Passiflora By-Products: Chemical Profile and Potential Use as Cosmetic Ingredients

Abstract

The cosmetics industry is constantly growing and occupies an important place in South American countries’ economies. Formulations increasingly incorporate ingredients from natural sources to promote sustainable and innovative productions, as well as to gain greater consumer acceptance. According to FAO, waste from post-harvest and food processing in developing countries exceeds 40%, generating significant environmental impacts and stimulating interest in adding value to these wastes, particularly in the fruit and vegetable sector in South American countries, thus contributing to the achievement of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By-products from harvesting and fruit processing of Passiflora species such as leaves, stems, peel, and seeds are a source of bioactive compounds; however, most of them are wasted. This study aims to compile reports on the chemical composition of cultivated Passiflora species, find evidence of the cosmetic activity of their extracts, and estimate their potential for inclusion in cosmetic formulations.

1. Introduction

The cosmetics industry in Latin America is led by Brazil, Mexico, and Colombia. In Colombia, it ranks ninth in terms of national production, demonstrating the strength of this sector in the country. Moreover, the cosmetic industry in Colombia is constantly growing and has the potential to become a global leader in both production and exports, according to the vision outlined in the Business Plan supported by the Chamber of Cosmetics and Toiletries Industry of the National Association of Industrialists (Cámara de Industria de Cosméticos y Aseo de la Asociación Nacional de Industriales-ANDI) [1].

This vision highlights the vast biodiversity of Colombia and northern South America, which enables the incorporation of natural ingredients in innovative cosmetic formulations, while maintaining the commitment of the sector to sustainability and the responsible use of biodiversity. Consequently, interest in utilizing the waste generated by the national horticultural production, which reached 10.8 million tons in 2018 with approximately half categorized as waste, has increased. Among this production, the cultivation of Passiflora genus plants ranks eighth in terms of the highest annual production in Colombia [2]. In addition, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by Colombia and outlined in the UN 2030 Agenda, which include responsible production and consumption, provide a framework within which utilizing the by-products of these crops can serve as a strategy to achieve these objectives. [3].

The genus Passiflora comprises more than 530 species distributed mainly in the “new world” in tropical and warm regions of the Americas, as well as in some parts of South Asia [4]. Among these species, approximately 50–60 produce edible fruits. The northwestern region of South America, due to its climate and its different thermal floors, hosts the greatest diversity of plants from the Passiflora genus with approximately 170 species, including both cultivated and wild species, in Colombia [5]. Passiflora genus plants are used for nutritional, medicinal, and ornamental purposes [6,7]. Currently, six plants from the Passiflora genus are highly commercialized in Colombia, which is of great economic importance both nationally and regionally: Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa Degener (passion fruit, yellow passion fruit); Passiflora ligularis Juss (Granadilla); Passiflora edulis f. edulis Sims (gulupa, purple passion fruit); curuba or banana passion fruit (in two varieties: Passiflora tarminiana (Indian curuba) and Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima (curuba de Castilla)); Passiflora maliformis (cholupa); and Passiflora quadrangularis Linneaus (badea, giant granadilla).

Thus, the objective of this literature review is to compile the available information on the chemical composition of the different parts of the plants from Passiflora genus cultivated in Colombia (pulp, leaves, stems, seeds) to find evidence of the cosmetic activity of their extracts, as well as to estimate their potential to be included in cosmetic formulations, focusing mainly on the species that have not yet been reviewed but are of economic and agricultural importance: gulupa (P. edulis f. Edulis), granadilla (P. ligularis), curuba (P. tarminiana and P. mollissima), cholupa (P. maliformis), and badea (P. quadrangularis). The yellow passion fruit (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa) is not included in Supplementary Information (SI) Table S1 because there are several reviews of its chemistry and biological activity [6,7]; however, its chemical composition is briefly described in Section 3.3.1.

On the other hand, this review discusses the cosmetic activity reported in the literature for extracts of different parts (pulp, leaves, stems, seeds) of the mentioned plants, including skin-conditioning, skin-protecting, antioxidant, and humectant properties. It also covers the compounds characterized in each of the species, such as p-coumaric acid, quercetin, rutin, ferulic acid, caffeic acid (bleaching activity), and resveratrol, piceatannol, (+)-catechin (photoprotection activity), among others. From this, it is intended to demonstrate the potential use of crop residues in the cosmetic industry, identify the lack of information that exists in the characterization of plants from the Passiflora genus cultivated in Colombia and in northern South America, and provide the basis for new lines of research that allow the valorization of these residues.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plants from the Passiflora Genus Grown in Colombia and Northern South America

Information about the most cultivated Plassiflora species in Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela was collected. In the case of Colombia, the information was taken from the website of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development), which reports a database generated by the Municipal Agricultural and Livestock Evaluations (Evaluaciones Agropecuarias Municipales, EVA Database) [8,9]. For the other countries, the information was obtained from some studies cited later. This information is reported in Section 3.1 and in Figure 1.

2.2. Cosmetic Function and Chemical Composition of Plants from Passiflora Genus

A simple search in the CosIng database interface (CosIng database), using the keyword “Passiflora”, allowed for the construction of Table 1 and Section 3.2, which include species, part of plant use, names in the CosIng database, and cosmetic functions. For the construction of the chemical composition table (Table 2), related scientific articles indexed in the Scopus and SciELO databases were compiled using keywords such as “Passiflora ligularis”, “Passiflora tarminiana”, “granadilla”, “banana passion fruit” “chemical composition”, “chemical profile”, “phytochemical profile”, “phytochemical analysis”, “bioactive compounds” with the Boolean operators “AND”, “OR”, “NOT”. Other data, such as compound name, analytical methodology used for identification, CAS number, molecular formula, and exact mass were taken from ChemSpider and PubChem databases [10,11].

Table 1. Extracts or products reported in the CosIng database related to species of the Passiflora genus [12].

Species	Part of Plant	Name	CosIng Function
Passiflora edulis	Flower	P. edulis flower extract	Skin conditioning
	Fruit	Botrytis Cinerea/P. edulis Fruit Extract/Piceatannol Ferment Lysate Filtrate	Hair conditioning
	Fruit	Hydrolyzed P. edulis fruit juice extract	Humectant Skin conditioning
	Fruit	P. edulis fruit	Skin conditioning
	Fruit	P. edulis fruit extract	Skin conditioning
	Fruit	P. edulis fruit juice	Skin conditioning
	Fruit	P. edulis fruit water	-
	Peel	P. edulis peel extract	Humectant
	Pulp	Leuconostoc/P. edulis Pulp/Soy Protein Ferment Lysate Filtrate	Skin conditioning
	Seed	Hydrogenated P. edulis Seed Oil	Skin conditioning Skin conditioning–emollient
	Seed	P. edulis seed acid (fatty acids)	Bleaching Surfactant–emulsifying
	Seed	P. edulis seed extract	Skin conditioning
	Seed	P. edulis seed oil	Skin conditioning– emollient
	Seed	P. edulis seed oils PEG-8 Esters	Hair conditioning–Skin conditioning
	Seed	P. edulis seed Powder	Abrasive
	Seed	P. edulis seed oil/Palm Oil Aminopropanediol Esters	Skin conditioning
	Seed	Sodium P. edulis seedate	Cleansing Surfactant–cleansing
	Seed	PEG-60 P. edulis seed glycerides	Skin conditioning–emollient Surfactant–emulsifying
	Whole plant	P. edulis Meristem Cell Extract	Humectant
Passiflora quadrangularis	Flower	P. quadrangularis flower extract	Refreshing Skin protecting –Soothing
	Fruit	P. quadrangularis fruit	Astringent
	Fruit	P. quadrangularis fruit extract	Skin protecting Soothing
	Fruit	P. quadrangularis fruit juice	Astringent
	Hull/Shell	P. quadrangularis hull extract	Skin conditioning
Passiflora alata	Fruit	Hydrolyzed P. alata fruit	Astringent Skin protecting
	Callus	P. alata callus extract	Antioxidant Humectant Skin conditioning Skin protecting
	Fruit	P. alata fruit extract	Hair conditioning
	Leaf	P. alata leaf extract	Skin conditioning
Passiflora caerulea	Flower	P. caerulea flower extract	Skin conditioning
Passiflora cincinnata	Seed	P. cincinnata seed oil	Skin conditioning
Passiflora coccinea	Callus	P. coccinea callus extract	Antioxidant Skin conditioning–Skin protecting
Passiflora garckei	Meristem cell	P. garckei meristem cell culture	Skin protecting
Passiflora incarnata	Flower	P. incarnata flower extract	Skin conditioning Skin protecting
	Fruit	P. incarnata fruit extract	Skin conditioning Skin protecting
	Seed	P. incarnata seed oil	Skin protecting
	Seed	P. incarnata seed powder	Abrasive Skin conditioning
	Seed	PEG-60 P. incarnata seed glycerides	Skin conditioning–emollient Surfactant–emulsifying
	Whole plant	P. incarnata extract	Astringent
	Whole plant	P. incarnata water	Fragrance Skin conditioning
Passiflora laurifolia	Flower	P. laurifolia flower extract	Skin conditioning
	Fruit	P. laurifolia fruit extract	Skin conditioning

Table 1. Extracts or products reported in the CosIng database related to species of the Passiflora genus [12].

Species	Part of Plant	Name	CosIng Function
Passiflora edulis	Flower	P. edulis flower extract	Skin conditioning
	Fruit	Botrytis Cinerea/P. edulis Fruit Extract/Piceatannol Ferment Lysate Filtrate	Hair conditioning
	Fruit	Hydrolyzed P. edulis fruit juice extract	Humectant Skin conditioning
	Fruit	P. edulis fruit	Skin conditioning
	Fruit	P. edulis fruit extract	Skin conditioning
	Fruit	P. edulis fruit juice	Skin conditioning
	Fruit	P. edulis fruit water	-
	Peel	P. edulis peel extract	Humectant
	Pulp	Leuconostoc/P. edulis Pulp/Soy Protein Ferment Lysate Filtrate	Skin conditioning
	Seed	Hydrogenated P. edulis Seed Oil	Skin conditioning Skin conditioning–emollient
	Seed	P. edulis seed acid (fatty acids)	Bleaching Surfactant–emulsifying
	Seed	P. edulis seed extract	Skin conditioning
	Seed	P. edulis seed oil	Skin conditioning– emollient
	Seed	P. edulis seed oils PEG-8 Esters	Hair conditioning–Skin conditioning
	Seed	P. edulis seed Powder	Abrasive
	Seed	P. edulis seed oil/Palm Oil Aminopropanediol Esters	Skin conditioning
	Seed	Sodium P. edulis seedate	Cleansing Surfactant–cleansing
	Seed	PEG-60 P. edulis seed glycerides	Skin conditioning–emollient Surfactant–emulsifying
	Whole plant	P. edulis Meristem Cell Extract	Humectant
Passiflora quadrangularis	Flower	P. quadrangularis flower extract	Refreshing Skin protecting –Soothing
	Fruit	P. quadrangularis fruit	Astringent
	Fruit	P. quadrangularis fruit extract	Skin protecting Soothing
	Fruit	P. quadrangularis fruit juice	Astringent
	Hull/Shell	P. quadrangularis hull extract	Skin conditioning
Passiflora alata	Fruit	Hydrolyzed P. alata fruit	Astringent Skin protecting
	Callus	P. alata callus extract	Antioxidant Humectant Skin conditioning Skin protecting
	Fruit	P. alata fruit extract	Hair conditioning
	Leaf	P. alata leaf extract	Skin conditioning
Passiflora caerulea	Flower	P. caerulea flower extract	Skin conditioning
Passiflora cincinnata	Seed	P. cincinnata seed oil	Skin conditioning
Passiflora coccinea	Callus	P. coccinea callus extract	Antioxidant Skin conditioning–Skin protecting
Passiflora garckei	Meristem cell	P. garckei meristem cell culture	Skin protecting
Passiflora incarnata	Flower	P. incarnata flower extract	Skin conditioning Skin protecting
	Fruit	P. incarnata fruit extract	Skin conditioning Skin protecting
	Seed	P. incarnata seed oil	Skin protecting
	Seed	P. incarnata seed powder	Abrasive Skin conditioning
	Seed	PEG-60 P. incarnata seed glycerides	Skin conditioning–emollient Surfactant–emulsifying
	Whole plant	P. incarnata extract	Astringent
	Whole plant	P. incarnata water	Fragrance Skin conditioning
Passiflora laurifolia	Flower	P. laurifolia flower extract	Skin conditioning
	Fruit	P. laurifolia fruit extract	Skin conditioning

Table 2. Chemical groups reported in the literature for different parts of Passiflora species cultivated in Co-lombia and north of South America.

Specie (Common Name)	Part of Plant	Chemical Group	Reference
Passiflora edulis f. edulis Sims (gulupa)	Fruit pulp	Phenylpropanoid derivatives acids	[13,14]
		Flavanol	[14]
		Cyanogenic glucoside	[15,16]
		Volatile compounds	[17,18,19]
		Carotenoid	[13]
		Vitamin E	[13]
		Anthocyanidin	[14]
		Bound terpenoids, Norterpenoids (C13 skeleton)	[20]
	Stem and leaves	Flavone and flavone glycosides	[21,22,23,24,25,26,27]
		Saponins	[28]
	Shell/peel	Flavonol and flavonol glycosides	[29,30]
		Flavone glycosides	[29,31]
		Neolignan glycoside	[31]
		Cyanogenic glycoside	[15,31,32,33]
		Quinone	[31,34]
		Ionol glycoside	[31,35]
		Phenyl propanoid glycosides	[31,36]
		Stilbene glycoside	[31,37]
		Aromatics glycoside	[31,38]
		Lignan glycosides	[31,39,40]
		Phytoprostanes	[29]
		Anthocyanin	[41,42,43,44]
		Flavanol	[45]
		Dihydrochalcone	[45]
		Acid derivatives	[45]
	Seeds	Fatty acids	[46]
		Stilbenoids	[47]
		Acid derivatives	[48,49]
		Flavonol and flavone	[48]
Passiflora ligularis Juss (granadilla)	Shell/Peel	Flavanol	[30,50]
		Flavone	[30]
		Flavonol	[30]
		Phenolic acid/Phenolic glycosides	[30,50]
		Satured fatty acid	[50]
		Monounsaturated fatty acid	[50]
		Polyunsaturated fatty acid	[50]
		Cyanogenic glycoside	[15]
	Shell (essential oil)	Volatile compounds	[51]
	Seed (essential oil)	Volatile compounds	[51]
	Seed	Flavanol	[52]
		Phenolic acid	[52]
		Flavone	[52]
		Pentacyclic triterpenoid	[52]
		Satured fatty acid	[50]
		Monounsaturated fatty acid	[50]
		Polyunsaturated fatty acid	[50]
	Pulp (essential oil from pulp)	Volatile compounds	[51]
	Fruit pulp	Xanthine alkaloid	[14]
		Flavonol, flavone, flavanol	[14,53]
		Phenolic acids	[14,50,53]
		Pentacyclic triterpenoid	[14]
		Anthocyanin	[14]
		Stilbenoid glucoside	[50]
		Volatile compounds	[19,54]
		Others	[14,19,50]
	Pulp + seeds	Phenylpropanoid derivatives acids	[55]
		Satured fatty acid	[50]
		Monounsaturated fatty acid	[50]
		Polyunsaturated fatty acid	[50]
	Leaves	Flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides, aminoacids, organic acid, saponin	[56,57]
Passiflora tarminiana (curuba india)	Fruit pulp	Flavanols, flavone and flavonol glycosides	[58]
	Leaves	Flavone glycosides, flavanol, procyanidin	[59]
Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima (curuba de Castilla)	Fruit pulp	Volatiles and aroma compounds, flavone glycosides	[60,61]
	Leaves	Phenylpropanoid derivatives acids, aminoacids, carbohydrates, poliol, flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin derivatives, procyanidins)	[59]
	Shell	Flavone and flavonol glycosides	[61]
Passiflora maliformis (cholupa)	Seed	Unsatured fatty acids	[46]
		Satured fatty acids	[46]
	Flower	Terpenoids	[62]
		Phenylpropanoids	[62]
		Satured fatty acids	[62]
		Unsatured fatty acids	[62]
		Ethyl ester	[62]
		Polyisoprenoid lipids	[62]
	Pulp	Volatile compounds	[63]
Passiflora quadrangularis (badea)	Leaves	Flavone	[23,28,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71]
		Long-chain fatty acids	[64]
		Cyanogenic glycoside	[67]
		Triterpens and saponins	[28,67,68,72]
		Cyclopropane triterpene glycosides	[72]
		Pentacyclic triterpenoid	[72]
	Fruit pulp	Carboxylic acids	[73]
		Volatile compounds	[74,75]
	Shell/pericarp	Flavone	[76]
Passiflora edulis unspecified form	Fruit pulp	Flavone	[77]
		Carboxylic acids	[77]
		Flavanone glycoside	[77]
		Flavonol glycoside	[77]
		Cyanogenic glycoside	[77]
	Leaves	Flavone glycoside	[63,78]
		Acid derivatives	[63]
		Cyanogenic glycoside	[63]
		Flavonol glycoside	[79]
	Stem and leaves	Cycloartane tryterpenes	[80,81,82]
		Saponins	[80,81,82,83,84]
	Seed	Stilbenoids	[85]

Table 2. Chemical groups reported in the literature for different parts of Passiflora species cultivated in Co-lombia and north of South America.

Specie (Common Name)	Part of Plant	Chemical Group	Reference
Passiflora edulis f. edulis Sims (gulupa)	Fruit pulp	Phenylpropanoid derivatives acids	[13,14]
		Flavanol	[14]
		Cyanogenic glucoside	[15,16]
		Volatile compounds	[17,18,19]
		Carotenoid	[13]
		Vitamin E	[13]
		Anthocyanidin	[14]
		Bound terpenoids, Norterpenoids (C13 skeleton)	[20]
	Stem and leaves	Flavone and flavone glycosides	[21,22,23,24,25,26,27]
		Saponins	[28]
	Shell/peel	Flavonol and flavonol glycosides	[29,30]
		Flavone glycosides	[29,31]
		Neolignan glycoside	[31]
		Cyanogenic glycoside	[15,31,32,33]
		Quinone	[31,34]
		Ionol glycoside	[31,35]
		Phenyl propanoid glycosides	[31,36]
		Stilbene glycoside	[31,37]
		Aromatics glycoside	[31,38]
		Lignan glycosides	[31,39,40]
		Phytoprostanes	[29]
		Anthocyanin	[41,42,43,44]
		Flavanol	[45]
		Dihydrochalcone	[45]
		Acid derivatives	[45]
	Seeds	Fatty acids	[46]
		Stilbenoids	[47]
		Acid derivatives	[48,49]
		Flavonol and flavone	[48]
Passiflora ligularis Juss (granadilla)	Shell/Peel	Flavanol	[30,50]
		Flavone	[30]
		Flavonol	[30]
		Phenolic acid/Phenolic glycosides	[30,50]
		Satured fatty acid	[50]
		Monounsaturated fatty acid	[50]
		Polyunsaturated fatty acid	[50]
		Cyanogenic glycoside	[15]
	Shell (essential oil)	Volatile compounds	[51]
	Seed (essential oil)	Volatile compounds	[51]
	Seed	Flavanol	[52]
		Phenolic acid	[52]
		Flavone	[52]
		Pentacyclic triterpenoid	[52]
		Satured fatty acid	[50]
		Monounsaturated fatty acid	[50]
		Polyunsaturated fatty acid	[50]
	Pulp (essential oil from pulp)	Volatile compounds	[51]
	Fruit pulp	Xanthine alkaloid	[14]
		Flavonol, flavone, flavanol	[14,53]
		Phenolic acids	[14,50,53]
		Pentacyclic triterpenoid	[14]
		Anthocyanin	[14]
		Stilbenoid glucoside	[50]
		Volatile compounds	[19,54]
		Others	[14,19,50]
	Pulp + seeds	Phenylpropanoid derivatives acids	[55]
		Satured fatty acid	[50]
		Monounsaturated fatty acid	[50]
		Polyunsaturated fatty acid	[50]
	Leaves	Flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides, aminoacids, organic acid, saponin	[56,57]
Passiflora tarminiana (curuba india)	Fruit pulp	Flavanols, flavone and flavonol glycosides	[58]
	Leaves	Flavone glycosides, flavanol, procyanidin	[59]
Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima (curuba de Castilla)	Fruit pulp	Volatiles and aroma compounds, flavone glycosides	[60,61]
	Leaves	Phenylpropanoid derivatives acids, aminoacids, carbohydrates, poliol, flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin derivatives, procyanidins)	[59]
	Shell	Flavone and flavonol glycosides	[61]
Passiflora maliformis (cholupa)	Seed	Unsatured fatty acids	[46]
		Satured fatty acids	[46]
	Flower	Terpenoids	[62]
		Phenylpropanoids	[62]
		Satured fatty acids	[62]
		Unsatured fatty acids	[62]
		Ethyl ester	[62]
		Polyisoprenoid lipids	[62]
	Pulp	Volatile compounds	[63]
Passiflora quadrangularis (badea)	Leaves	Flavone	[23,28,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71]
		Long-chain fatty acids	[64]
		Cyanogenic glycoside	[67]
		Triterpens and saponins	[28,67,68,72]
		Cyclopropane triterpene glycosides	[72]
		Pentacyclic triterpenoid	[72]
	Fruit pulp	Carboxylic acids	[73]
		Volatile compounds	[74,75]
	Shell/pericarp	Flavone	[76]
Passiflora edulis unspecified form	Fruit pulp	Flavone	[77]
		Carboxylic acids	[77]
		Flavanone glycoside	[77]
		Flavonol glycoside	[77]
		Cyanogenic glycoside	[77]
	Leaves	Flavone glycoside	[63,78]
		Acid derivatives	[63]
		Cyanogenic glycoside	[63]
		Flavonol glycoside	[79]
	Stem and leaves	Cycloartane tryterpenes	[80,81,82]
		Saponins	[80,81,82,83,84]
	Seed	Stilbenoids	[85]

A search was performed for each study species and no exclusion criteria related to the year of publication of the article were established.

Table 3. Identified compounds in Passiflora species cultivated in Colombia and north of South America and reported cosmetic activities, along with potential mechanisms, experimental models used in the study, and IC₅₀ Values (if applicable).

Compound Name	Cosmetic Function	Suspected Target/Mechanism	Experimental Model	IC50	Reference
Piceatannol (3,4,3′,5′ -tetrahydroxytrans-stilbene)	Antimicrobial	-	in vitro: Propionibacterium acnes	123 mg/L	[86,87]
	Skin conditioning-miscellaneous	Improve skin moisture	Clinical trial (women with dry skin)	-	[88]
	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR a and MPPs b	B16 melanoma cells	1.53 µM	[85,89,90]
	Skin protecting (photoprotection)	Decrease in ROS c	Human keratinocites	-	[91]
Resveratrol	Antimicrobial	-	In vitro: Propionibacterium acnes	73 mg/L	[86]
	Skin protecting (photoprotection)	Decrease oxidative stress and inflamatory response	In vivo: SKH-1 hairless mice	-	[92,93]
	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR and MPPs	Human dermal fibroblast and embryonic kidney cells. Human subjects.	1.8 µM	[85,94,95]
(+)-catechin	Skin protecting (photoprotection)	Modulating antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase and catalase)	BALB/c mice	-	[96]
	Skin protecting (antiaging prevention)	Inhibition of p38 d and JNK e phosphorylation	NIH 3T3 fibroblasts cells	-	[97]
Epigallocatechin Gallate	Skin protecting	Reduce extracelular melanin secretion, upregulated expression of skin hydration genes	HaCaT f, HEK293 g, and B16F10 h cell lines	-	[98]
		Reduced UVB-induced erythema and lipid peroxidation	Guinea pigs, hairless mice and human dermal fibroblast cultures.	-	[59]
Luteolin	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR	Murine melanoma B16/F10 cells	-	[99]
	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR, melanin production and adenyl cyclase	B16 melanoma cells	4.16 μL	[100]
Quercetin	Skin protecting (photoprotection)	Reduced MDA (malondialdehyde) levels and increased enzymatic antioxidant levels	Spraque–Dawley rats (liver cells exposed to UVA)	-	[101]
	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR activity and melanin content	B16F10 cells	10.1 ± 3.1 μM (IC30, InhTyr i)	[102]
		inhibition of TYR, antioxidant	Analyitical method: dopachrome method	-	[48]
Rutina	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR activity and melanin content	B16F10 cells	18.56 ± 4.2 μM (IC30 InhTyr)	[102]
Hesperetin	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR activity	Analyitical method: spectrophotometric assay	-	[103]
Caffeic acid	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR and melanin activity	B16F10 cells	24.1 ± 6.2 μM (IC30 InhTyr)	[102]
Ferulic acid	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR and melanin activity	B16F10 cells	>30 μM (IC30 InhTyr)	[102]
p-coumaric acid	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR expression (competition with L-tyrosine for the regulatory sie on the MSH receptors (hypothesis))	Murine melanoma B16/F10 cells	-	[104]
		Inhibition of human TYR and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA)	Human epidermal melanocytes and murine melanoma B16/F10 cells exposed to UVB	-	[105]
		Reduce UV-induced erythema and pigmentation, reduce melanin index	Human subjects, double-blind study	-	[106]
Protocatechuic acid	Bleaching	Inhibition of TYR and melanin activity	Human hair follicle melanocytes (HFM)	8.9 μmol/L InhTyr	[107]

^a TYR: tyrosine; ^b MPPs: Matrix metallopeptidases; ^c ROS: Reactive oxygen species; ^d p38: Mitogen-activated protein kinase; ^e JNK: Jun N-Terminal Kinase; ^f HaCaT: Human immortalized keratinocytes; ^g HEK293: Human Embryonic Kidney cells; ^h B16F10: Murine melanoma cell line; ⁱ InhTyr: inhibited tyrosinase.

summarizes the compounds identified in Passiflora species that exhibit reported cosmetic activities. The search for this information was conducted in the CosIng database [12], focusing on specific compounds and their associations with “cosmetic activity” and “cosmetic function”, including “skin conditioning”, “skin protection”, “antimicrobial”, and “bleaching”. To ascertain the functional roles of these compounds, their CAS registry numbers were queried using the “Simple Search” function within the database interface.

3. Relevant Sections

3.1. Production in Colombia and North of South America of Plants from Passiflora Genus

The production of species of the Passiflora genus ranks eighth in Colombia’s horticultural production, after banana, citrus, pineapple, yam, tomato, avocado, and mango (2017 data) [2]. However, according to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development-MADR, it is a productive line of great dynamism, as it has increased 34% between 2014 and 2017 due to the national and international demand (from the Netherlands, Germany, and France, mainly) for tropical fruits [8].

According to the MADR’s database [8], production of plants from Passiflora genus in Colombia between 2019 and 2023 reached 1.365.033 tons, with yellow passion fruit (P. edulis f. flavicarpa) and granadilla (P. ligularis) being the species with the highest production, with 897.821 tons (65.77% of total production) and 217.080 tons (15.90% of total production), respectively. Lower production was recorded for gulupa (P. edulis f. edulis) with 156.060 tons, curuba (P. tripartita var. mollissima) with 75.274 tons, and badea (P. quadrangularis) with 18.798 tons.

In the case of Ecuador, the genus Passiflora has 94 native and 34 endemic species. Of these, the main crop corresponds to P. edulis f. flavicarpa, which, for 2019, occupied 7.459 ha and on average national level produced 6.62 tons/ha (mainly in the provinces of Esmeraldas, Manabi, Guayas, El Oro, and Santo Domingo de los Colorados). The main interest of the production is fruit juice, although the peel and seeds are also used in industry. Also, its cultivation involves approximately 10,000 small and medium producers in the country. On the other hand, in Venezuela, the genus Passiflora has 100 species with a wide distribution in the country. Of these, the species P. edulis f. flavicarpa, P. quadrangularis, P. mollisima, and P. ligularis are cultivated, occupying an area of 2000 ha and producing an average of 15,500 tons in total, where the majority corresponds to the species P. edulis f. flavicarpa [108].

In general terms, the harvesting of Passiflora primarily focuses on extracting the pulp from their edible fruits. This pulp is utilized in the production of juices, soft drinks, ice creams, desserts, jams, and other products, which are highly valued both nationally and internationally due to their nutritional characteristics, exotic flavor, and distinctive aroma [7]. In species like gulupa (P. edulis f. edulis), the pulp along with the seeds constitutes between 34% and 61% of the total fruit pulp [5]. During processing, inedible parts such as the peel, leaves, and seeds are typically discarded as waste. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), one-third of the edible parts of food (1.3 billion tons in 2011) are wasted globally, and in developing countries, such as Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador, post-harvest and processing losses can exceed 40% [109]. These residues were previously accumulated in landfills; however, they have recently found use as fertilizers and animal feed [110,111]. There are also examples of their utilization in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries [112]. Consequently, significant quantities of residues containing potential bioactive compounds such as phenolic compounds, organic acids, sugars, and others, are wasted from Passiflora cultivation [112].

3.2. Cosmetic Use of Some Extracts of Plants from Passiflora Genus

Within the CosIng database (Cosmetic Ingredient Database), various extracts or products derived from Passiflora samples are included. Among the species cultivated in Colombia, only two are documented in the database: Passiflora edulis and Passiflora quadrangularis. Out of a total of 41 results returned by searching “Passiflora”, 19 correspond to extracts from different parts of Passiflora edulis (flower, fruit, and seed), while 5 results pertain to extracts from Passiflora quadrangularis (flower, fruit, and peel). The remaining results are extracts from other Passiflora species, including Passiflora alata, Passiflora laurifolia, Passiflora caerulea, Passiflora cincinnata, Passiflora coccinea, Passiflora incarnata, and Passiflora garckei, which are not cultured for their fruits. Table 1 provides details on the types of extracts and their reported cosmetic functions. The majority of extracts from the Passiflora samples of interest are reported to have a “skin conditioning” function [12].

3.3. Chemical Composition of Plants from Passiflora Genus

Compounds reported for Passiflora species are detailed in the Supplementary Information (SI) Table S1. The provided data include the plant part from which they were extracted, their chemical classification (e.g., flavones, acid derivatives, cyanogenic glycosides, volatile compounds), the analytical methods used for identification or quantification, CAS registry numbers, molecular formulas, and exact masses. Experimental details such as retention times (RT), molecular ion values, and wavelengths of maximum UV absorption are also documented. Additionally, links to compound information in ChemSpider and CosIng (where applicable), along with corresponding references, are provided. It is important to note that experimental values such as retention time should be interpreted contextually, considering the specific analytical conditions defined by researchers, and not solely relied upon as absolute identification parameters but rather as additional criteria within the identity profile of the compound.

3.3.1. Passiflora edulis f. Flavicarpa Degener (Passion Fruit or Yellow Passion Fruit)

Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa (yellow passion fruit) is the best-known and most studied species in the literature. Information related to the quali-quantitative composition of passion fruit is not included in Supplementary Information (SI) Table S1, since there are detailed reviews on its composition and uses such as those carried out by Dhawan, K. [6], Corrêa, R. [7], and He, X. et al. [113]. Overall, it can be said that the characterization of extracts from different plant parts is well-documented in the literature.

Composition studies on the leaves of this species have identified flavonoids such as vitexin, isovitexin, orientin, isoorientin, vicenin-2, spinosin, 6,8-di-C-glycosyl-chrysin, as well as luteolin derivatives such as luteolin-6-C-chinovoside and luteolin-6-C-fucoside [21,64,114,115,116]. Flavonoids derived from luteolin and apigenin are reported in the stem of P. edulis f. flavicarpa, such as luteolin 6-C-β-D-glucopyranoside, luteolin 6-C-β-D-chinovoside, luteolin 6-C-β-L-fucoside, and apigenin 8-C-β-D-glucopyranoside, among others [117].

On the other hand, the shell is rich in fiber, polysaccharides [118,119] pectin [120], cyanogenic glycosides such as prunasin, amygdalin, and sambunigrin, among others, which are also found in the juice of the fruit [15]. In the chemical profile of passion fruit juice and pulp, harman-type alkaloids are reported [121], as well as phenolic compounds such as chlorogenic, caffeic, ferulic and p-coumaric acid, rutin, quercetin, isoorientin [122,123], carotenoids [124], γ-lactones [125], sulfur compounds [126,127], and volatile compounds where esters, aldehydes, ketones, ketones, and alcohols stand out [128,129,130]. Volatile compounds have also been characterized in the residues of passion fruit processing (“residual fiber after pulping the fruit”) [131]. Another part of the plant that has been studied phytochemically is the roots, which show the presence of steroids and triterpenes such as α-amyrin and β-amyrin [132]. Additionally, passion fruit seeds have been studied and found to be rich in carbohydrates (45.80 ± 1.07 g/100 g), lipids (28.87 ± 0.29 g/100 g), proteins (16.28 ± 0.29 g/100 g), and minerals. The fatty acid profile of the seeds is also well characterized [133,134].

3.3.2. Passiflora edulis f. Edulis Sims (Gulupa or Purple Passion Fruit)

Gulupa is believed to have originated from southern Brazil and spread to other regions including South America, the Caribbean, Asia, Africa, India, and Australia during the 19th century [135]. Taxonomically described by John Sims in 1818, gulupa is known for its adaptability to the tropical Andes, thriving at altitudes above 1500 m [5,8,9]. Chemical compounds associated with gulupa are outlined in detail in the Supplementary Information (SI) Table S1. Below, the primary discoveries are summarized according to the specific parts of the plant.

It is noteworthy that the various studies conducted did not specify the variety of Passiflora edulis used (P. edulis f. flavicarpa (yellow passion fruit) or P. edulis f. edulis (purple passion fruit or gulupa), complicating comparisons between findings from different studies. In the pulp of unspecified P. edulis varieties, flavonoids such as rutin, hesperidin, vitexin, orientin, and vicenin-2 have been identified [77]. Studies on the leaves have reported various classes of flavonoids (orientin, isoorientin, vitexin, isovitexin, vicenin-2, among others) [63,78,79], as well as a cyclopropane triterpene glycoside named passiflorin [84], saponins (Cyclopasiflosides I-XV), and cycloartane-type triterpenes (Cyclopasifloic acids A-H) [80,81,82,83].

Pulp/juice: A study on the characterization of polyphenolic compounds in freeze-dried pulp found that the major polyphenolic compound was (+)-catechin with 0.28 ± 0.01 μg/mL (70% methanolic extract), followed by (-)-epicatechin (0.22 ± 0.11 μg/mL) and rosmarinic acid (0.13 ± 0.11 μg/mL). Other polyphenolic compounds identified include caffeic, chlorogenic, sinapic, syringic, and ferulic acids [13,14]. Cyanogenic glycosides, with prunasin as the most abundant, have also been identified [15,16]. Moreover, volatile compounds such as aldehydes, terpenes (geraniol and linalool), and sesquiterpenes (β-Ionone) have been reported [17,18]. Other reported compounds include β-carotene, vitamin E [13], anthocyanidins such as pelargonidin [14], and nortepenoids such as vomifoliol and dehydrovomifoliol [20].

Stem and leaves: flavone glycosides have been identified, such as chrysin derivatives such as chrysin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Aequinetin); luteolin derivatives such as luteolin-7-O-glucoside (Cynaroside), luteolin-6-C-glucoside (isoorientin), and luteolin-8-C-glucoside (orientin); apigenin derivatives such as apigenin-6-C-glucoside (isovitexin), apigenin-8-C-glucoside (vitexin); C-dideoxyhexosyl flavones such as luteolin-8-C-β-boivinopyranoside and apigenin-8-C-β-digitoxopyranoside [22,23]; and the vitexin derivative: vitexin-2-O-rhamnoside [21]. In addition, Urrego identified three saponins in a butanolic extract of gulup leaves: cyclopassiflosides IX, XI, and III [28].

Peel: Different subtypes of flavonoids identified in extracts from gulupa peel include flavonols and their glycosides: rutin (quercetin-3-O-rutinoside), isoquercetin (quercetin-3-O-glucoside), and astragalin (kaempferol-3-O-glucoside) [29]; flavone glycosides such as luteolin and chrysin [31]; lignan and neolignan glycosides [31]; cyanogenic glycosides such as prunasin and amygdalin, where prunasin is the most abundant in the peel (even more than in the pulp) [31]; cyanogenic glycosides such as prunasin and amygdalin, with prunasin being the most abundant in the peel (even more than that quantified in the pulp) [15,31]; ionol glycosides (alangioside A) [31,35], stilbene glycosides (icariside E5) [31,37]; and phenyl propanoids [31,36]. Flavanols (catechin and epicatechin) are also reported [45], phytoprostanes (in concentrations ranging from 0.13 to 6.76 μg/100 g dry weight [29]), anthocyanins such as cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and cyanidin-3-O-ruthinoside [41,42] and other compounds such as protocatechuic acid and edulilic acid [45].

Seeds: Fatty acids identified in the seeds of this Passiflora species include palmitic, stearic, oleic, oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids with linoleic acid being the most prevalent at 74.3 ± 0.3% [46]. Likewise, stilbenoids such as piceatannol and resveratrol have been quantified [47].

Pulp: In the pulp of P. edulis, whose variety is unspecified, flavonoids such as rutin, hesperidin, vitexin, orientin, and vicenin-2 have been identified [77]. In the leaves, various classes of flavonoids (orientin, isoorientin, vitexin, isovitexin, vicenin-2, among others) have been reported [63,78,79], along with a cyclopropane triterpene glycoside known as passiflorin [84], saponins (Cyclopasiflosides I-XV), and triterpenes of the cycloartane type (cyclopasifloic acids A-H) [80,81,82,83]. Comprehensive details regarding the composition of Passiflora edulis, without specifying the variety, are available in the Supplementary Information (SI) Table S1.

3.3.3. Passiflora ligularis Juss (Granadilla)

The passion fruit is native to the tropics of America and is cultivated from Argentina to Mexico. In northern South America, it is of significant economic importance, with approximately half of the passion fruit produced being exported to European Union countries. This fruit is cultivated at altitudes ranging between 1800 and 2600 m. [136].

Pulp: Among the phenolic compounds, ferulic acid is identified as the major constituent in a 70% methanolic extract, with a content of 0.54 ± 0.43 μg/mL, followed by epigallocatechin (0.09 ± 0.04 μg/mL) and epigallocatechin gallate (0.07 ± 0.04 μg/mL). Other compounds present in smaller proportions in the extract include quercetin-3-glucoside, rosmarinic acid, luteolin, and apigenin, among others [14]. In another study conducted with the ethanolic extract of the pulp combined with seeds, the total content of phenolic compounds was <5 ppm, with vanillin (1.8 ± 0.0 mg/kg ethanolic extract) and polydatin (1.7 ± 0.04 mg/kg ethanolic extract) being predominant [50]. For its part, the essential oil from the pulp is well characterized in terms of volatile compounds such as methyl palmitate, higher alkanes such as eicosane, heneicosane, long-chain hydrocarbons like heptadecane, and aldehydes such as pentadecanal and tetradecanal (myristyl aldehyde), among others [51]. Agudelo et. al. [54] identified volatile compounds from fruit pulp, finding predominantly methyl-3-hydroxyhexanoate, methyl-5-hydroxyhexanoate, methylhexanoate, and methylbutyrate. Additionally, ellagic acid (62.44 mg/g extract in acetone), rutin or quercetin-3-O-ruthinoside (33.89 mg/g extract in acetone), caffeic acid (26.22 mg/g extract in acetone), gallic acid (21.22 mg/g) and kaempferol (3.05 mg/g) are reported as major constituents of the pulp [53]. Similarly, the organic acids found in the pulp include citric acid and malic acid with concentrations of 7.43 ± 1.4 mg/g pulp and 2.17 ± 0.9 mg/g pulp, respectively [55].

Peel: Various classes of flavonoids have been identified in the peel of passion fruit. Flavanols, such as catechin and procyanidin oligomers, have been documented [30,50]. Flavones, including apigenin and luteolin derivatives (such as apigenin-8-C-glucoside (Vitexin) and luteolin-3-O-acetyl-glucoside), as well as flavonols like quercetin 3-O-(6″-acetyl-glucoside), are also present [30]. Phenolic acids found in notable quantities in the peel include ferulic acid (11.9 ± 1.9 mg/kg in ethanolic extract) and sinapic acid (4.0 ± 0.2 mg/kg in ethanolic extract) [50]. The predominant fatty acids reported are α-linoleic acid (36.0 ± 0.1%), palmitic acid (34.0 ± 0.2%), and α-linolenic acid (23.6 ± 0.0%) [50]. The essential oil from the peel contains volatile compounds such as stearyl and behenyl alcohol, higher alkanes like docosane, eicosane, and heneicosane, as well as ethyl palmitate and ethyl stearate, and squalene [51].

In contrast to P. edulis f. edulis, the peel of this Passiflora species exhibits a scarcity of cyanogenic glycosides, with prunasin being the sole compound reported in low proportion (1.2 ± 0.1 mg/kg) [15].

Leaves: The leaves of passion fruit are perhaps the least characterized part of the plant in the literature, according to articles indexed in the databases used in this review. The compounds identified in the leaf of P. ligularis to date are rutin and vitexin, with concentrations of 6.86 ± 0.10 mg/g and 11.2 ± 0.5 mg/g of plant material, respectively [56]. However, Monzon [57] identified 14 polyphenolic compounds, mostly chrysin, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, and chrysin-7-O-(6″-O-acetyl)-glucoside. He also identified a saponin, ligularoside C; 5 amino acids (alanine, glutamic acid, glutamine, proline, and tyrosine), carbohydrates (glucose and sucrose); and organic acids (citric and lactic acid).

Seeds: Granadilla seeds are primarily composed of carbohydrates, fiber (from 58.40 ± 0.77 to 61.04 ± 1.41%), and lipids (from 20.36 ± 0.78 to 21.03 ± 1.47%) [137]. The fatty acids present are α-linoleic acid (76.6 ± 0.3%), oleic acid (10.8 ± 0.1%), and palmitic acid (9.6 ± 0.0%). Similarly, in an extract of the pulp plus seeds, α-linoleic acid (73.3 ± 0.7%), oleic acid (15.1 ± 0.3%), palmitic acid (7.8 ± 0.0%), and stearic acid (2.5 ± 0.0%) were identified [50]. Generally, α-linoleic acid has been found in higher proportion in both the peel and seeds. In the seeds, as in the pulp, the presence of catechin and gallic acid is also reported. Finally, in the essential oil of the seeds, methyl, and ethyl esters of fatty acids such as ethyl oleate, ethyl palmitate, squalene, and trans-caryophyllene, among others, have been identified [51].

3.3.4. Curubas (Passiflora tarminiana and Passiflora tripartita var. mollisima)

Banana passion fruit, native to the mountainous regions of South America (Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Peru), is known as curuba in Colombia and by various names such as tacso in Ecuador, parcha in Venezuela, tumbo in Bolivia, and tumbo del norte in Peru. It thrives at altitudes ranging from 1800 to 3200 m [136]. The species belonging to the subgenus Tacsonia includes 21 species in Colombia, among which Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima (formerly known as P. mollisima Bailey), locally called curuba de Castilla, and Passiflora tarminiana, known as Indian curuba or curuba Quiteña, are extensively cultivated [60]. While these species can hybridize, taxonomic and botanical information on Indian curuba have been described only recently, delaying its widespread use for improving Castilian curuba crops [138].

The chemical characterization of Passiflora tarminiana, particularly of the fruit pulp, has highlighted the presence of flavonoids such as epicatechin–epicatechin (Procyanidin B1), epiafzelechin–epicatechin (propelargonidin B-dimer), and various flavonoid glycosides including kaempferol derivatives, isoramnetin, apigenin, luteolin, chrysoeriol, and myricetin [58]. Studies on curuba leaves have identified apigenin derivatives like vitexin-2″-O-rhamnoside and vitexin 7-O-glucopyranosyl, luteolin derivatives such as isoorientin and luteolin-8-C-(6″acetyl)-glucopyranoside, and flavanols such as catechin and procyanidins like procyanidin B1 and C2 [59].

Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima, specifically its fruit pulp, contains volatile compounds such as linalool, hexyl acetate, butyl acetate, 2-methylpropyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, and (Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol [60]. Phenolic compounds in curuba pulp include flavone glycosides like apigenin and luteolin [61]. In the leaves, compounds identified include amino acids (alanine, proline, tyrosine, valine), carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose), polyols (myo-inositol), organic acids (ascorbic acid, citric acid, formic acid, glutamic acid, shikimic acid), and flavonoids, predominantly flavonoid C-glycosides with 4′-methoxy-luteolin-8-C-6″acetylglucopyranoside proposed as a chemical marker [61]. Apigenin derivatives (vitexin, isovitexin, vitexin-7-O-glucopyranosyl) and procyanidins (procyanidin B1 and C2) are also present [59].

In the peel of curuba, phenolic compounds such as flavone glycosides (orientin, vicenin-2, leucenin-2, schaftoside, isoschaftoside) and flavonol glycosides derived from myricetin have been identified [61].

3.3.5. Passiflora maliformis L. (Cholupa)

Cholupa, also known as Passiflora maliformis, is native to northern Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela, and is cultivated as an ornamental plant in European countries. In its natural habitat, it thrives up to 2200 m above sea level, while commercially it is grown at altitudes ranging from 500 to 1300 m above sea level [136]. There are limited qualitative and quantitative analyses of cholupa reported in the literature, likely due to its exclusive cultivation.

Pulp: Passiflora maliformis juice has been analyzed for total sugar content (glucose, fructose, and sucrose), which ranges between 60.97 and 63.84 g/kg fresh weight, and the ascorbic acid content is 0.15 ± 0.72 g/kg fresh weight [139]. Studies focusing on volatile compounds have identified 43 compounds contributing to its aroma, with methyl esters such as methylbutanoate and methylhexanoate being predominant among esters, along with alcohols and carboxylic acids [63].

Husk: Qualitative studies on cholupa husk have identified the presence of carbohydrates, flavonoids, tannins, anthocyanins, and terpenes through drop tests [140].

Leaves and Stems: Analysis of phenolic content in leaves and stems, expressed in grams of gallic acid equivalents per 100 g dry weight, revealed 3.32 ± 0.06 g GAE/100 g in leaves and 1.28 ± 0.07 g GAE/100 g in stems using methanolic extracts [141].

Seeds: Qualitative analysis has shown abundant presence of carbohydrates, terpenes, tannins, fatty acids (predominantly linoleic acid at 71.9 ± 0.3%, oleic acid at 15.3 ± 0.2%, and palmitic acid at 9.2 ± 0.1%), and moderate levels of flavonoids and anthocyanins [46,140].

Flowers: The flowers of P. maliformis are used ornamentally, and their chemical composition includes terpenoid-type compounds (such as β-Pinene, borneol), phenylpropanoids (zingerol, zingerone, farnesol), saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, ethyl esters, and squalene [62].

3.3.6. Passiflora quadrangularis Linn (Badea)

Passiflora quadrangularis, known by various names including badea, granadilla grande, and giant passion fruit, is cultivated in tropical regions of South America such as Colombia, Ecuador, and Brazil, typically at altitudes ranging from 400 to 1500 m above sea level [136].

Leaves: Among the parts of Passiflora quadrangularis, the leaves have been extensively chemically characterized. Flavonoids identified include vitexin, isovitexin, orientin, luteolin, and their derivatives [64,65,66]. Vitexin-2″-O-xyloside has been proposed as a chemical marker specific to P. quadrangularis, whereas vitexin-2″-O-rhamnoside is associated with P. alata, often mistaken for badea [66]. Cyanogenic glycosides (gynocardin), pentacyclic triterpenoids like 3-O-β-oleanolic acid-sophoroside, cycloartane-type triterpenes (cyclopasipholic acids), and cycloartane-type saponins such as cyclopasipholoside III have also been identified in the leaves [67,72], along with quadrangulosides B and C, and a saponin derived from oleanolic acid (3-O-β-D-glycopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranoside of oleanolic acid) [28,68].

Pulp: Chemical characterization of the pulp has focused on organic acids and volatile compounds. Significant organic acids identified include lactic, acetic, citric, and oxalic acids, with acetic acid being predominant [73]. Notable volatile compounds include furaneol [74,75].

Peel: The peel of Passiflora quadrangularis has undergone less extensive characterization; however, studies have identified flavones such as apigenin and its glycoside, vitexin-2″-O-xyloside (apigenin-8-C-glucoside-2-O-xyloside) [76].

Therefore, Table 2 presents the dataset of chemical groups extracted from the Supplementary Information (SI) Table S1, documenting the chemical characterization of five of the six Passiflora species cultivated in Colombia. Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa (yellow passion fruit or maracuya) was excluded from this table due to its extensive study and existing literature reviews on its chemical profile. However, data for samples described as Passiflora edulis, without specified variety (gulupa or yellow passion fruit), are included. For detailed information on specific chemical compounds categorized by plant part, please refer to Supplementary Information (SI) Table S1, which provides a summary of compound groups and corresponding references.

Based on Table 2, cholupa exhibits the lowest number of reported chemical groups, with its leaves and husk remaining uncharacterized. Indian curuba also lacks studies on its husk and seeds. In contrast, gulupa and granadilla display the greatest diversity of reported compounds. Badea (P. quadrangularis) has been partially characterized, primarily in terms of volatile compounds in its leaves and pulp, with only one study analyzing its peel composition. The curuba varieties (Indian curuba and Castille curuba) have predominantly been studied for their pulp and leaves, while some studies have explored the peel composition of Castille curuba.

3.4. Cosmetic Value of Compounds Present in Plant from Passiflora Genus Cultivated in Colombia and North of South America

The skin, our largest organ, performs protective, mechanical resistance, temperature regulation, and sensory functions. It consists of three layers: epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis, each with unique characteristics. The epidermis produces melanin for sun protection, while the dermis provides firmness and elasticity [142,143]. External factors, such as UV rays and pollution, cause premature aging, dry skin, irregular pigmentation, wrinkles, and poor skin elasticity. Enzymes, such as tyrosinase, elastase, hyaluronidase, and collagenase, are involved in these processes. The cosmetic industry focuses on addressing skin damage by regulating these enzymes and searching for compounds with antioxidant activity, which is crucial for preventing connective tissue damage and aging [144,145,146].

The following Section outlines the cosmetic properties of extracts from plants of the Passiflora genus, along with the principal chemical compounds identified within them. Table 3 details the reported cosmetic functions of these compounds, their potential targets or mechanisms of action, the experimental models used, and, where applicable, the IC₅₀ values for representative compounds from each study.

Over 250 compounds have been documented for Passiflora species cultivated in Colombia, with approximately 110 listed in the CosIng database. These compounds are primarily recognized for their antioxidant, skin-conditioning, and skin protection properties. The following summarizes the activities of these compounds categorized by type, focusing on studies that provide detailed information on their cosmetic functions and the potential mechanisms through which they exert these effects. Emphasis is placed on reports comparing their activities with established standards or commonly used compounds in cosmetic formulations. Additional details, including specific cosmetic activities, CosIng database links, and bibliographic references, can be found in the Supplementary Information (SI) Table S1.

3.4.1. Stilbenoids

Stilbenoids found in the seeds of gulupa and passion fruit, such as resveratrol and piceatannol, are phytoalexins produced by the plant to combat microbial and fungal threats [47]. Piceatannol (3,4,3′,5′-tetrahydroxytrans-stilbene) and resveratrol have demonstrated antibacterial activity against Propionibacterium acnes, a bacterium associated with acne, with IC₅₀ values of 123 mg/dL and 73 mg/dL, respectively. Notably, piceatannol’s IC₅₀ is comparable to that of benzoyl peroxide (126 mg/dL), a recognized bactericidal agent [86]. Additionally, ethanolic extracts from P. edulis f. edulis seeds have exhibited antimicrobial effects against P. acnes, comparable to first-line acne treatments such as benzoyl peroxide, clindamycin, and erythromycin [87].

Piceatannol also offers other cosmetic benefits, such as skin conditioning. For instance, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study involving 32 women with dry skin revealed that consumption of piceatannol-rich P. edulis f. edulis seed extract (5 mg) increased skin moisture content and improved the appearance of dry skin [88].

The depigmenting effect of piceatannol, explored both in its pure form and within P. edulis fruit extract, has been investigated. Studies indicate its ability to inhibit melanogenesis and enhance collagen synthesis in human dermal fibroblasts. Piceatannol achieves these effects by inhibiting the enzyme tyrosinase (IC₅₀ 1.53 µM) and reducing the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are pivotal in skin aging mechanisms [85,89,90].

Piceatannol exhibits a more pronounced tyrosinase inhibitory capacity (IC₅₀ 1.53 µM [89]) compared to resveratrol (IC₅₀ 63.2 µM) and kojic acid (IC₅₀ 50.1 µM), commonly utilized in cosmetic depigmentation. This heightened efficacy is attributed to the additional hydroxyl group at C’3 in piceatannol (Figure 2). Furthermore, prior application of piceatannol derived from P. edulis seed extract in human keratinocytes has shown a reduction in UVB-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the cytoplasm, suggesting potential anti-photoaging benefits [91].

Similarly, resveratrol (3,5,4′-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene), a well-studied analog of piceatannol, exhibits antimicrobial properties [86] and skin-bleaching effects. Its acetylated derivative, triacetyl resveratrol, has also been tested in human subjects [85,94,95]. Additionally, resveratrol has been investigated for its protective effects on mouse skin against inflammation mediated by cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and UVB-induced oxidative stress [92,93].

The observed activities of stilbenoids present in P. edulis f. edulis seeds suggest their potential inclusion in cosmetic formulations aimed at skin protection, depigmentation, lightening, and anti-aging. Although promising results have been obtained from in vitro and some in vivo studies, further research involving human subjects is essential to validate these findings [92,93].

3.4.2. Flavonoids

Flavonoids (Figure 2), widely distributed pigments in the plant kingdom, exhibit antioxidant properties derived from their polyhydroxylated phenolic structure, enabling them to neutralize hydroxyl and superoxide free radicals and chelate transition metals like iron and copper [147]. Their inhibition of the enzyme tyrosinase primarily occurs through the chelation of copper ions within the enzyme’s active site [148].

(+)-Catechin, a flavanol identified in the pulp and peel of gulupa (P. edulis f. edulis), as well as in various parts of granadilla (P. ligularis), Indian curuba (P. tarminiana), and curuba de Castilla (P. tripartita var. mollissima), demonstrates protective effects against UVB-induced damage in epidermal cells of mice receiving dietary supplementation. This protection is attributed to catechin’s modulation of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, quantified in the skin of the mice following 2 to 4 weeks of catechin supplementation. Necrotic cell presence after 48 h of UVB irradiation was notably reduced in mice supplemented with catechin compared to those without supplementation [96]. Furthermore, catechin has been proposed for preventing oxidative stress-induced skin aging and subsequent fibroblast apoptosis by inhibiting the phosphorylation of stress-activated protein kinases p38 and JNK [97].

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) has been studied for its protective effects against UVB-induced skin damage, demonstrating a dose-dependent reduction in hyaluronidase gene expression in human keratinocytes (HaCaT), thereby enhancing skin water retention [149]. Additionally, EGCG significantly increases cell viability compared to control groups by up to 75.9% [98]. EGCG also mitigates UVB-induced lipid peroxidation and erythema [150].

Luteolin, found in gulupa seeds (P. edulis f. edulis), granadilla pulp (P. ligularis), curubas (P. tarminiana and P. tripartita var. mollissima), and badea (P. quadrangularis) as glycosides, exhibits depigmenting activity by inhibiting tyrosinase in murine melanoma cells similar to arbutin, a common ingredient in depigmenting cosmetics [99]. Its mechanism involves the inhibition of adenylyl cyclase, a molecule involved in α-melanocyte stimulating hormone signaling, which is responsible for tyrosine activation and melanogenesis [100]. Hesperetin, a flavanone identified in unspecified varieties of P. edulis, competitively and reversibly inhibits tyrosinase enzyme activity and chelates copper ions at its active site [103].

Quercetin and rutin, present in gulupa seeds and granadilla leaves, were studied for their depigmenting effects on murine melanoma cells exposed to UVA irradiation. Both compounds effectively reduced melanin content and inhibited tyrosinase activity, demonstrating greater potency than avobenzone, a sunscreen used in cosmetics (IC₃₀ 10.1 ± 3.1 μM for quercetin and IC₃₀ 18.56 ± 4.2 μM for rutin) [102]. Quercetin and rutin also modulate the activity of the nuclear transcription factor Nrf2, which binds to antioxidant response elements (AREs) to regulate genes involved in antioxidant and oxidative stress protection [101,102].

An ethyl acetate extract of gulupa seeds containing quercetin, rosmarinic acid, and caffeic acid demonstrated skin-lightening, antioxidant, and photoprotective activities comparable to those of commercial ferulic acid (SPF 1.3 ± 0.0). The extract exhibited no toxicity in Vero cells at the highest concentration tested (50 μg/mL) [48]. This extract was further incorporated into photoprotective formulations, achieving SPF values between 18.75 ± 0.28 and 18.99 ± 0.71 [151].

Moreover, a study highlighted the anti-tyrosinase, anti-collagenase, and anti-elastase activities of flavonoids and simple phenols from gulupa seeds, emphasizing their potential to prevent skin aging induced by UV exposure [49,152]. Another investigation on the aqueous fraction of curuba (Passiflora tarminiana) fruit extract reported collagenase inhibition (IC₅₀ 0.43 μg/mL) and reduced UVB-induced ROS production in human dermal fibroblasts [58]. Similarly, an extract from badea fruit (P. quadrangularis) demonstrated significant collagenase inhibition (86.4 ± 1.8%), elastase inhibition (3.7 ± 3.2%), hyaluronidase inhibition (28.8 ± 2.8%), and tyrosinase inhibition (4.1 ± 0.6%), alongside high antioxidant capacity [153], indicating its potential as a skin protective agent.

3.4.3. Derivatives of the Phenylpropanoid Route

p-coumaric acid, present in passion fruit pulp, has been extensively studied for its potent antimelanogenic effects, which are reported to be up to 100 times greater than those of kojic acid. Research conducted on murine melanoma cells, human epidermal cells, and in a clinical trial involving 21 human participants has demonstrated its efficacy. It is believed that p-coumaric acid competes with tyrosine for the active site of the enzyme, thereby inhibiting the action of the enzyme. [104,105,106].

Caffeic acid (found in gulupa and granadilla pulp), ferulic acid (in granadilla pulp and peel, as well as gulupa pulp), and protocatechuic acid (in gulupa seeds and peel) also exhibit tyrosinase inhibitory activity and are effective in reducing melanin production. Caffeic acid and ferulic acid demonstrate efficacy comparable to that of avobenzone [102,107].

4. Conclusions

The chemical composition of Passiflora species cultivated in north of South America, particularly Colombia, displays considerable diversity, though comprehensive studies vary among species. Current literature emphasizes flavonoid C-glycosides, phenolic acids, and volatile aroma compounds. Saponins are identified in gulupa, granadilla, and badea, whereas alkaloids are present in passion fruit and granadilla. Stilbenoids like piceatannol and resveratrol are specifically found in gulupa seeds, with their occurrence in other Passiflora species remaining unexplored.

Various parts of Passiflora plants, particularly residues such as gulupa seed extracts, are rich in phenolic compounds including piceatannol, quercetin, luteolin, epigallocatechin gallate, and p-coumaric acid. These compounds have demonstrated skin-protective and depigmenting activities, highlighting their potential inclusion in cosmetic formulations.

Finally, valorizing agricultural residues helps mitigate the environmental impact of improper disposal practices while responsibly harnessing South American biodiversity, promoting economic development aligned with sustainable environmental policies underpinning the Sustainable Development Goals and the UN Agenda 2030.

5. Future Perspectives

To further explore the cosmetic potential of Passiflora by-products, it is essential to prioritize the phytochemical characterization of extracts from less studied species, such as cholupa and Indian curuba. Exploration of cosmetic activities related to skin protection and anti-aging should continue through both in vitro models and clinical trials to ensure safety and efficacy.

It is also important to qualitatively characterize Passiflora byproducts in Colombia and in the South American countries that are leaders in the cultivation of these species to estimate the environmental impact generated by using Passiflora by-products.

Utilizing high-production species such as passion fruit and granadilla could facilitate the inclusion of Colombian extracts in international cosmetic regulations, such as CosIng, thereby positioning them as potential ingredients in cosmetic product research and development.