regulation for the use of territorial sea, navigable waters, beaches, federal zone maritime terrestrial, and filled lands | 2004 1991 | Defines the length of maritime beaches and the federal maritime terrestrial zone. | 20 m from the maximum high tide is recognized as a federal zone. However, the current government (2018–2024) has modified articles 7 and 199 of the General Law of National Assets (LGBN), reducing this to 10 m [31]. |
Morocco | Coastal Protection and Development Act | 1981 | Regulates the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, and the exclusive economic zone and the exclusive fishing zone [32]. | 100 m may be extended due to coastal erosion. |
Republic of South Africa | Integrated Coastal Management Bill | 1998 | To conserve the coastal environment and maintain the natural attributes of coastal landscapes and seascapes, as well as ensure the sustainable use of natural resources. Also tackles coastal zone pollution and development and determines the competencies of State bodies in relation to coastal zones [33]. | 100 m inland from the high tide mark in urban areas for residential, commercial, industrial, or mixed-use purposes, and 1 km inland in rural areas. These limits can be adjusted, depending on the sensitivity of the shoreline. [34]. |
Spain | Coastal Law | 2013 (in force) | Identification, protection, and sustainable use of the coastline. For administrative functions, low-lying land that is flooded due to water seepage is also included [35,36]. | 100 m which may be extended to 200 m by agreement between the Autonomous Communities and the municipalities concerned. |
Turkey | Coastal Law 3621/3830 | Amends Coastal Law 3621, of 1990. | This changes the definition of “shoreline” and adds new clauses regulating buildings, roads, footpaths, and public gardens near shorelines. It also states that building plans near coastlines must be reviewed within one year [37]. | 100 m on which facilities may be built for the protection of the coastline or for the public interest, only with a land-use planning permit. |
Uruguay | National Coastal Space Policy | Draft Decree (2002) | Promotes the sustainable and democratic use of the natural and cultural resources of the coastal space, and regulation of activities and uses in that space [38]. | 250 m |
USA | Coastal Zone Management | 1972 | Designed to preserve, protect, develop, enhance, and restore the nation’s coastal resources. Seeks to balance economic development with environmental protection and control land and water uses [39,40]. | Varies in each state, according to coastal characteristics, aims to control the shorelines from the impact of waters and vulnerability to sea level rise. The Environmental Protection Agency review each state’s boundary to make any necessary modifications. |
Venezuela | Coastal Zones Act | 2001 (in force) | Conservation and sustainable use. Improving the use of resources. Administration, use, and management of coasts and riverbanks. Regulation of construction [41]. | 80 m from the line of the highest tide, for mainland and island territories. |
Reference | Spatial Scale | Risk Factors | Index Name | No. of Variables | Types of Variables |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[60] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 7 | Physical |
[54] | Local | Flooding | CSoVI—Coastal Social Vulnerability | 11 | Hydro-geological, socioeconomic, politico-administrative |
[61] | National, regional, and local | Erosion | National, regional and local vulnerability | 22 | Coastal features, coastal forcing, socioeconomic |
[62] * | Local | Flooding and erosion | CFSI—Coastal Flood Susceptibility Index and CESI—Coastal Erosion Susceptibility Index. | 18 | Coastal Erosion, Susceptibility Index, Coastal Flood Susceptibility Index |
[63] * | Regional | Flooding and erosion | Multi-criteria decision mapping method | 10 | Physical |
[64] | Global, regional, and local | Erosion | CCVI—Combined Coastal Vulnerability Index. | 14 | Physical coastal vulnerability index |
[65] | Global and regional | Flooding and erosion | Global and regional index | 11 | Factors for DIVA (Dynamic Interactive Vulnerability Assessment), socioeconomic, physical |
[66] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 7 | Physical |
[67] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 8 | Physical |
[68] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 8 | Physical |
[69] * | Regional | Flooding and erosion | Coastal vulnerability index using AHP-derived weights | 11 | Social vulnerability, physical vulnerability |
[70] | Regional | Flooding | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 6 | Physical |
[71] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 6 | Physical |
[72] | Local | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 6 | Risk variables |
[73] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 9 | Relative risk variables |
[74] | Local | Erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 16 | Physical |
[75] | Regional | Erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 4 | Physical |
[76] | Regional | Erosion | PVI—general vulnerability of the site | 17 | Coastal Social Vulnerability Index, Coastal Physical Vulnerability Index |
[77] | Regional and local | Erosion | Physical and socio-economic vulnerability | 23 | Physical, socioeconomic |
[78] | Regional and local | Flooding | Flood vulnerability index | 31 | Social, economic, ecological, physical |
[79] | National, regional and local | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 7 | Physical |
[80] | Regional and local | Flooding and erosion | Relative vulnerability of different coastal environments to SLR | 19 | Physical, social |
[11] | National, regional, and local | Hydro-meteorological and hydrological phenomena | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 12 | Physical, social |
[81] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 7 | Physical |
[82] | Regional and local | Flooding and erosion | Social vulnerability index | 16 | Physical, social |
[83] | Local | Flooding and erosion | Overall climate vulnerability | 9 | Environmental exposure, socioeconomic sensitivity, adaptive capacity |
[84] | Regional | Erosion | Coastal vulnerability | 3 | Physical |
[85] * | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index combined with the analytical performance-based approach (AHP) | 6 | Physical |
[86] | Regional and local | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 11 | Physical, Socioeconomic |
[87] * | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 8 | Physical |
[44] * | Regional and local | Erosion | General vulnerability | 13 | Physical, socioeconomic |
[88] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 5 | Physical |
[89] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 8 | Physical |
[90] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 7 | Coastal forcing and coastal features, Socioeconomic subindex |
[59] * | Regional | Erosion | Combined Vulnerability Index | 14 | Terrestrial, marine and climatological variables |
[91] | Local | Erosion | Coastal erosion vulnerability index | 10 | Coastal variables, inland variables |
[92] | Regional | Flooding | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 6 | Physical |
[93] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 6 | Physical |
[94] * | Local | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 5 | Physical |
[95] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | ICVI—Integrated Coastal Vulnerability Index. | 7 | Biophysical, external stressors, socioeconomic |
[6] * | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 15 | Ecological, socioeconomic |
[96] | Local | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 9 | Physical, socioeconomic |
[97] | Local | Flooding and erosion | TVI—Total Vulnerability Index | 11 | Socioeconomic Vulnerability Index, Coastal Vulnerability Index |
[98] | Regional and local | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 6 | Physical |
[70] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 6 | Physical |
[5] * | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Composite Vulnerability Index | 16 | Standardized coastal characteristics vulnerability subindex, Standardized vulnerability to coastal forcing sub-index, Standardized socioeconomic vulnerability subindex |
[99] | Local | Erosion | Coastal dune vulnerability index | 10 | Excessive Scouring Vulnerability Index, Storm Erosion Vulnerability Index |
[100] * | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 9 | Physical |
[101] | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 6 | Physical |
[102] | Local | Flooding and erosion | Vulnerability to the effects of climate change | 8 | Physical and socioeconomic |
[103] * | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 9 | Physical and socioeconomic |
[104] | Regional | Erosion | Coastal erosion vulnerability (CEV) | 32 | Environmental and socioeconomical |
[105] * | Regional | Erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 15 | Physical and socioeconomic |
[106] * | Regional | Flooding and erosion | CV—Coastal Vulnerability | 7 | Physical and environmental |
[107] | Regional and local | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 9 | Physical |
[108] | Local | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 7 | Physical and socioeconomic |
[109] * | Regional and local | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 11 | Physical and geological |
[110] * | Regional | Flooding | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 22 | Physical, climatic and socioeconomic |
[111] | Regional and local | Erosion | CVI—Coastal Vulnerability Index | 6 | Physical and social |
[112] | Regional and local | Flooding and erosion | CVI—Composite vulnerability index | 15 | Biophysical, sensitivity and adaptative capacity |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Cruz-Ramírez, C.J.; Chávez, V.; Silva, R.; Muñoz-Perez, J.J.; Rivera-Arriaga, E. Coastal Management: A Review of Key Elements for Vulnerability Assessment. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 386. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12030386
Cruz-Ramírez CJ, Chávez V, Silva R, Muñoz-Perez JJ, Rivera-Arriaga E. Coastal Management: A Review of Key Elements for Vulnerability Assessment. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2024; 12(3):386. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12030386
Chicago/Turabian StyleCruz-Ramírez, Cesia J., Valeria Chávez, Rodolfo Silva, Juan J. Muñoz-Perez, and Evelia Rivera-Arriaga. 2024. "Coastal Management: A Review of Key Elements for Vulnerability Assessment" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 12, no. 3: 386. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12030386
APA StyleCruz-Ramírez, C. J., Chávez, V., Silva, R., Muñoz-Perez, J. J., & Rivera-Arriaga, E. (2024). Coastal Management: A Review of Key Elements for Vulnerability Assessment. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 12(3), 386. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12030386