Religious Doubts and Emotions Toward God in Adolescents: Relation to Self-Esteem and Meaning in Life

Abstract

Religious doubt (RD) and emotions toward God (EtGs) are areas of religiosity and spirituality that can play a role in the development and well-being of youth. The aim of this study is to investigate whether RD and EtGs are related to self-esteem and meaning in life in adolescents and what factors may be associated with them in a secular setting. A sample of Czech adolescents (n = 984, mean age 16.61, SD 1.21; 28% male) participated in the online survey. We measured RD, EtGs, meaning in life (ML) divided into presence (ML-P) and seeking (ML-S), adolescents’ self-esteem (ASE), faith in the adolescent environment, the perception of religion and church, and religious education (RE). RD and negative EtGs were associated with reduced ML-P. Negative EtGs were associated with a reduction in ASE. However, positive EtGs were associated with an increase in ML-P. Respondents experiencing faith in their environment, having a positive view of church and religion, and enriching RE were more likely to report a decrease in RD and an increase in positive EtGs and vice versa. Our findings suggest that RD and EtGs are related to adolescents’ well-being and point to factors to be adequately addressed to minimize the negative impact of RD and promote positive EtGs.

1. Introduction

There are changes at every stage of life, but youth in particular is characterized by significant changes in cognitive, emotional, and social aspects. With the development of abstract thinking, metacognitive skills, self-identification, and the questioning of existing value systems (Kor et al. 2019), adolescents become more capable of reassessing their understanding of faith and their relationship to the spiritual and sacred (Fowler 1981, 2001; Dew et al. 2020). These transformations affect both religiosity and spirituality—distinct yet overlapping constructs reflecting an individual’s relationship to the sacred (Hill et al. 2000; Donaldson et al. 2019; Zinnbauer et al. 1997). Religiosity and spirituality (R/S) can enhance resilience (Kim and Esquivel 2011), act as protective factors during identity crises (Phillips et al. 2021), and promote positive youth development (Hardy et al. 2019). However, R/S can also have maladaptive effects on adolescent development and may not align with perceived developmental needs (Hardy et al. 2019), potentially leading to a departure from R/S (Good and Willoughby 2008; Lopez et al. 2011). Understanding how R/S dynamics function in youth development is crucial, particularly in situations where they may be maladaptive or associated with a move away from this dimension.

One area of maladaptive R/S is religious doubt (RD). This term refers to uncertainty and the questioning of religious teachings and beliefs (Hunsberger et al. 2002; Krause and Wulff 2004). It can emerge as part of negative religious coping or as a reaction to negative life experiences (Pargament et al. 2000; Exline and Rose 2005). From a developmental psychology perspective, RD may be a component of identity and religious development (Fowler 2001), reflecting cognitive processing, individuality, objectivity, and critical reflection, which contribute to religious identity formation (Marcia 1986) and potentially mature spiritual growth (Ellison et al. 2013). Studies have linked RD to a deepening of personal identity, willingness to help others and with less prejudice (Hunsberger et al. 2001), adaptive coping styles, and cooperative problem-solving (Pargament et al. 1988). However, RD can also be associated with psychological vulnerability, anxiety (Upenieks 2021), existential uncertainty, and reduced well-being (Mrdjenovich 2019). Longitudinal studies have also shown a negative association between RD and well-being, with decreases in self-esteem, life satisfaction, and optimism (Krause 2006), and associations of RD with reduced personal religiosity and a lower tendency to turn to religious sources for solutions (Hunsberger et al. 2002). Thus, it seems essential to identify the circumstances associated with RD and reinforce their positive consequences, which may lead to a strengthening of faith or religious commitment (Kézdy and Boland 2009) as well as the overall well-being of young people.

Krause et al. (Krause et al. 1999; Krause 2006) have pointed out that RD can be viewed as a state of indecision and difficulty in perceiving God as protective and loving in situations where the individual perceives pain and suffering in the world. Similarly, individuals may feel anger and resentment toward God while at the same time believing that this anger or negative feelings toward God are wrong (Exline and Rose 2005). This state of cognitive dissonance can induce depression and anxiety, and states of felt shame and guilt (Abu-Raiya et al. 2011; Krause et al. 2015; Martínez de Pisón 2023), and lead to negative religious coping that further impairs well-being (Exline et al. 2014). Similarly, negative feelings of guilt and fear toward God and the religious community reduce life satisfaction, while, in contrast, feelings of forgiveness alleviate self-blame and improve subjective well-being (Szcześniak et al. 2019). Therefore, emotions toward God (EtGs) that emerge in situations where an adolescent is trying to interpret their experiences in relation to God or the transcendent (Huber and Richard 2010) may be experienced in certain situations as unfavorable and thus in conflict with religious upbringing, the presented teachings of the church, or existing religious beliefs (Exline and Rose 2005) and associated with RD (Krause et al. 1999).

Religious doubt and emotions toward God are closely related to adolescents’ well-being (Hunsberger et al. 2001; Krause et al. 2015), and areas that may be influenced by these dynamics include self-esteem and meaning in life, which have been shown to be significantly related to adolescents’ R/S (Kosarkova and Roubalova 2023). Self-esteem, which represents perceptions of self-worth and sufficiency, is a critical factor that enables young people to take on new challenges, develop relationships, and foster healthy mental development (Rosenberg 1965). Moreover, during adolescence, identity formation associated with the search for meaning is a central process that promotes psychological stability, resilience to stress, and overall life satisfaction (Steger and Shin 2010). Thus, in youth development, self-esteem and meaning in life may be the domains to which doubt and emotions toward God can be related in the adolescent R/S area.

The context in which religiosity develops is crucial for R/S in adolescence (Desmond et al. 2010). Although adolescents gradually perceive themselves as individuals who want to differentiate themselves from other individuals, others may become the starting point for shaping their beliefs and outlooks on life (Brambilla et al. 2015). Vital contextual factors shaping the R/S trajectory of young people include family. Parents’ R/S and practices strongly predict children’s religious salience and relationship with God (Gale et al. 2023; Mahoney 2021). Additionally, parenting style, relationship quality, and family ties can promote children’s religious beliefs and practices, even independent of parents’ religiosity (Hardy et al. 2019). Similarly, peers are influential, as adolescents in religious communities often have friends sharing the same faith (Smith and Denton 2005). These friends can significantly influence religious practices, promote engagement, and contribute to adolescents’ R/S perspective (King et al. 2014; Gale et al. 2023). Lastly, religious upbringing and religious education (RE) can also be factors that shape adolescents’ R/S. They can positively impact personal well-being, self-esteem, and religious coping (Estrada et al. 2019), influence the formation of religiosity (Cohen-Malayev et al. 2014), enhance moral consciousness through internalized religion, and increase awareness of religious beliefs and practices (Estrada et al. 2019). These factors may be linked with adolescents’ R/S in RD and emotions toward God and be resources for coping with doubt, ensuring a positive effect.

Globally, young people are becoming increasingly critical of religion, with studies, particularly from the U.S., showing a decline in religiosity among adolescents and emerging adults in recent decades (Pew Research Centre 2020). Many adolescents abandon public religious practices and avoid identifying with a specific religion, although they may identify as spiritual through a personal relationship with God or a Higher Power (Jensen 2021). Similar trends are observed in Australia, Canada (Halafoff et al. 2020), and Europe (Jensen 2021). The Czech Republic, with high secularization rates and many non-religious individuals, is expected to be 80% non-religious by 2050 (Pew Research Centre 2015). Czech non-believers tend toward individualized forms of religion and can be described as religious skeptics (Vaclavik et al. 2018). Family upbringing and religious education, especially through Church established secondary schools, are important for continuity in Czech religious life (Hamplova and Rehakova 2009). As far as religious education is concerned, it is not compulsory in regular schools that are not established by the Church and is only offered as an optional subject if pupils express an interest in it. It is only taught in a small number of schools, where only about 4% of all pupils attend, and, in secondary schools, religious education is not offered as a subject at all (Myslilová and Kuzniar 2019). The situation is different in Church-established schools, which are predominantly Christian. Some of these schools include religious education as a compulsory subject for all pupils regardless of religion. This situation applies in particular to primary schools and some secondary schools. In these schools, the teaching of religion is then predominantly confessional. In other Church-established secondary schools, religion is taught in this way as an optional subject, in which students enroll on the basis of their own interest or are not offered it at all, and topics related to religion are included in the teaching of social sciences. Moreover, Czech adolescents’ social environments are predominantly secular, leading to a detachment from traditional religiosity and spirituality (Malinakova et al. 2019). The secularization of society and the retreat from churches’ normative positions offer a unique area for R/S research, highlighting factors significant in young people’s religious identity formation.

Based on the information presented in this theoretical background, we assume that during their development in the R/S domain, adolescents may experience religious doubts related to their well-being, particularly in self-esteem and meaning in life. Further, we expect that the environment in which adolescents experience their faith, including their views about church and religion and how religious education is presented to them, be related to their religious doubts and emotions toward God. Therefore, this study aims to explore the links between religious doubts and emotions toward God with self-esteem and the meaning in life among adolescents. Furthermore, we seek to determine whether these aspects can be linked to how adolescents encounter religion in their environment. Through this research, we aim to improve and deepen our understanding of the complex interplay of these factors and their role in young people’s lives.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants and Procedure

The study was conducted in January 2023 and collected data from 984 Czech adolescents aged 15 to 21. The data collection took the form of an online questionnaire that allowed respondents to access and answer the questions easily. The questionnaire was developed at the research site. In the first phase, ten students of different ages participated in a pilot phase to test the clarity of the questions and the ease of recording responses. Based on the comments from the pilot version, problematic sections were edited, and a final version of the questionnaire, which contained 41 items and took approximately half an hour to complete, was created.

In the second phase, the questionnaire was distributed as a cover letter to the management of vocational and secondary schools established by a church or religious society. The letter included basic information about the study and its purpose and a request to provide students with an interactive link to the questionnaire. This was conducted to reach students in schools established by a church or religious society where there is a higher representation of students who identify as religious. Therefore, there was an expectation of obtaining sufficient data from the R/S area. However, in the schools that participated in the research, students are admitted regardless of their religious affiliation, and there are no strict religious requirements for admission or study. Students who do not subscribe to any church make up a large proportion of the student body.

Completing the questionnaire was voluntary, and participation or non-participation had no consequences for the students. At the beginning of the survey, participants received written information about the purpose of the study and the anonymous data processing and were familiarized with the system. Respondents had to give their informed consent to participate explicitly and were free to leave the study at any time without providing a reason. The design of the study was approved by the ethics committee of the Faculty of Theology, Palacký University, in Olomouc.

A total of 992 students participated in the study. However, respondents who did not complete the questionnaire, did not fill out some items completely, or gave inconsistent response patterns, such as giving a too-high age or answering most of the questionnaire items in the same way, were excluded. After excluding these problematic subjects (n = 8), complete data were obtained from 984 respondents (mean age = 16.61, SD = 1.21; 28% male).

2.2. Measures

All items used were presented in the Czech language. Socio-demographic data such as gender, age, type of school, and year of study were obtained via the questionnaire.

Faith was measured using the following question: “At present, would you call yourself a believer?” with the available answers: “Yes, I am a member of a church or religious society”; “Yes, but I am not a member of a church or religious society”; “no”; “no, I am a convinced atheist”. Participants who answered “yes” were treated as believers for our purposes.

Religious doubts were measured using The Religious Doubts Scale developed by Altemeyer (Hill and Hood 1999; Altemeyer 1988). This scale measures the degree to which individuals experience doubts about traditional religious beliefs and teachings, offering insights into not only the intellectual aspect of doubt, such as feeling that religious teachings are contradictory, but also doubts arising from personal experiences, which may challenge beliefs in a benevolent deity. Thus, the scale can be a valuable tool for examining how these doubts interact with other aspects of religiosity and psychological well-being. The scale consists of ten items that allow respondents to reflect on existential and intellectual conflicts related to religious teachings. Examples of items from the RDS include “Doubts that religious writings, such as the Bible, could really be the word of God, because the writings seemed contradictory, irrational, or wrong” or “The feeling that religion exists basically because people are afraid of death and want to believe life does not end there”. Respondents rate the degree of their agreement with the specific feelings or doubts they may experience on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “definitely disagree” (1) to “definitely agree” (5). A higher score indicates stronger religious doubts. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.93 showed an excellent reliability of the scale in our study.

Emotions toward God were assessed by the 16-item Inventory of Emotions toward God (Huber and Richard 2010). The scale consists of emotions that individuals are most likely to experience in relation to their religiosity and has two orthogonal factors: positive emotions (e.g., trust, protection, joy) and negative emotions (e.g., guilt, shame, anger). The inventory operationalizes the intensity of emotions according to the frequency of situations in which they are perceived. Respondents rate each item on a five-point Likert scale according to how often they feel each emotion in relation to God, ranging from “never” (1) to “very often” (5). While religious respondents described how often they experience situations where they feel the given emotions toward God, the non-believing respondents were asked how often they feel these emotions toward a Higher Power or Destiny. This approach was chosen because non-religious respondents could not be asked directly about emotions toward a god they do not believe in. However, their responses can capture the emotions they experience concerning the sacred and thus may offer a certain image of emotions to what they imagine as God (Bradley et al. 2015). The responses are summed and divided by 16 so that the higher scores indicate a higher frequency of the emotion experienced by the respondent (Huber and Richard 2010). Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the EtGs in our study was computed at =0.03 for positive emotions and =0.88 for negative, which signifies great internal consistency.

Self-esteem was measured using the Adolescent Self-Esteem Questionnaire (ASQ) (Hafekost et al. 2017). The scale consists of 12 items developed to measure self-esteem among adolescents. The ASQ includes positively and negatively worded items rated on a five-point Likert scale. For the first six questions, respondents chose their answers from a scale ranging from “almost all of the time” (1) to “hardly ever” (5) in order of frequency of occurrence. For the following six questions, they selected answers according to their level of agreement with the item, with options ranging from “strongly agree” (1) to “strongly disagree” (5). Positively worded items were reverse-coded. All items were summed according to the technical report of the scale (Hafekost et al. 2017) to determine an individual’s self-esteem score, where a higher score reflects higher levels of self-esteem. Accordingly, the respondents with the higher scores were dichotomized as having higher self-esteem (1), and the rest were considered to have lower self-esteem (0). The Cronbach alpha in our sample showed a good consistency with a value of 0.80.

Meaning in life was assessed by the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) developed and revised by Steger (Steger and Shin 2010). This instrument consists of ten items that are divided into two subscales. The first subscale, Meaning in Life Presence (ML-P), measures the presence of meaning in life and refers to how individuals perceive the abundance of meaning in their lives. The second subscale, Finding Meaning in Life (ML-S), measures the extent to which individuals actively seek meaning in life and captures their motivation and engagement in this search. The frequency of applicability of each item is rated on a seven-point scale ranging from absolutely “false” (1) to “absolutely true” (7), with one item in the ML-S section rated in reverse. For the purpose of our analysis, we followed the approach of the author of the scale (Steger 2010); after summing the scores on each subscale, the respondents with a score above 24 on the ML-P were considered to have the presence of meaning in life, and, similarly, respondents with a score above 24 on the ML-S were considered to be actively searching for meaning in life. Both scales have great internal consistency in our sample with Cronbach’s alpha, with values of 0.86 for the ML-P subscale and 0.92 for the ML-S.

Faith in the adolescent environment was surveyed using five questions to capture the young person’s situation regarding faith in their immediate neighborhood. These questions were answered only by those respondents who, in the previous question on faith, had described themselves as believers. The statements were partially adapted from the study by Donaldson et al. (Donaldson et al. 2019). Respondents answered using a scale of agreement (“definitely yes” = 5) or disagreement (“definitely no” = 1) to what extent the statements were relevant to their situation. The statements were related to family, e.g., “I was raised in the faith”, or friends, e.g., “I have friends with whom I can discuss religious or spiritual issues”. For statistical analysis, each item was dichotomized so that respondents who declared an agreement with a statement were considered as having the given experience of faith in their close environment.

Perceptions of religion and church were explored through questions about attitudes that young people may have toward religion or the church. Respondents expressed their agreement with the statements inspired by the study of Singleton at al. (Singleton et al. 2019), e.g., “Church strikes me as a dull and outdated institution” and “I generally perceive religion in our country positively”. Respondents were asked to express to what extent, on a scale of “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5), their view coincides with the statements above. Respondents who agreed with the statement were dichotomized as having a given view regarding religion and faith.

Religious education and adolescents’ attitudes toward it were addressed by the initial question, “Do you attend religious education classes at school?” to which respondents answered “yes” (1) or “no” (0). If their answer was yes, they were also asked to answer the following questions related to religious education (Singleton et al. 2019), e.g., “Religious education provides me with important knowledge and promotes human development” and “Religious education should provide space for discussion”. Respondents agreed with each statement on a 5-point scale ranging from “strongly agree” (1) to “strongly disagree” (5). Respondents who agreed with the statement were dichotomized as having a given opinion on religious education.

2.3. Statistical Analyses

All analyses were performed using the statistical software package IBM SPSS version 25 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). After excluding missing data or inconsistently completed responses, data distribution was checked using skewness and kurtosis statistics to see how much the variables deviate from the standard curve. The next stage of our statistical analysis was to calculate the descriptive statistics of the study variables. The differences in the basic characteristics and the observed categorical variables were assessed using the Chi-square test to compare different sociodemographic groups.

In the following stage, we used binary logistic regression models to assess the associations of RD and positive and negative EtGs with meaning in life, performed separately for each subscale (i.e., search and meaning) and with adolescents’ self-esteem, both crude and adjusted for age and gender. The following steps assessed the associations of faith in adolescents’ environment, views on religion and church, and religious education. In the first step, we explored links of faith in a young person’s environment with RD, positive EtGs, and negative EtGs. The views on religion and church and their links to RD, positive EtGs, and negative EtGs were assessed in the following step. Finally, we used a binary logistic model to evaluate religious education’s associations and opinions with RD, positive EtGs, and negative EtGs. These models were assessed both crude and adjusted for age and gender. Numeric variables in the analyses were standardized to Z-scores.

3. Results

3.1. Description of the Population

The background characteristics of the sample are presented in

Table 1. Description of the sample.

	Total		Religious Doubts			Emotions Toward God
						Positive			Negative
	n	%	n	%		n	%		n	%
Sex
male	278	28.3	135	26.9	n.s.	128	27.0	n.s.	118	29.6	n.s.
female	706	71.7	366	73.1		346	73.0		280	70.4
Age
15	183	18.6	107	21.4		77	16.3		86	21.6
16	346	35.2	157	31.4	p < 0.5	177	37.4	n.s.	138	34.7	n.s.
17	209	21.2	100	20.0		99	20.9		82	20.6
18	167	16.9	93	18.6		85	18.0		62	15.6
19–21	79	8.0	43	8.6		35	7.4		30	7.5
Education
Grammar school	684	69.5	357	71.3	n.s.	327	69.0	n.s.	266	66.8	n.s.
High school with graduation	298	30.3	143	28.5		146	30.8		131	32.9
Vocational school	2	0.2	1	0.2		1	0.2		1	0.3
Year of study
1st year a	360	36.6	196	39.1		62	34.2		161	40.5
2nd year a	260	26.4	113	22.6	p < 0.5	131	27.6	n.s.	103	25.9	n.s.
3rd year a	194	19.7	97	19.4		102	21.5		79	19.8
4rd year a	170	17.3	95	19.0		79	16.7		55	13.8
Religiosity b
Believer, church member	381	38.7	103	20.6		296	62.4		153	38.4	n.s.
Believer outside a church	176	17.9	87	17.4	p < 0.001	101	21.3	p < 0.001	30	178
Non-believer	359	36.5	259	51.7		72	15.2		139	34.9
Convinced atheist	68	6.9	52	10.4		5	1.1		26	6.5
Total	984	100	501	50.9		474	48.2		398	40.4

Notes: ^a plus the corresponding year of a multi-year grammar school; ^b independently of church attendance; n.s. non-significant.

. From the whole sample (n = 984, mean age = 16.61, SD = 1.21; 28% male), 501 respondents (50.9%) reported having religious doubts present in their lives. Furthermore, 474 participants (48.2%) stated that they have positive emotions toward God, while negative emotions were reported by 398 (40.4%) participants. A comparison of the socio-demographic groups did not reveal any significant differences regarding sex and attending school. However, regarding age and the year of study, the comparison revealed a significant difference (p < 0.05) for respondents with religious doubts. Moreover, the respondents differed very significantly in religiosity (p < 0.001) for religious doubts and positive emotions toward God.

3.2. Meaning in Life and Self-Esteem

The results of the binary logistic regression crude and adjusted for gender and age aimed at the associations between religious doubts and emotions toward God, both positive and negative, with ML-P, ML-S, and ASE, are depicted in

Table 2. Associations of religious doubts and positive and negative emotions toward God (standardized to Z-scores) with meaning in life, both presence and search and adolescent self-esteem: results of binary logistic regression crude and adjusted for age and gender leading to odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals.

		Meaning in Life—Presence	Meaning in Life—Search	Self-Esteem
RD	crude	0.72 (0.62–0.82) ***	0.99 (0.87–1.12)	0.92 (0.81–1.05)
	adjusted	0.71 (0.62–0.82) ***	0.99 (0.87–1.12)	0.92 (0.81–1.05)
Positive EtGs	crude	1.66 (1.44–1.91) ***	1.36 (1.19–1.54) ***	1.24 (1.09–1.41) ***
	adjusted	1.67 (1.45–1.93) ***	1.36 (1.20–1.55) ***	1.26 (1.11–1.44) ***
Negative EtGs	crude	0.76 (0.66–0.88) ***	1.11 (0.98–1.26)	0.86 (0.76–0.98) *
	adjusted	0.77 (0.66–0.89) ***	1.11 (0.98–1.26)	0.87 (0.76–0.99) *

Notes: * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.

. We found that ML-P was significantly related to all assessed variables, both increased and decreased awareness of the presence of meaning. Respondents who reported RD and those with negative EtGs were significantly more likely to report reduced ML-P, with ORs 1.71 (0.62–0.82) for RD and 0.77 (0.66–0.89) for negative EtGs. On the contrary, positive EtGs were linked to an increased presence of meaning with OR 1.67 (1.45–1.93). Positive associations were also found for positive EtGs and searching for meaning in life. Particularly, those with positive EtGs were significantly associated with this subscale, with OR 1.36 (1.20–1.55) for the adjusted model. No significant associations were found for ML-S and RD and negative EtGs.

Moreover, results regarding associations of RD and EtGs with self-esteem showed no links with RD. However, assessing EtGs revealed that both positive and negative emotions are associated with self-esteem. In detail, respondents had a significantly higher increase in the odds of ASE with positive EtGs, OR 1.26 (1.11–1.44), and a significant decrease with negative EtGs, OR 0.87 (0.76–0.99), both in the adjusted model.

3.3. Faith in the Adolescent Environment

Table 3. Associations of faith in the adolescent environment (FAE) with religious doubts and positive and negative emotions toward God: results of binary logistic regression leading to odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals.

	Religious Doubts	Emotions Toward God—Positive	Emotions Toward God—Negative
FAE1	0.37 (0.23–0.57) ***	2.59 (1.64–4.10) ***	1.00 (0.64–1.56)
FAE2	0.43 (0.27–0.68) ***	1.69 (1.04–2.73) *	0.84 (0.53–1.34)
FAE3	0.45 (0.27–0.76) **	2.17 (1.28–3.66) **	0.62 (0.37–1.02)
FAE4	0.36 (0.24–0.55) ***	2.30 (1.48–3.56) ***	0.96 (0.63–1.45)
FAE5	0.50 (0.31–0.81) **	2.69 (1.65–4.36) ***	0.88 (0.55–1.42)

Notes: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. FAE1 = I would describe at least one parent as living their faith/spiritual life; FAE2 = I was raised in the faith; FAE3 = I can discuss religious or spiritual matters with family members and friends: FAE4 = Many of my friends have an active faith/spiritual life; FAE5 = I have friends with whom I can discuss religious or spiritual issues.

presents binary logistic regression results assessing faith in the adolescent environment with RD and EtGs. Variables were assessed both crude and adjusted for age and gender. However, the results showed either no or only minimal, isolated differences between crude and adjustment, presenting only crude results. The results obtained from the regression model revealed that faith in the adolescent environment has significant associations with RD. Specifically, whether adolescents have believing parents or friends, whether they discuss their faith with them, and whether their upbringing in the faith was associated with a highly significant decrease in RD, with ORs ranging from 0.36 (0.24–0.55) for having believing friends to 0.50 (0.31–0.81) for discussing faith with friends.

Furthermore, all variables examined within the faith in the adolescent environment section were significantly associated with an increase in positive EtGs. Notably, respondents who discuss their faith with friends were more likely to report positive EtGs with OR 2.69 (1.47–3.57). A similar high chance of positive EtGs was found among youth with religious parents, OR 2.59 (1.64–4.10). On the contrary, no significant associations were found between faith in adolescent environments and negative EtGs.

3.4. Adolescents’ Perception of Religion and Church

Table 4. Associations of adolescents’ perception of religion and church (PRC) with religious doubts and positive and negative emotions toward God: results of binary logistic regression leading to odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals.

	Religious Doubts	Emotions Toward God—Positive	Emotions Toward God—Negative
PRC1	2.44 (1.83–3.24) ***	0.55 (0.41–0.72) ***	0.93 (0.71–1.22)
PRC2	0.30 (0.20–0.44) ***	3.79 (2.53–5.67) ***	0.86 (0.61–1.21)
PRC3	0.46 (0.35–0.60) ***	1.98 (1.51–2.60) ***	0.99 (0.76–1.30)
PRC4	2.66 (2.03–3.49) ***	0.60 (0.46–0.78) ***	1.00 (0.77–1.31)
PRC5	2.61 (1.90–3.59) ***	0.41 (0.30–0.56) ***	1.10 (0.82–1.48)

Notes: *** p < 0.001. PRC1 = The church strikes me as a dull and outdated institution; PRC2 = For me, the church (priest, pastoral worker, religious person) is the preferred option I would turn to in case of problems; PRC3 = I generally perceive religion in our country positively; PRC4 = People with religious beliefs are often intolerant of others; PRC5 = Religion causes more problems in society than it solves.

depicts the associations of adolescents’ views on religion and church with RD and EtGs. The Binary logistic regression results are presented crudely because adjudication for sex and age showed no differences in results. All examined areas of young people’s views showed significant (p < 0.001) association with RD in their increase and decrease. Specifically, positive views of the church were associated with lower odds of RD, with OR 0.30 (0.20–0.44) for perceiving the church as the preferred option to turn to in times of crisis and OR 0.46 (0.35–0.60) for a positive perception of the church. In contrast, opposing views on the church or religion were linked to a significant increase in RD, with ORs ranging from 2.44 (1.83–3.24) for the view of the church as a dull and outdated institution to 2.66 (2.03–3.49) for seeing religious people as intolerant.

Similarly, significant associations were found between all the variables examined and positive EtGs. The strongest positive association was found in perceiving the church as the preferred option to address problems, where young people with this view have a 3.8 higher chance of positive EtGs. On the contrary, the most reduced chance, OR 0.41 (0.30–0.56), of positive EtGs was found in association with the view that religion causes more societal problems than it solves. We found no significant associations for any of the assessed variables with negative EtGs.

3.5. Religious Education

The results of binary logistic regression assessing RE with RD and EtGs are presented in

Table 5. Associations of religious education (RE) with religious doubts and positive and negative emotions toward God: results of binary logistic regression leading to odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals.

	Religious Doubts	Emotions Toward God—Positive	Emotions Toward God—Negative
RE1	0.86 (0.61–1.23)	1.69 (1.18–2.41) **	0.79 (0.56–1.12)
RE2 a	0.29 (0.21–0.42) ***	2.98 (2.11–4.21) ***	0.91 (0.65–1.28)
RE3 a	2.51 (1.84–3.43) ***	0.39 (0.29–0.53) ***	0.95 (0.70–1.29)
RE4 a	3.19 (2.36–4.31) ***	0.29 (0.21–0.39) ***	0.82 (0.62–1.10)
RE5 a	1.29 (0.61–2.73)	1.47 (0.69–3.13)	0.25 (0.11–0.57) ***

Notes: ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. a = Respondents were only those who received Religious Education at school, n = 843. RE1 = Having RE at school; RE2 = Religious education provides me with important knowledge and promotes human development; RE3 = Religious education does not answer my questions about faith; RE4 = Religious education does not make me think about important things in my life; RE5 = Religious education should provide space for discussion.

. The results obtained from this regression model showed that having RE at school was only associated with a higher chance of having positive EtGs with OR 1.69 (1.18–2.41). Regarding adolescents’ views on RE, it has been shown that if teaching is not responsive and does not lead to thinking, it is significantly associated with a higher chance of RD, with OR 3.19 (2.3–4.31) for RE that does not lead to thinking about life. Similarly, strong associations were found between these two variables and decreased chance of positive EtGs. In contrast, RE that provides important knowledge and promotes human development was linked to a lower chance of RD, OR 0.29 (0.21–0.42), but a higher chance of positive EtGs, OR 2.98 (2.11–4.21). Interestingly, the opinion that RE should provide space for discussion was only significantly (p < 0.001) linked to a lower chance of having negative EtGs with OR 0.25 (0.11–0.57).

4. Discussion

The study aimed to explore the relationships between religious doubt and emotions toward God and their links to meaning in life and self-esteem among adolescents. It also examined whether these aspects may be linked to how adolescents confront religion in their environment. It was revealed that religious doubts and emotions toward God, both positive and negative, are associated with meaning in life and adolescent self-esteem. Particularly, religious doubts and negative emotions were associated with a lower chance of the presence of meaning in life. Negative emotions toward God were further found to also be connected to decreased self-esteem. On the contrary, positive emotions were significantly associated with a higher likelihood of experiencing meaning in life and self-esteem. Furthermore, we found that the beliefs around adolescents, their view of church and religion, and their religious instruction were associated with religious doubt and emotions toward God.

We have observed that higher levels of RD were linked to more intense searching for meaning and lower self-esteem. These findings align with previous research suggesting that RD may catalyze deeper existential exploration, which is crucial for adolescents in identity formation (Krause 2006; Exline et al. 2014). RD can play a constructive role in religious and identity development, reflecting cognitive processing, individuality, objectivity, and critical reflection (Fowler 2001), contribute to identity formation (Marcia 1986), and can facilitate mature spiritual growth, as RD encourages adolescents to actively examine their beliefs, which is a key process in achieving a stable religious identity (Ellison et al. 2013). However, such exploration can be accompanied by psychological difficulties, including increased anxiety or low self-esteem, where unresolved doubts can disrupt mental well-being (Galek et al. 2015). This can be further linked to negative feelings leading to lower self-esteem, reduced life satisfaction, and increased depressive symptoms (Hunsberger et al. 2002). The relationship between RD and life’s meaning may also reflect spiritual growth dynamics, where doubts are a driver for seeking more profound meaning and understanding (Park 2013). RD can help to strengthen personal identity and contribute to cooperative problem-solving and a deeper commitment to one’s faith (Pargament et al. 1988; Kézdy and Boland 2009). Nevertheless, this process also can be challenging, potentially leading to a temporary decline in self-esteem before achieving a new, more stable perception of life’s meaning. Thus, although RD can theoretically encourage deeper spiritual exploration (Ellison et al. 2013; Krause et al. 1999), they often result in decreased psychological well-being and increased psychological challenges (Krause 2006; Kézdy et al. 2011) as well as negative EtGs, which can lead to feelings of alienation and existential uncertainty that may further correlate with reduced self-esteem and a disrupted sense of life’s meaning, as demonstrated by our findings. Conversely, positive EtGs can serve as a protective factor that enhances a sense of meaning and self-esteem. A positive relationship with God, often linked to feelings of spiritual support and certainty, may strengthen both a sense of meaning in life and self-esteem (Kosarkova and Roubalova 2023). This protective effect could be explained by the notion that positive religious experiences provide spiritual support and stability, mitigating uncertainties associated with RD (George et al. 2000). Thus, the contrast between RD and negative EtGs on one hand and positive EtGs on the other suggests that the quality of spiritual experiences and perceptions of God can have differentiated impacts on psychological and spiritual development during adolescence.

Moreover, our findings contribute to a deeper understanding of factors associated with RD and EtGs. We have found a significant connection with faith in the immediate environment of adolescents. Adolescents raised in religious families and those discussing faith with their parents and/or friends have a significantly lower likelihood of RD. This finding aligns with research confirming the crucial role of parents and peers in the religious socialization of adolescents (Regnerus et al. 2004), emphasizing that family upbringing and religious role models are strong predictors of religious development. Furthermore, discussions about faith with friends significantly increase the likelihood of positive EtGs, highlighting the importance of peer groups in shaping religious identity and the emotional relationship with God, as shown previously (Brambilla et al. 2015). Conversely, the absence of significant associations between the religious environment and negative EtGs suggests that such negative emotions may be influenced by other factors, such as personal experiences or conflicts with religious communities, as supported by research indicating the complexity of influences in shaping negative religious emotions (Exline et al. 2011). Our findings diverge from studies suggesting that parental influence on religious identity and doubts diminish in favor of more substantial peer influence (Arnett and Jensen 2002), or a lifestyle leading to decreased religious engagement and increased doubts (Uecker et al. 2007). Instead, our results indicate that in a secular environment, the family plays a crucial role in shaping religious attitudes and emotions alongside peers, consistent with theories of religious socialization (Regnerus et al. 2004). Thus, the adolescent environments where religious values are transmitted and shared can create a stable foundation for personal faith (Mahoney 2021), supporting positive religious attitudes and limiting doubts.

Another area where significant associations with RD and EtGs were found is adolescents’ perceptions of religion and churches. The finding that negative attitudes toward the church and religion are strongly associated with a higher likelihood of RD is consistent with previous research showing that religious doubts often lead to a decline in personal religiosity and a tendency to consult anti-religious sources (Hunsberger et al. 2001). Negative perceptions of religion can cause cognitive dissonance and negative emotions, such as guilt and shame, which contribute to psychological discomfort and reduce overall well-being (Abu-Raiya et al. 2015; Krause 2006). On the contrary, the finding that perceiving the church as a place to turn to in difficult times is associated with reduced RD and increased positive emotions aligns with research emphasizing the role of religious communities as sources of emotional support and positive coping with stress and points to the importance of anchored religious identity, which can bring greater well-being and stability (Hunsberger et al. 2001; Kosarkova and Roubalova 2023). The absence of significant associations between negative EtGs and any examined attitudes suggests that such emotions may be influenced by factors other than perceptions of religion and the church. We may see the role of personal experience and background, the quality of relationships in particular religious communities, or social influences that may contribute to the formation of the image of God (Kosarkova et al. 2020) and related emotions. This highlights the need for a deeper exploration of variables that may influence negative EtGs, as suggested by studies examining cognitive dissonance and religious doubts (Yali et al. 2019; Exline et al. 2011).

Furthermore, our results show that religious education, particularly its content and style, is also associated with RD and EtGs. Our analysis indicates that RE providing knowledge that adolescents perceive as relevant to their lives and fosters critical thinking is associated with a lower likelihood of RD and a higher likelihood of positive EtGs. This underscores the importance of meaningful RE in shaping adolescents’ religious identity and strengthening religious beliefs (Cohen-Malayev et al. 2014; Uecker 2009) and suggests that RE can contribute to young people’s well-being by fostering religious coping mechanisms and moral development (Estrada et al. 2019). Our findings partially diverge from some research pointing to RE’s limited or indirect influence on young people’s religious development, where RE may not always lead to deeper religious engagement or a stronger religious identity (Mayrl and Uecker 2011). However, the studies also suggest that the relationship between RE and religious identity development may be related to the specific content of the curriculum, its style, and the role of the educator (Cohen-Malayev et al. 2014), which our findings support. It seems that even in a secular environment, RE may offer students answers to their search, especially if they come from a non-religious background and are associated with lower RD and, thus, better well-being.

Interestingly, regarding the style of RE, it was found that perceiving RE as a suitable space for discussion is only associated with a reduced likelihood of negative EtGs but does not significantly affect RD or positive EtGs. It could be inferred that while discussions in RE allow students to express and process their doubts and concerns, they do not necessarily alter their overall religious stance or enhance positive emotions. This effect may be more focused on mitigating negative emotions, such as anger or frustration toward God, which often stem from unresolved internal conflicts and cognitive dissonance (Exline et al. 2011). Furthermore, discussions may offer a safe environment for the venting and constructive processing of these emotions, potentially leading to their reduction. However, mere discussion may not be a sufficiently strong stimulus to influence RD or significantly foster positive EtGs. For these purposes, the content of RE—specifically whether it provides relevant knowledge, encourages critical thinking, and offers answers to questions of faith—appears to be more important. This content should guide students to more profound reflections on life and their faith (Cohen-Malayev et al. 2014; Estrada et al. 2019; Uecker 2009). This suggests combining discussions with high-quality educational content that can effectively address questions of faith and support comprehensive religious development.

4.1. Strengths and Limitations

This study has several strengths worth mentioning, mainly the use of a large sample with an extremely high response rate, where the questionnaires administered as part of the study additionally contain no missing data values. This study analyzes the relationship between RD and EtGs and their relationship to adolescents’ perception of meaning in life and self-esteem, as well as highlights factors that may be associated with RD and EtGs. The results are consistent with and extend existing research by finding that RD and EtGs may be associated with adolescents’ existential exploration and self-esteem even in secular settings. The study also integrates various factors such as family, peer, and RE influences, contributing to a comprehensive view of adolescents’ religious development and highlighting the importance of social context in forming religious identity.

However, there are also a few limits. It should be mentioned that the study does not offer transparent causal relationships between the factors studied, which is related to the study’s cross-sectional design and, therefore, limits the possibility of drawing clear conclusions. In this context, the limitation may be that the data are derived from adolescents’ self-assessments. This may introduce bias as respondents underestimate or overestimate their religious doubts and emotions for various reasons. Additionally, we recognize that the questions used to categorize adolescents by their faith were relatively basic; more in-depth questions could provide a fuller understanding and should be considered in follow-up studies. Finally, in our study, we do not distinguish between different groups with varying levels of religious experiences, religious involvement or spirituality; this may also limit the completeness of the understanding of adolescents’ religious experiences and could potentially mask the difference in how religious doubts and emotions function in these distinct groups. This limitation highlights the need for further research that examines religious doubts and emotions toward God separately in religious and non-religious adolescents to better capture the nuances of these experiences.

4.2. Implications

Our findings underscore the profound connection between RD and EtGs, as well as the role they play in adolescents’ sense of meaning in life and self-esteem. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for those working with adolescents, particularly in educational and counselling settings, where addressing religious and existential questions can play a vital role in supporting young people’s psychological development. Moreover, the findings of this study on the role of family and peers in religious socialization suggest that these factors should be carefully considered in any intervention or counselling provided to adolescents. In addition, the research highlights the importance of young people’s perceptions of church and religious education, as this can significantly influence their religious development and emotional well-being. Suppose parents, educators, and pastoral care providers are aware of the impact of these perceptions on religious identity and emotional well-being. In that case, they can better support adolescents in navigating their spiritual journey.

The research also suggests that negative EtGs did not significantly correlate with the attitudes examined, indicating that other factors may influence these emotions. These findings highlight the need for further investigation of different factors influencing negative EtGs, as suggested by studies on cognitive dissonance and RD.

5. Conclusions

Religious doubts and emotions toward God play an important role in shaping adolescents’ sense of meaning in life and self-esteem. By navigating these experiences, adolescents gain a deeper understanding of themselves, contributing to their psychological well-being. Fostering positive emotions toward God and constructively addressing doubts can benefit adolescents’ self-esteem and help them cope with life’s challenges. In addition, our study also shows that trusting parents and peers and being able to talk to them about their faith is a factor significantly associated with less doubt and, in turn, positive emotions toward God for teens. Similarly, positive perceptions of church and religion and meaningful religious instruction are associated with significantly lower doubts and positive emotions.

Conversely, negative perceptions of church and religion and religious education that do not offer answers to young people’s questions are significantly associated with higher levels of doubt and a decrease in positive emotions. Thus, this study provides a deep understanding of the factors that may play a role in religious doubt and emotions toward God and how these relate to perceptions of meaning in life and self-esteem. It emphasizes the importance of adequately addressing adolescents’ religious and spiritual issues in order to minimize religious doubts’ negative impact and promote positive emotions toward God.