Bringing Science to the Periphery Through Distance Learning: Barriers and Opportunities

Abstract

Students in peripheral areas often score lower in the sciences than those in urban areas. This study explores the feasibility of distance learning in making quality science education accessible everywhere. In 2016, the Israeli government established technological infrastructure in southern peripheral schools, but these resources remained largely unused. From 2018 to 2019, we interviewed school principals and education department directors, and surveyed teachers and students about distance learning. The findings showed hesitance among educators to implement distance learning for expanding science subjects, despite their confidence in using it when necessary. After the mandatory shift to distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, attitudes towards technology in remote schools improved. Barriers to implementing distance learning were found to be mainly due to internal factors like preconceived notions, which limited the development of necessary skills among teachers and students. We recommend addressing internal resistance to distance learning in teacher training programs.

1. Introduction

Providing students living in the periphery with high-level lessons in the sciences poses an international challenge (Macintyre & Macdonald, 2011; Nilsen et al., 2023; Sasson, 2019). Limited exposure to the world of science hinders the professional and academic development of students in the periphery (Yogev, 2008) and increases gaps between the academic achievements of students living outside and within urban centers (Chesters & Cuervo, 2021; Haisraeli, 2021). Distance learning (DL) (DL in the periphery was introduced before the COVID-19 pandemic as a means of enhancing science learning in remote regions, through dedicated computerized centers) could enable students in the periphery to connect with remote science centers and enhance their science literacy (Rao et al., 2011; Novotná & Demkanin, 2024; Chesters & Cuervo, 2021). However, until recently, DL had hardly been implemented in peripheral education systems (Clark, 2008; Rundel & Salemink, 2021).

The aim of this study is to understand what prevents the adoption of DL in the periphery. The southern periphery of Israel served as a case study. It was chosen in light of the significant government investment in technological infrastructure in 2016, which largely remained unused. The first phase of the study was held in 2018–2019. In 2020, further data were collected to examine the impact of forced DL (during the COVID-19 lockdown) on the attitudes of students, teachers, and principals.

1.1. The Educational Challenge in the Periphery

Isolated communities suffer from inequalities regarding education options and quality compared to urban populations (Macintyre & Macdonald, 2011; Nilsen et al., 2023; Rao et al., 2011; Sasson, 2019). Students and teachers in the periphery are less exposed to the sciences and to expert science teachers (Weininger, 2014; Davidson & Poor, 2019). It is often difficult for students in the periphery to participate in educational frameworks outside of their living area, making the geographical periphery also a social one (Haisraeli, 2021; Miller et al., 2019). The distance between peripheral schools and science centers, alongside insufficient public transport, pose a logistic challenge (Gökdaş & Kayri, 2005; Hwang, 2008). Thus, local solutions are often difficult to implement (Ayalon et al., 2008). Such barriers limit access to quality education, resulting in lower academic achievements (Nilsen et al., 2023), difficulty developing cultural capital (Haisraeli, 2021), and less chance of being accepted into higher education, compared to urban students (Chesters & Cuervo, 2021).

1.2. The Potential and Challenges of Distance Learning

Distance learning (DL) is achieved through information and communication technologies (ICT), and provides a flexible learning environment (Spiteri & Chang Rundgren, 2020). As such, DL develops higher learning skills, such as independent learning (Zhou et al., 2020). In the periphery, DL overcomes geographical and social barriers, enabling students from isolated schools to partake in various educational projects and courses (Ortagus, 2017; Bryant, 2021). DL offers interesting, interactive, and fast learning options (Ness & Lin, 2015). When combined with ICT, DL can exemplify complex or abstract scientific processes (Geer & Sweeney, 2012) using a wide range of tools and methods (Demkanin & Sands, 2023).

Computerized environments have been shown to enhance all aspects of the learning experience (Hsu, 2016; Luterbach & Brown, 2011), and diverse technological tools have promoted changes in teaching methods (Walan, 2020). Thanks to the digital footprints made by students and teachers (Kent et al., 2019), analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of various methods can be used to fine-tune lessons to suit the needs of individual students (Ferguson, 2012).

However, to integrate DL and ICT in education systems, conceptual and practical challenges regarding organization, pedagogy, and technology must first be identified (Lassoued et al., 2020; Shamir-Inbal & Blau, 2021; Schleicher, 2020). The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Model (TPACK; Mishra, 2019) demonstrates these complex challenges in detail. The TPACK model is based on three critical knowledge components necessary for enhancing teaching quality (Figure 1): content knowledge (CK), technological knowledge (TK), and pedagogical knowledge (PK), which together create pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and technology content knowledge (TCK). Numerous TPACK tools developed by researchers and teachers (Graham et al., 2009; Willermark, 2018) enable teachers to constantly improve their TPACK skills, resulting in coherent lessons that are appealing and motivating for the students (Koehler et al., 2011).

Studies show that teachers with experience using technology do so differently than inexperienced teachers, thereby improving their teaching quality (Ertmer et al., 2012; Fraillon et al., 2020a; Lachner et al., 2021; Levy et al., 2016; Lin et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2022). A positive correlation has been found between TPACK and teachers’ attitudes toward change, as well as a positive correlation between teachers’ attitudes toward change and their perception of school as a learning organization (Avidov-Ungar & Eshet-Alkalai, 2011).

Before implementing a DL program, teachers and students must have access to technological infrastructure (computers, etc.) at school and home, thereby overcoming the digital gap. However, teachers often have to deal with technophobia, i.e., the fear of using advanced technological means and other internal barriers (Novotná & Demkanin, 2024). In a study on science teachers in South Africa, researchers found that the teachers’ use of ICT was hindered mainly by internal factors, such as their perceptions of the ease or usefulness of such technologies, rather than external factors, such as the quality and availability of the technology (George & Ogunniyi, 2016). Similar findings were seen in an earlier study conducted in the United States and Singapore (Hew & Brush, 2007), whereby almost half of the inhibitory factors that prevented teachers from utilizing ICT tools were internal. Novotná and Demkanin (2024) found that physics teachers who favor inquiry-based learning are more likely to incorporate advanced technology into teaching than teachers who favor systematic knowledge transfer. Additionally, a study on chemistry teachers (Eidelman et al., 2014) revealed that most participants used first-tier technologies, such as Word documents, existing presentations, and videos. However, they described themselves as feeling comfortable with technology. Few teachers used second-tier technological aids, such as Google Docs or Moodle. During COVID-19 lockdowns, students’ difficulties in understanding material were found to stem from teachers’ insufficient technological knowledge and skills needed for distance teaching (Carrillo & Flores, 2020), insufficient allocation of learning time, and inadequate infrastructure (Hebebci et al., 2020; Zhao & Watterston, 2021).

The Technology Accepted Model (TAM) developed by Davis (1989) predicts when new data systems will be used, and suggests that their perceived usefulness and ease of use, as viewed by teachers, are central components. The model was developed to differentiate between users who object to using information systems and those who do not object (Davis et al., 1989). Moreover, as seen in Figure 2, perceived usefulness and ease of use directly and indirectly impact attitudes regarding using information technology (IT), behavioral intentions (i.e., acceptance), and actual use. TAM assessment tools have been found to be reliable and valid (Mathieson et al., 2001). A meta-analysis conducted by Scherer et al. (2019) found that TAM explained the relation between technology acceptance and teachers’ training and technological capabilities.

In addition to technological and perceptual challenges, DL also poses pedagogical ones (Mishra, 2019), as the shift is not simply a matter of transitioning from traditional teaching methods in the classroom to conveying materials through online media (Carrillo & Flores, 2020; Yates et al., 2021).

In a meta-analysis, Hattie (2009) found that the best predictors of students’ achievements following DL are related to teachers’ activities, not to the technology used. In order to benefit from the advantages of DL, teachers must adapt their study models and student–teacher relations, rather than convey predefined knowledge to students (Blau & Shamir-Inbal, 2017). The constructivist theory, based on the recognition that significant learning occurs through learners’ internal processes, should provide the foundation for DL (Ambrose & Lovett, 2014). According to this learning theory, new information can be conveyed, but whether new concepts will (or will not) be absorbed by students depends on additional factors, such as students’ prior knowledge and perceptions, habits, culture-related perceptions (Ziguras, 2001), emotional state, and values (Davis & Sumara, 2002). As such, teachers become mentors and mediators for students’ independent learning (Koehler et al., 2011), and must address students holistically when planning and executing curriculum programs (Ambrose & Lovett, 2014). Accordingly, DL emphasizes flexibility and problem-solving capabilities, rather than striving to develop specific knowledge among students (Himmetoglu et al., 2020; Novotná & Demkanin, 2024; Paas et al., 2004).

An additional challenge of implementing DL relates to the students themselves, who must develop new skills, such as independent learning, creative thinking, personal responsibility, the ability to retrieve relevant and reliable information, and most importantly, digital literacy (Feerrar, 2019; Njenga, 2018; Pangrazio et al., 2020; Le et al., 2022). When examining four factors that positively impact learners’ attitudes towards DL (the course environment, learners’ characteristics, learners’ success, and the institution’s functioning), Tallent-Runnels et al. (2006) found a more positive attitude towards DL among students with prior ICT knowledge and experience. In this aspect, too, there is a difference between the center and the periphery, as inequality in digital literacy has been demonstrated between students from central regions versus peripheral ones (Ganayem et al., 2009).

Moreover, while the benefits of simple access to endless information via ICT are clear, students may face cognitive challenges due to the overload of new information, affecting their ability to absorb extensive data (Paas et al., 2004). Self-regulating learning skills are seen as a major requirement for implementing ICT in a DL environment (Tsai, 2011). Self-regulated learners who are motivated and active participants are perceived as metacognitive; they must plan, set goals, organize, and self-evaluate several times during the learning process (Zimmerman, 2008). These are important traits, as research indicates a positive correlation between self-regulated learning and academic achievements (Eidelman & Shwartz, 2021). Thus, integrating DL and ICT in schools presents students with significant cognitive challenges and requires pedagogical changes among teachers and administrators (Carrillo & Flores, 2020; Thurlings et al., 2014).

Teachers and students must possess suitable technological and pedagogical skills for DL and ICT to become integral to school routines (Blau & Shamir-Inbal, 2017; Novotná & Demkanin, 2024). Therefore, it is unsurprising that many teachers refrain from using ICT when teaching, even when it is readily available, thereby undermining its importance (Fraillon et al., 2020b). Research has indicated that teachers and principals frequently reject innovative pedagogical and organizational changes within the education system, such as the use of educational technologies designed to enhance teaching, learning, and instruction (Avidov-Ungar & Eshet-Alkalai, 2011; Levin & Fullan, 2008).

2. Methodology

2.1. Research Questions

This study’s main research question was as follows: What obstacles hinder the implementation of distance learning (DL) technologies in the periphery? We also defined the following specific questions:

RQ1: How do educators and students in southern Israel perceive DL as a means of fostering science literacy in the periphery?

RQ2: How do educators and students define the challenges that DL poses?

Following the forced use of DL in winter 2020, a third research question was added:

RQ3: Has forced use of DL changed the interviewees’ perceptions regarding RQ1 and RQ2, and if so, how?

Hypothesis: Q1 and Q2 are qualitative questions. Although it is not customary to formulate hypotheses for qualitative questions (Q1 and Q2), we hypothesized that since our case study in the peripheral south of Israel has available technological solutions, the main obstacles to implementing DL are internal-organizational and perceptional. Regarding Q3, we hypothesized that using technology for learning would transform students’ and teachers’ perceptions of DL.

2.2. Research Field

The study was conducted in the southern periphery of Israel (the Negev Desert), an area encompassing 10,500 km² (Figure 3). This region is home to 115,700 residents living in settlements with 300–10,000 inhabitants. The communities are either urban or rural, and Jewish or Bedouin-Muslim. Lessons in Jewish schools are taught in Hebrew, while lessons in Bedouin schools are taught in Arabic. Town schools are subject to municipal jurisdiction; regional schools, where students from small villages study, are subject to regional jurisdiction. Schools in this region are relatively small (150–300 students), and as such, are unable to offer students a wide range of subjects, teaching methods, and Bagrut credits (in Israel, the Bagrut Certificate confirms that the student has successfully completed the high school matriculation examinations in a range of subjects, and is a prerequisite for higher education). The closest urban center is Beer Sheba, home to a university and a science education center. Yet the distances between this city and most villages (black dots in Figure 3) prevent students and teachers from utilizing these resources (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2019).

According to a report by the Central Bureau of Statistics (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2019). The Face of Society in Israel: Gaps Between Center and Periphery. Report No. 11 https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/DocLib/2019/rep_11/accessibility.pdf (accessed on 5 January 2025) [Hebrew]) of Israel, in 2017, 20.5% of high school students in the country’s center were studying advanced mathematics, compared to a mere 10.3% in the periphery. Among high school graduates, 47.5% of students from the center enrolled in university, compared to 36.5% from the periphery. Additionally, students from the periphery were more likely to study humanities or social sciences than science, medicine, or technology.

The reasons for these gaps are numerous. It is hard for schools in the geographical periphery to hire and retain good science teachers. Residents of the periphery, many of whom are of low socioeconomic status, cannot fund tutoring for their children (Blass, 2020). In addition, parents with a low socioeconomic status tend to encourage their children to study practical subjects rather than academic subjects (Haisraeli, 2021).

In 2016, DL was recognized as a possible solution to close this gap, and well-equipped computer labs and dedicated DL centers were built in most settlements in the region (East Negev site). However, these were hardly used, as schools preferred to maintain traditional learning methods.

The research participants included education department directors in the local and regional councils, school principals, high school science teachers, and high school students from south Israel. The 15–18-year-old students were at the stage when they had to choose electives for their Bagrut matriculation exams.

COVID-19 restrictions forced schools to close intermittently. When this state of emergency became long-term, teachers, students, and parents had to use DL to maintain teacher/student contact and provide lessons according to the pre-determined syllabi. Although some teachers were already familiar with the asynchronous platform, most lacked formal training and experience in DL teaching. Many teachers found remote teaching difficult, and many students did not have sufficient access to a home computer (Donham et al., 2022). Teachers were immediately required to use digital platforms such as Zoom, recommended by the Israel Ministry of Education. Zoom lessons imitate a face-to-face (F2F) encounter, in which the teachers instruct, and the students listen and (hopefully) internalize the information (Serhan, 2020).

Shortly after embarking on DL, the various parties voiced their concerns about DL via public media. We therefore conducted an additional series of interviews with department directors and school principals, and asked teachers and students to complete an additional questionnaire regarding their attitudes towards DL after they were forced to use it. These findings were then compared to those gathered at the onset of our research.

2.3. Data Collection and Analysis

We used a mixed methods approach (Driscoll et al., 2007) to analyze our data. To answer RQ1 and RQ2 using qualitative data, we conducted semi-structured interviews (Appendix A.1) in 2018–2019 with six education department directors in Jewish and Bedouin towns and regional councils, and ten Jewish and Bedouin school principals. The interviews took place in face-to-face meetings in the interviewees’ offices. The interviews lasted between 40 and 60 min. In 2020, we conducted the same semi-structured interviews, but telephonically due to the limitations of the pandemic, with two education department directors in Jewish and Bedouin towns and regional councils, and with five Jewish and Bedouin principals. The interviews were then analyzed using the Content Analysis Approach (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008) to extract central themes from the data.

The main insights achieved from the interviews then served as the basis for two closed-ended and structured Likert-type questionnaires for teachers and students (Appendix A.2 and Appendix A.3). Different questionnaires were used for the teachers and the students. The respondents were asked to rate items on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The questionnaires were validated through a pilot study that included teachers and students outside the research region. Responses were gathered via telephone in Hebrew or Arabic, and participants were compensated for their time with a food voucher. The number of participants in each survey was as follows:

Stage I: In 2019, 70 teachers and 36 students completed the questionnaires.

Stage II: In 2020, 70 teachers and 40 students completed the questionnaires.

The telephone survey was ineffective among the Bedouin population, and printed questionnaires could not be circulated due to frequent lockdowns in Israel. Therefore, only the Jewish participants were included in the second survey. The data were analyzed through ANOVA with R. The study design was full factorial, with 2 × 2 groups: students vs. teachers, and 2019 vs. 2020.

3. Results

In 2018–2019, the interviews and surveys indicated a lack of enthusiasm and even objection to distance learning (DL) as a means of expanding the Bagrut topics offered to students and increasing the Bagrut success rate of students in the periphery. Teachers were found to be confident in their ability to implement DL if needed.

The later survey indicated a change in the attitudes of teachers and students towards DL. Some teachers and principals perceived the COVID-19 crisis as an opportunity to improve technological infrastructure. They stated that using ICT in remote schools, combined with F2F encounters, could benefit teachers and students. The difference in perceptions between the two research stages sheds light on the obstacles that hinder the use of DL, particularly bringing science to the periphery through DL.

Table 1. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the questionnaire.

6	4	3	2	Questions
ICT usage	Facilitating conditions items	UTAT items	Distance Learning Attitude	Block
Teachers 2018–2019
64	64	65	68	Number of responses
5	3	9	7	Number of items
0.785	0.816	0.804	0.803	Cronbach’s alpha
Teachers 2020
70	70	70	70	Number of responses
5	3	9	7	Number of items
0.21	0.894	0.794	0.795	Cronbach’s alpha
Students 2018–2019
38		39	39	Number of responses
5		8	6	Number of items
0.843		0.689	0.656	Cronbach’s alpha
Students 2020
40		40	40	Number of responses
5		8	6	Number of items
0.958		0.879	0.626	Cronbach’s alpha

presents the Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the different blocks in the questionnaire. Alpha values greater than 0.7 are considered reliable. It is evident that all the blocks in the teachers’ surveys, apart from ICT usage in 2020, have an alpha greater than 0.7. The use of ICT during the second survey has a low alpha, because the necessity of using ICT tools created many variations in teachers’ use of ICT. Coordinated use, as in the first survey, became uncoordinated after the forced use of ICT. The students’ responses to the statements about the usefulness of distance learning show marginal reliability (alpha of 0.65 and 0.626). At the outset, while constructing the questionnaire, this block of statements was intended to test different aspects of the opportunities in distance learning. Since this context was multidimensional, we did not expect a high alpha coefficient. The students’ responses to the statements may have been coordinated differently among different students.

3.1. Findings Relating to RQ1

The examination of how educators perceived DL as a means for developing high-quality, varied science learning in the periphery showed that before the pandemic, educators were unenthusiastic about this option; most principals doubted DL or completely rejected it. Their reasons included organizational and pedagogical aspects, as expressed by one principal: “Our school is small, if our students participate in DL Bagrut tracks, we won’t be able to offer in-school Bagrut tracks and I won’t be able to provide teachers with full-time jobs”. Another principal explained that “[we are] very concerned about the [small] number of students [at our school]. We don’t allow external tracks because it will harm the existing [in-school] tracks”. An additional obstacle expressed by principals related to difficulties in providing ongoing support for students in DL programs, which could prevent them from achieving a complete Bagrut certificate.

Directors of education departments in the more remote regional councils had a positive opinion of DL; some perceived DL as an opportunity for offering additional electives to students. The principals of Bedouin schools (which are usually larger than the Jewish schools in the area, and therefore offer a greater range of Bagrut subjects) perceived DL as an opportunity for Arab and Jewish students to meet and study together on equal footing.

In general, technological infrastructure and teachers’ DL experiences were not perceived as significant problems by most principals. However, many did mention that the lack of technical-support employees hindered the implementation of DL, in addition to teachers’ lack of training. One Bedouin principal explained: “In a town with lots of students… there are many teachers. Plenty of budgets allocated to education in the Bedouin sector. [The town’s educational vision is] practicing and developing DL capabilities from a young age”. Another principal explained the difficulty in training teachers in the periphery to use ICT: “Teachers don’t participate in trainings… If there is a teacher who’s crazy about it, then we can open a DL track. But there isn’t… The more veteran teachers don’t have the skills, and there isn’t a next-generation…” Yet another principal added: “The issue of distance is significant. Training requires traveling to the center of the country [2–4 hours’ drive]. Teachers don’t feel that they have to go to training because they have a job either way. Teachers aren’t competing over their jobs”.

3.2. Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Distance Learning in 2018–2019

In the following subsection, we will describe the responses to the questionnaire. For each response, the mean (M) of the answers is indicated. The responses are also presented in

Table 2. Attitudes of teachers and students in the periphery regarding the use of distance learning. Note the changes between 2018–2019 and 2020, before and during the COVID-19 lockdowns. A graphical representation of these findings can be found in Appendix B.

Students 2020	Students 2018–2019	Teachers 2020	Teachers 2018–2019	Statements (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree)
		1.87	1.64	School electives must be closed to increase students’ success rate in Bagrut exams.	q1_1
		2.67	3.51	Additional electives must be opened to increase students’ success rate in Bagrut exams.	q1_2
3.33	4.13	3.30	3.74	My students would like more electives to be offered.	q1_3
3.15	3.54	2.84	3.27	Students should be encouraged to enroll in a regional science virtual/blended learning elective that does not exist at their school.	q1_4
		1.60	1.71	Non-science electives should be closed at school (for example, communication) to enable additional science electives to be opened.	q1_5
		2.97	3.19	The lack of Bagrut matriculation teachers is the main barrier to opening unique electives.	q1_6
2.68	3.18	2.29	2.67	In my opinion, if my students had a choice, they would choose to enroll in a regional virtual/blended learning elective for matriculation instead of another elective at school.	q1_7
		2.79	2.97	The lack of computers and internet at school is a barrier to opening distance learning electives for Bagrut matriculation.	q2_1
		3.00	3.35	The lack of ICT and computing skills workshops for teachers is a barrier to opening distance learning electives for Bagrut matriculation.	q2_2
		2.90	3.10	The lack of an ICT support technician at school is a barrier to opening distance learning electives for Bagrut matriculation.	q2_3
		3.39	3.50	The lack of a computer room (including computers with an internet connection and a comfortable and quiet learning space) is a barrier to opening distance learning electives for Bagrut matriculation.	q2_4
2.65	2.87	3.00	2.96	The school and management fully support students who wish to participate in distance learning by providing computers and an internet connection.	q2_5
2.00	2.56	2.41	2.40	The school and management fully support students who wish to participate in distance learning by providing a late ride (school bus) to his/her city/town.	q2_6
2.53	3.03	2.87	2.88	The school and the management fully support students who wish to participate in distance learning by providing technical support.	q2_7
3.10	3.95	3.60	3.31	The distance learning system supports my study needs.	q3_1
		3.30	3.15	If I use the distance learning system, I will be able to work additional hours.	q3_2
2.70	3.51			If I use the distance learning system, I will increase my chances of completing my Bagrut matriculation with high grades.	q3_1b
2.93	3.82	2.91	3.60	I assume that using the distance learning system will allow me to teach material faster.	q3_3
2.85	3.77	4.10	3.82	I assume that I will easily reach a high skill level of using the distance learning system.	q3_4
3.45	4.03	4.06	4.08	I assume that I will find the distance learning system easy to use.	q3_5
4.10	4.26	3.20	3.42	My students think I should use the distance learning system.	q3_6
3.15	3.72	3.57	3.31	My friends think I should use the distance learning system	q3_7
		3.50	2.97	The school’s management assists teachers in using the distance learning system.	q3_8
3.68	3.56	3.74	3.31	Generally, the school’s management supports the use of the distance learning system.	q3_9
		3.01	3.34	I intend to teach using the distance learning system.	q4_1
		2.87	3.09	I intend to use the distance learning system during the evening hours to support my students.	q4_2
		3.00	2.84	I am planning to use the distance learning system for the next few months.	q4_3
				How often do you use the following tools? (1—multiple times a day; 5—rarely)
1.23	1.26	1.09	1.28	Browsing the internet	q6_1
1.25	1.37	1.27	1.33	Apps on my smartphone	q6_2
1.55	1.47	1.27	1.44	Search engines	q6_3
1.45	1.76	2.64	2.31	Social media (Facebook, Instagram)	q6_4
1.30	1.21	1.1	1.30	WhatsApp (messaging software)	q6_5

; significant differences are shown in bold. The responses are on a Likert scale, with 1 being ’strongly disagree’ and 5 being ’strongly agree’.

Most teachers did not believe that Bagrut electives should be limited to increase Bagrut success rates in the south (M = 1.64), or that additional Bagrut subjects should be offered for the same reason (M = 3.51). Although most teachers agreed that certain electives should not be closed (rated 1, strongly disagree), opinions about offering additional electives varied. The teachers believed that their students would want additional options for Bagrut subjects (M = 3.74). When asked whether teachers should encourage their students to enroll in regional science study programs (rather than their school’s Bagrut electives), agreement was moderate (M = 3.27). The teachers did not believe that non-science electives should be closed to make room for science electives (M = 1.71). The teachers believed to a moderate degree that a shortage of teachers posed an obstacle to opening unique Bagrut electives (M = 3.19), and that students would choose the regional distance learning Bagrut programs if offered (M = 2.67). When examining which factors posed an obstacle to opening regional DL Bagrut programs, the teachers highly agreed that the reasons were a lack of ICT rooms (M = 3.50), followed by a lack of teacher training (M = 3.35), a lack of technical support staff (M = 3.10), and insufficient computers and internet connections (M = 2.97). The teachers only slightly agreed that students who wished to study regional DL courses could obtain full support for transportation (M = 2.40), but agreed moderately that they did receive adequate technical support (M = 2.88).

Most teachers expressed indifferences towards learning management systems (LMSs). In addition, most stated that students would not want to study a regional distance learning Bagrut elective, rating this possibility lower than the students did. The teachers perceived themselves as technologically capable. The teachers tended to agree that LMSs could be useful (M = 3.31), as they would enable them to increase their salary (M = 3.15) and teach faster (M = 3.60). Moreover, the teachers stated that it would be easy for them to acquire control of these LMSs (M = 3.82), and they would find them easy to use (M = 4.08). Teachers beliefs that students thought LMSs should be implemented were only slightly above average (M = 3.42). The teachers also stated that LMSs should be used (M = 3.31), but did not believe that the school principal expected them to use them (M = 2.97). In general, the teachers believed that the school’s management was not very supportive of using DL (M = 3.31). Finally, the teachers stated that they intended to use LMSs to a moderate degree (M = 3.34), even during the evenings (M = 3.09), but that they would use LMSs over the next few months to a low degree (M = 2.84).

Finally, 2 of the 64 teachers stated that they did not own a smartphone, 5 that they did not have a computer at home, and 7 that they did not have a computer or internet connection at school. Moreover, 60 teachers stated that they used the internet at least once a day and used smartphone applications at least once a day; and 57 teachers sought information via Google and used text-messaging applications; however, only 41 teachers stated that they used social media.

3.3. Students’ Attitudes Towards Distance Learning in 2018–2019

Unlike the teachers (M = 2.67), the students expressed a desire to participate in regional DL Bagrut electives (M = 3.18). Students expressed a higher desire to choose an ICT Bagrut elective than their teachers perceived them to. Like the teachers, however, the students perceived themselves as being technologically oriented and as having adequate access to technological infrastructure.

When summarizing the main findings among the teachers and students in 2019, the teachers were hesitant or unwilling to use DL, and expressed a lack of relevant pedagogical training or ICT tools for conducting DL. The teachers did not perceive LMSs as a useful tool, while the students did. Both teachers and students believed they could easily become proficient in the system, and they similarly rated their perception of the system as easy to use.

3.4. Findings Relating to RQ2

Our findings show that for most teachers and students, DL was a foreign concept in 2018–2019 in relation to teacher training, school organization, and teacher and student experience. In addition to difficulties maintaining learning routines without access to a computer, tablet, or smartphone for every family member, DL was perceived as incapable of enabling meaningful learning. The participants also believed that students would not join DL classes or complete their given assignments, and would eventually quit school. The teachers’ ability to evaluate the students’ performance was also expected to be harmed by implementing DL.

3.5. Findings Relating to RQ3

In response to COVID-19 lockdowns, education was conveyed via DL. This unexpected change allowed us to re-collect data and examine participants’ attitudes towards DL after experiencing it. Eight of the sixteen principals who participated in the first stage were interviewed again; they expressed very different attitudes towards DL this time.

The principals now believed that DL should play a more central role in the education system in the southern periphery, with some even hoping that the pandemic would accelerate this process. One principal of a Bedouin school stated that the school’s internet site should be used more (i.e., asynchronous learning) as a means for preparing for all types of emergencies: “… a state of war or Coronavirus situation, we live in a country where things can change. [Emergency states] offer a good direction for thinking about things that the education system can develop and lead. I’ll give you a simple example: The school website contains all of the learning materials… enabling students to access the site through their phones and prepare for exams. This is good for the child and the teacher. All you need is a bit of good will to do such things”. This principal also added that teacher–parent ties have been beneficial for adapting DL to individual students.

Unlike perceptions in 2018–2019, whereby teachers had adequate training and access to advanced ICT, the principals now stated that in-depth change was needed. One principal said: “Very intense training is needed for the education teams… as well as support that includes both technical training and innovative pedagogical perceptions: How can teachers let go of their place in the classroom to become mentors and mediators instead, with students transitioning and becoming independent learners. Training needs to occur at all levels: principals, teachers, students, and even parents”.

Another principal described the changes, emphasizing that DL should not replace F2F learning, but the two should be combined: “We were in a really bad way regarding ICT, really bad, the school hardly has any budgets… I mean, there were objections to all this… technology. We preferred human contact with each other, and we didn’t really deal with technology. But now, suddenly, this is a chance for us to discover a whole new world… we let go of our objections to technology because we had no choice. Even those who are technologically challenged had no choice. It’s not like everyone now wants only to use technology but it is definitely something complementary”.

Another principal explained that teachers not only need to overcome technological gaps, but also must receive pedagogical support and training, to enable the combination of conventional and DL: “Teachers should be trained, helped… we would be happy to revert to conventional learning because, with all due respect, conventional learning has a lot of advantages. But in my opinion, combining ICT is very important!”.

3.6. Changes in Attitudes Towards Distance Learning in 2020

Teachers (M = 3.30) and students (M = 3.32) wanted additional Bagrut electives to be offered via DL, yet both averages were lower in the 2019 surveys. No significant differences were found between students and teachers in their responses to the following two questions: Would schools provide a computer and internet connection for students who want to participate in DL? Would students who want to participate in DL receive support from the school regarding transportation after school hours? However, students felt that if they participated in DL, they would not receive the school’s support regarding transportation (M = 2.56 on 2019 and M = 2.0 in 2020), while teachers rated this perception higher at both stages (M = 2.40 in 2019 and M = 2.41 in 2020). Regarding technical support for those participating in DL Bagrut electives, no significant decrease was found among teachers at the second stage (M = 2.88 compared to M = 2.87 in 2020). On the other hand, a significant decrease was seen among students who believed they would not receive technical support from the school: M = 3.03 in 2019, compared to M = 2.53 in 2020.

An interesting finding relates to the question of whether DL is useful. As seen in Figure 4, there was an increase in the teachers’ ratings regarding the usefulness of DL, from M = 3.31 to M = 3.60 from 2019 to 2020; on the other hand, there was a decrease in the students’ ratings, from M = 3.95 to M = 3.10.

On the other hand, no differences were found between teachers and students regarding the following perception: “If I use the distance learning system, I will increase my chances of completing my Bagrut matriculation with high grades”; the perceptions of both groups decreased at the second stage. Regarding the claim that DL would increase learning speed, students and teachers changed their rating from M = 3.60 and M = 3.82, to M = 2.91 and M = 2.93, respectively. A change in trend was seen regarding the ability to achieve strong capabilities in using DL, with teachers and students rating this statement similarly in the first stage (M = 3.82 and M = 3.77, respectively). However, in the second stage, students significantly reduced their agreement (from M = 3.77 to M = 2.85). On the other hand, an increase was seen in the teachers’ rating of this item, (from M = 3.82 to M = 4.10) following their actual use of this tool (Figure 5).

Teachers and students both lowered their perceptions regarding ease of use of DL; this decrease was greater among students (from M = 4.03 to M = 3.45) than among teachers (from M = 4.08 to M = 4.06) (Figure 6).

Regarding the item “Do my friends think I should use the distance learning system?”, students exhibited a small but significant decrease (from M = 3.72 to M = 3.15), while teachers exhibited an increase (from M = 3.30 to M = 3.57). Regarding the statement, “My school has adequate computers and internet connections for me to use”, an increase was seen among students (from M = 1.03 to M = 1.18), while little change was seen among teachers (M = 1.11 and M = 1.10), from the first to second phase. Regarding their use of social media, a significant difference was observed between teachers and students, who were asked to rate their use on a scale of 1 (a number of times a day) to 5 (rarely). In general, teachers used social media less than students did. Yet, in 2020, there was a decrease (a higher score indicates less usage) in teachers’ use of social media (from M = 2.31 in 2019 to M = 2.64 in 2020), compared to an increase in the students’ use (from M = 1.76 to M = 1.45).

Finally, a t-test was conducted to compare the teachers’ attitudes in the first and second study phases. The results indicated that in 2020, teachers were significantly less likely to state that additional Bagrut electives should be offered (via DL) as a means of increasing Bagrut success rates (M = 3.51 decreased to M = 2.67, df = 136, t = 3.74 p < 0.0002). Yet, they were more likely to agree that the school management helped teachers to implement DL (M = 2.97 increased to M = 3.5, df = 133, t = −2.189, p-value < 0.03). No other significant differences were found between the results before and during the pandemic.

We observed (Table 2) that most teachers’ and students’ opinions were similar. Teachers underestimated students’ desire to pursue additional learning electives. There was moderate to low support for this initiative across all levels, and the main barrier to opening new tracks was a lack of qualified teachers (q1_1–q1_7).

Among school principals, three main trends were evident regarding the opening of additional tracks:

• Small student numbers: Principals highlighted that the small number of school students poses a challenge. If many tracks are opened, insufficient students will populate them.
• Limited teaching positions: Principals expressed concern that opening local or regional tracks may further reduce teacher employment percentages, creating challenges in teacher employment and the overall teaching composition in the school.
• Student dropout from a matriculation program during remote learning may hinder their ability to complete their matriculation certificate.
• Geographical isolation and accessibility: The principals identified geographical isolation, distance from science centers, and lack of accessibility as significant barriers.

4. Discussion

Despite the proven benefits of DL (Fraillon et al., 2020a; Lachner et al., 2021) and the potential to improve scientific literacy in the periphery by using ICT (Ortagus, 2017), the data collected in 2018–2019 regarding Q1 and Q2 indicate that school principals and teachers discouraged their students from participating in DL programs. Their arguments were primarily organizational, e.g., that small schools could not support regional (science) learning electives while supporting the schools’ programs. However, it seems that the main barrier to using DL in 2019 was internal. Students and teachers expressed a lack of enthusiasm about using DL technology, and did not perceive it as applicable. At the same time, they expressed confidence that they could easily develop skills for using ICT if needed, i.e., technology was not a barrier to DL. This perception can explain the minimal investment in training of local teachers in conducting DL before the pandemic; a similar phenomenon has been described in other parts of the world (Fraillon et al., 2020a; Francom et al., 2021; Rundel & Salemink, 2021).

The TPACK model indicates the many technological and pedagogical skills that teachers need to use ICT effectively (Koehler & Mishra, 2009; Willermark, 2018). Teacher training in ICT tools enhances the efficiency and enjoyment of DL among students (Levy et al., 2016; Ravid, 2004). Teachers’ perceptions that they do not need ICT training create a barrier to change, as noted by Bauer and Kenton (2005) and Turgut and Aslan (2021), who emphasized the importance of experiencing technology-based education in changing teachers’ perceptions of it. This chicken-and-egg effect could partly explain the low use of DL in the southern Israeli periphery, despite the government’s considerable investment in technological infrastructure. As the model suggests, three components are required to achieve educational success in the periphery: content knowledge (CK), technological knowledge (TK), and pedagogical knowledge (PK), which create pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and technology content knowledge (TCK).

Regarding Q3, COVID-19 forced teachers and students to accept DL through existing infrastructure not necessarily intended for this purpose (Hebebci et al., 2020), exposing teachers’ lack of skills and knowledge for conducting DL (Carrillo & Flores, 2020). Teachers used DL technology, but maintained traditional teaching methods (Schleicher, 2020). The teachers’ lack of experience often rendered DL frustrating and tedious (Spiteri & Chang Rundgren, 2020; Yates et al., 2021). This disappointing experience could explain the decrease in students’ perceptions of DL’s usefulness in our 2020 data collection round, and the decrease in their self-estimation regarding their ability to learn from afar easily. This could also explain the significant decrease in the students’ desire to choose DL regional Bagrut classes. Therefore, we conclude that the challenge of assimilating DL in the periphery may have increased in 2020.

However, COVID-19 may also have created an opportunity to improve the use of DL (Zhao & Watterston, 2021). In Israel, the urgent need for DL following lockdowns focused on improving technological infrastructure and developing basic ICT knowledge among teachers. All our interviewees admitted that the pandemic emphasized their need for suitable technology, skills, and support—a finding in line with the TAM (Davis, 1989), whereby the optimal use of ICT will only be implemented if it is straightforward and yields concrete outcomes. This change in perception may be temporary following the state of emergency. Therefore, the education system should seize this opportunity as soon as possible.

Experienced technological teams could support the effective integration of DL and ICT into the education system and increase the teachers’ skills (OECD, 2018). For peripheral schools, using distance communication tools may facilitate the establishment of regional support teams to overcome the distances between isolated schools.

In addition to the barriers, our study revealed some unique opportunities for DL in the periphery. School principals in the Bedouin sector mentioned that positive cooperation with parents during lockdown significantly motivated students to participate in DL lessons. Small peripheral schools can be a convenient platform for nurturing such cooperation. Further research could examine the impact of parental support on developing independent learning skills (Koehler et al., 2011) and self-regulation capabilities during DL (Zhou et al., 2020). The geographical periphery also creates opportunities through proximity to nature, facilitating hybrid programs, including DL and fieldwork. Such blended programs could expand science educational possibilities during routine and emergencies (Demkanin & Sands, 2023; Geer & Sweeney, 2012; Shamir-Inbal & Blau, 2021). Future studies should examine this direction.

5. Conclusions

Despite the unique circumstances of the case study, we suggest the following generalizations based on our findings. Comparing the perceptions of students, teachers, and principals during routine and after forced experience in DL helped us to recognize barriers and challenges in bringing the sciences to the periphery through DL. Objections to DL among teachers and principals may stem from a lack of technological and pedagogical training and inadequate organization. This emphasizes the critical knowledge that educators need for effective technology integration in teaching (Carrillo & Flores, 2020; Demkanin & Sands, 2023). A key conclusion is that government investments in communication technology for schools in the periphery must be paired with appropriate training in DL, specifically addressing teachers’ perceptual barriers pre- and in-service.

6. Research Limitations and Future Studies

One limitation of this study was the inability to distribute translated surveys to Bedouin schools during the COVID-19 lockdowns. As a result, Bedouin schools are under-represented in this research. Future studies focusing on Bedouin schools, which are generally larger and face unique challenges in offering varied matriculation tracks, would offer a broader view on DL in social and geographic peripheries. Additional interesting follow-up studies may explore the relationship between parental support of students’ independent learning and the effectiveness of DL during emergency times, and investigate how COVID-19 lockdowns affected teacher’s acquisition of skills derived from the TPACK model.