Photonics

8 pages, 2037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Nanoplasmonic Optical Fiber Sensors Based on D-Type and Suspended Core Fibers with Metallic Nanowires

by Diego Santos, Ariel Guerreiro and José Manuel Baptista

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030100 - 13 Sep 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3170

The introduction of metallic nanostructures in optical fibers has revolutionized the field of plasmonic sensors since they produce sharper and fine-tuned resonances resulting in higher sensitivities and resolutions. This article evaluates the performance of three different plasmonic optical fiber sensors based on D-type [...] Read more.

The introduction of metallic nanostructures in optical fibers has revolutionized the field of plasmonic sensors since they produce sharper and fine-tuned resonances resulting in higher sensitivities and resolutions. This article evaluates the performance of three different plasmonic optical fiber sensors based on D-type and suspended core fibers with metallic nanowires. It addresses how their different materials, geometry of the components, and their relative position can influence the coupling between the localized plasmonic modes and the guided optical mode. It also evaluates how that affects the spatial distributions of optical power of the different modes and consequently their overlap and coupling, which ultimately impacts the sensor performance. In this work, we use numerical simulations based on finite element methods to validate the importance of tailoring the features of the guided optical mode to promote an enhanced coupling with the localized modes. The results in terms of sensitivity and resolution demonstrate the advantages of using suspended core fibers with metallic nanowires. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances on Applications of Optics and Photonics – Selected Papers from the 4th International Conference on Applications of Optics and Photonics, AOP2019)

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17 pages, 1622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Photonic Time-Stretch Technology with Prismatic Pulse Dispersion towards Fast Real-Time Measurements

by Lei Yang, Hui Chen, Jun Ma, Qian Zhu, Tong Yang and Hongbo Xie

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030099 - 9 Sep 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4521

Abstract

Photonic time-stretch (PTS) technology enables revolutionary technical breakthroughs in ultrafast electronic and optical systems. By means of employing large chromatic dispersion to map the spectrum of an ultrashort optical pulse into a stretched time-domain waveform (namely, using the dispersive Fourier transformation), PTS overcomes [...] Read more.

Photonic time-stretch (PTS) technology enables revolutionary technical breakthroughs in ultrafast electronic and optical systems. By means of employing large chromatic dispersion to map the spectrum of an ultrashort optical pulse into a stretched time-domain waveform (namely, using the dispersive Fourier transformation), PTS overcomes the fundamental speed limitations of conventional techniques. The chromatic dispersion utilized in PTS can be implemented using multiple optical prism arrays, which have the particular advantages of low loss in the extended spectrum outside of the specific telecommunication band, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness. In this article, we propose and demonstrate the PTS technology established for a pair of prisms, which works as a data acquisition approach in ultrafast digitizing, imaging, and measurement regimes. Full article

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13 pages, 888 KiB

Open AccessReview

Optical Imaging in Brainsmatics

by Hua Shi, Yue Guan, Jianwei Chen and Qingming Luo

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030098 - 7 Sep 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3802

Abstract

When neuroscience’s focus moves from molecular and cellular level to systems level, information technology mixes in and cultivates a new branch neuroinformatics. Especially under the investments of brain initiatives all around the world, brain atlases and connectomics are identified as the substructure to [...] Read more.

When neuroscience’s focus moves from molecular and cellular level to systems level, information technology mixes in and cultivates a new branch neuroinformatics. Especially under the investments of brain initiatives all around the world, brain atlases and connectomics are identified as the substructure to understand the brain. We think it is time to call for a potential interdisciplinary subject, brainsmatics, referring to brain-wide spatial informatics science and emphasizing on precise positioning information affiliated to brain-wide connectome, genome, proteome, transcriptome, metabolome, etc. Brainsmatics methodology includes tracing, surveying, visualizing, and analyzing brain-wide spatial information. Among all imaging techniques, optical imaging is the most appropriate solution to achieve whole-brain connectome in consistent single-neuron resolution. This review aims to introduce contributions of optical imaging to brainsmatics studies, especially the major strategies applied in tracing and surveying processes. After discussions on the state-of-the-art technology, the development objectives of optical imaging in brainsmatics field are suggested. We call for a global contribution to the brainsmatics field from all related communities such as neuroscientists, biologists, engineers, programmers, chemists, mathematicians, physicists, clinicians, pharmacists, etc. As the leading approach, optical imaging will, in turn, benefit from the prosperous development of brainsmatics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurophotonics – Optics for the Brain)

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7 pages, 2817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Bending-Induced Degradation of Orbital Angular Momentum Modes in Optical Fibers

by In Joon Lee, Joohyung Song and Sangin Kim

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030097 - 1 Sep 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3572

Abstract

In this work, bending-induced deterioration of orbital angular momentum (OAM) modes in ring core fiber (RCF), photonic crystal fiber (PCF), and vortex fiber (VF) was theoretically investigated: Bending losses, coupling losses, and intermodal crosstalk at the interface between straight and bent optical fibers [...] Read more.

In this work, bending-induced deterioration of orbital angular momentum (OAM) modes in ring core fiber (RCF), photonic crystal fiber (PCF), and vortex fiber (VF) was theoretically investigated: Bending losses, coupling losses, and intermodal crosstalk at the interface between straight and bent optical fibers were investigated from the modal analysis of those three types of OAM mode fibers. In addition, the degradation of a topological charge number of an OAM mode due to the bending-induced birefringence and horizontal mode asymmetry was also investigated. Our investigation revealed that, in all aspects, the PCF is most robust to bending among the three types of optical fibers, and the most serious bending-induced problem in the VF and the RCF is the degradation of the topological charge number. The allowed minimum bending radii of VF and RCF appeared to be ~15 and ~45 mm, respectively, for the specific structures considered in this work. We expect that the methodology and results of our quantitative analysis on bending-induced degradation of OAM modes will be of great use in the design of OAM mode fibers for practical use. Full article

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15 pages, 6581 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Progress in Photonic-Crystal Surface-Emitting Lasers

by Kenji Ishizaki, Menaka De Zoysa and Susumu Noda

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030096 - 29 Aug 2019

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 8619

Abstract

Photonic-crystal surface-emitting lasers (PCSELs) have attracted considerable attention as a novel semiconductor laser that surpasses traditional semiconductor lasers. In this review article, we review the current progress of PCSELs, including the demonstration of large-area coherent oscillation, the control of beam patterns, the demonstration [...] Read more.

Photonic-crystal surface-emitting lasers (PCSELs) have attracted considerable attention as a novel semiconductor laser that surpasses traditional semiconductor lasers. In this review article, we review the current progress of PCSELs, including the demonstration of large-area coherent oscillation, the control of beam patterns, the demonstration of beam steering, and the realization of watt-class and high-beam-quality operation. Furthermore, we show very recent progress in the exploration of high brightness of more than 300 MW cm⁻² sr⁻¹, obtained with a high output power of about 10 W while maintaining a high beam quality M² ~ 2. The PCSELs with such high performances are expected to be applied to a variety of fields, such as laser-based material processing, optical sensing (light-detection and ranging (LiDAR)), and lighting, as they retain the benefits of compact and high-efficiency semiconductor lasers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonic Crystal Laser and Related Optical Devices)

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12 pages, 1533 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrafast Hyperspectral Transient Absorption Spectroscopy: Application to Single Layer Graphene

by Felice Gesuele

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030095 - 29 Aug 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8756

Abstract

We describe the basic principles and the experimental implementation of the hyperspectral transient absorption technique, based on femtosecond laser sources. In this technique the samples were optically “pumped” using the femtosecond tunable pulse delivered by an Optical Parametric Amplifier, and “probed” for changes [...] Read more.

We describe the basic principles and the experimental implementation of the hyperspectral transient absorption technique, based on femtosecond laser sources. In this technique the samples were optically “pumped” using the femtosecond tunable pulse delivered by an Optical Parametric Amplifier, and “probed” for changes in transmission in a broad spectral range with a “white light” laser-generated supercontinuum. The spectra were collected by a pair of multichannel detectors which allowed retrieval of the absorbance change in a wide spectral range in one time. The use of the supercontinuum probe introduced artifacts in the measured 2D data set which could be corrected with a proper calibration of the chirp. The configuration with crossed polarization for pump and probe pulse extended the spectral measured range above and below the pump energy within the same experiment. We showed the versatility of the technique by applying it to the investigation of the charge carrier dynamics in two-dimensional single layer graphene. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Optical Materials and Devices)

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11 pages, 1049 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Performance and Task Duration on Mental Workload during Working Memory Task

by Kosar Khaksari, Emma Condy, John B. Millerhagen, Afrouz A. Anderson, Hadis Dashtestani and Amir H. Gandjbakhche

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030094 - 28 Aug 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5284

Abstract

N-back is a working memory (WM) task to study mental workload on the prefrontal cortex (PFC). We assume that the subject’s performance and changes in mental workload over time depends on the length of the experiment. The performance of the participant can change [...] Read more.

N-back is a working memory (WM) task to study mental workload on the prefrontal cortex (PFC). We assume that the subject’s performance and changes in mental workload over time depends on the length of the experiment. The performance of the participant can change positively due to the participant’s learning process or negatively because of objective mental fatigue and/or sleepiness. In this pilot study, we examined the PFC activation of 23 healthy subjects while they performed an N-back task with two different levels of task difficulty (2-, and 3-back). The hemodynamic responses were analyzed along with the behavioral data (correct answers). A comparison was done between the hemodynamic activation and behavioral data between the two different task levels and between the beginning and end of the 3-back task. Our results show that there is a significant difference between the two task levels, which is due to the difference in task complication. In addition, a significant difference was seen between the beginning and end of the 3-back task in both behavioral data and hemodynamics due to the subject’s learning process throughout the experiment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurophotonics – Optics for the Brain)

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24 pages, 11304 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Tracking of QR Inspired LEA Using Particle Filter for Secured Visual MIMO Communication Based Vehicular Network

by Manikandan Chinnusamy, Rakesh Kumar Sidharthan, Venkatesh Sivanandam, Sai Siva Satwik Kommi, Chandrasekar Mallari Rao and Neelamegam Periasamy

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030093 - 24 Aug 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4109

Abstract

Line of sight (LoS) and security are the fundamental requirement for any secure visual MIMO communication based vehicular networks. Uneven speed, irregular terrains, and uncertain appearance of obstacles disgrace LoS between the visual multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) transmitter and receiver. This paper proposes optimal [...] Read more.

Line of sight (LoS) and security are the fundamental requirement for any secure visual MIMO communication based vehicular networks. Uneven speed, irregular terrains, and uncertain appearance of obstacles disgrace LoS between the visual multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) transmitter and receiver. This paper proposes optimal tracking techniques to maintain LoS using a novel quick response (QR) inspired light emitting array (LEA) pattern. Automatic geometric transformation of the QR code in conjunction with the particle filter is used to track the dynamically varying LEA position. In addition to that, an adaptive threshold technique (ATT) has been proposed to minimize error caused by ambient light variations and interferences. A novel key generation algorithm is also proposed to improve the security of the visual MIMO communication system. It utilizes a customized linear feedback shift register (LFSR) and synthetic color image to generate a stronger key. The randomness test demonstrates the robustness of the proposed key generation technique with a minimal probability value of 0.1223 (>0.01). Simulation and real-time studies have been carried out in the presence of geometric distortions, and the bit error rate (BER) performance is evaluated. Results illustrate that the proposed techniques make the visual MIMO system more secure and reliable for vehicular networks. Full article

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19 pages, 1879 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Optogenetics in Brain Research: From a Strategy to Investigate Physiological Function to a Therapeutic Tool

by Elena Montagni, Francesco Resta, Anna Letizia Allegra Mascaro and Francesco Saverio Pavone

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030092 - 20 Aug 2019

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 9308

Abstract

Dissecting the functional roles of neuronal circuits and their interaction is a crucial step in basic neuroscience and in all the biomedical field. Optogenetics is well-suited to this purpose since it allows us to study the functionality of neuronal networks on multiple scales [...] Read more.

Dissecting the functional roles of neuronal circuits and their interaction is a crucial step in basic neuroscience and in all the biomedical field. Optogenetics is well-suited to this purpose since it allows us to study the functionality of neuronal networks on multiple scales in living organisms. This tool was recently used in a plethora of studies to investigate physiological neuronal circuit function in addition to dysfunctional or pathological conditions. Moreover, optogenetics is emerging as a crucial technique to develop new rehabilitative and therapeutic strategies for many neurodegenerative diseases in pre-clinical models. In this review, we discuss recent applications of optogenetics, starting from fundamental research to pre-clinical applications. Firstly, we described the fundamental components of optogenetics, from light-activated proteins to light delivery systems. Secondly, we showed its applications to study neuronal circuits in physiological or pathological conditions at the cortical and subcortical level, in vivo. Furthermore, the interesting findings achieved using optogenetics as a therapeutic and rehabilitative tool highlighted the potential of this technique for understanding and treating neurological diseases in pre-clinical models. Finally, we showed encouraging results recently obtained by applying optogenetics in human neuronal cells in-vitro. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurophotonics – Optics for the Brain)

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11 pages, 4822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hyperspectral Imaging Bioinspired by Chromatic Blur Vision in Color Blind Animals

by Shuyue Zhan, Weiwen Zhou, Xu Ma and Hui Huang

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030091 - 12 Aug 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4056

Abstract

Hyperspectral imaging remote sensing is mutually restricted in terms of spatial and spectral resolutions, signal-to-noise ratio and exposure time. To deal with this trade-off properly, it is beneficial for imaging systems to have high light flux. In this paper, we put forward a [...] Read more.

Hyperspectral imaging remote sensing is mutually restricted in terms of spatial and spectral resolutions, signal-to-noise ratio and exposure time. To deal with this trade-off properly, it is beneficial for imaging systems to have high light flux. In this paper, we put forward a novel hyperspectral imaging method with high light flux bioinspired by chromatic blur vision in color blind animals. We designed a camera lens with high degree of longitudinal chromatic aberration, a monochrome image sensor captured the chromatic blur images at different focal lengths. Finally, by using the known point spread functions of the chromatic blur imaging system, we process these chromatically blurred images by deconvolution based on singular value decomposition inverse filtering, and the spectral images of a target were restored. We constructed three different targets for validating image restoration based on a typical octopus eyeball imaging system. The results show that the proposed imaging method can effectively extract spectral images from the chromatically blurred images. This study can facilitate development of a novel bionic hyperspectral imaging, which may benefit from the high light flux of a large aperture and provide higher detection sensitivity. Full article

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16 pages, 1480 KiB

Open AccessReview

Update of fNIRS as an Input to Brain–Computer Interfaces: A Review of Research from the Tufts Human–Computer Interaction Laboratory

by Alexa Bosworth, Matthew Russell and Robert J. K. Jacob

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030090 - 4 Aug 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4386

Abstract

Over the past decade, the Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) Lab at Tufts University has been developing real-time, implicit Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCIs) using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). This paper reviews the work of the lab; we explore how we have used fNIRS to develop BCIs [...] Read more.

Over the past decade, the Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) Lab at Tufts University has been developing real-time, implicit Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCIs) using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). This paper reviews the work of the lab; we explore how we have used fNIRS to develop BCIs that are based on a variety of human states, including cognitive workload, multitasking, musical learning applications, and preference detection. Our work indicates that fNIRS is a robust tool for the classification of brain-states in real-time, which can provide programmers with useful information to develop interfaces that are more intuitive and beneficial for the user than are currently possible given today’s human-input (e.g., mouse and keyboard). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurophotonics – Optics for the Brain)

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10 pages, 649 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperOpinion

fNIRS for Tracking Brain Development in the Context of Global Health Projects

by Anna Blasi, Sarah Lloyd-Fox, Laura Katus and Clare E. Elwell

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030089 - 2 Aug 2019

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 6159

Abstract

Over the past 25 years, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has emerged as a valuable tool to study brain function, and it is in younger participants where it has found, arguably, its most successful application. Thanks to its infant-friendly features, the technology has helped [...] Read more.

Over the past 25 years, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has emerged as a valuable tool to study brain function, and it is in younger participants where it has found, arguably, its most successful application. Thanks to its infant-friendly features, the technology has helped shape research in the neurocognitive development field by contributing to our understanding of the neural underpinnings of sensory perception and socio-cognitive skills. Furthermore, it has provided avenues of exploration for markers of compromised brain development. Advances in fNIRS instrumentation and methods have enabled the next step in the evolution of its applications including the investigation of the effects of complex and interacting socio-economic and environmental adversities on brain development. To do this, it is necessary to take fNIRS out of well-resourced research labs (the majority located in high-income countries) to study at-risk populations in resource-poor settings in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Here we review the use of this technology in global health studies, we discuss the implementation of fNIRS studies in LMICs with a particular emphasis on the Brain Imaging for Global Health (BRIGHT) project, and we consider its potential in this emerging field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurophotonics – Optics for the Brain)

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23 pages, 6217 KiB

Open AccessReview

Overcoming Challenges in Large-Core SI-POF-Based System-Level Modeling and Simulation

by Dwight Richards, Alicia Lopez, M. Angeles Losada, Pablo V. Mena, Enrico Ghillino, Javier Mateo, N. Antoniades and Xin Jiang

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030088 - 2 Aug 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3731

Abstract

The application areas for plastic optical fibers such as in-building or aircraft networks usually have tight power budgets and require multiple passive components. In addition, advanced modulation formats are being considered for transmission over plastic optical fibers (POFs) to increase spectral efficiency. In [...] Read more.

The application areas for plastic optical fibers such as in-building or aircraft networks usually have tight power budgets and require multiple passive components. In addition, advanced modulation formats are being considered for transmission over plastic optical fibers (POFs) to increase spectral efficiency. In this scenario, there is a clear need for a flexible and dynamic system-level simulation framework for POFs that includes models of light propagation in POFs and the components that are needed to evaluate the entire system performance. Until recently, commercial simulation software either was designed specifically for single-mode glass fibers or modeled individual guided modes in multimode fibers with considerable detail, which is not adequate for large-core POFs where there are millions of propagation modes, strong mode coupling and high variability. These are some of the many challenges involved in the modeling and simulation of POF-based systems. Here, we describe how we are addressing these challenges with models based on an intensity-vs-angle representation of the multimode signal rather than one that attempts to model all the modes in the fiber. Furthermore, we present model approaches for the individual components that comprise the POF-based system and how the models have been incorporated into system-level simulations, including the commercial software packages Simulink^TM and ModeSYS^TM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Optical Fibre)

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16 pages, 1150 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

A Mini-Review on Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS): Where Do We Stand, and Where Should We Go?

by Valentina Quaresima and Marco Ferrari

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030087 - 1 Aug 2019

Cited by 80 | Viewed by 15512

Abstract

This mini-review is aimed at briefly summarizing the present status of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and predicting where the technique should go in the next decade. This mini-review quotes 33 articles on the different fNIRS basics and technical developments and 44 reviews on [...] Read more.

This mini-review is aimed at briefly summarizing the present status of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and predicting where the technique should go in the next decade. This mini-review quotes 33 articles on the different fNIRS basics and technical developments and 44 reviews on the fNIRS applications published in the last eight years. The huge number of review articles about a wide spectrum of topics in the field of cognitive and social sciences, functional neuroimaging research, and medicine testifies to the maturity achieved by this non-invasive optical vascular-based functional neuroimaging technique. Today, fNIRS has started to be utilized on healthy subjects while moving freely in different naturalistic settings. Further instrumental developments are expected to be done in the near future to fully satisfy this latter important aspect. In addition, fNIRS procedures, including correction methods for the strong extracranial interferences, need to be standardized before using fNIRS as a clinical tool in individual patients. New research avenues such as interactive neurosciences, cortical activation modulated by different type of sport performance, and cortical activation during neurofeedback training are highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurophotonics – Optics for the Brain)

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18 pages, 7938 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Experimental Investigation on the Performances of Innovative PV Vertical Structures

by Gianluca Acciari, Gabriele Adamo, Guido Ala, Alessandro Busacca, Massimo Caruso, Graziella Giglia, Antonino Imburgia, Patrizia Livreri, Rosario Miceli, Antonino Parisi, Filippo Pellitteri, Riccardo Pernice, Pietro Romano, Giuseppe Schettino and Fabio Viola

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030086 - 31 Jul 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4047

Abstract

The sustainable development of our planet is considerably related to a relevant reduction of CO₂ global emissions, with building consumption contributing more than 40%. In this scenario, new technological conceptions, such as building-integrated photovoltaic technology, emerged in order to satisfy the requirements [...] Read more.

The sustainable development of our planet is considerably related to a relevant reduction of CO₂ global emissions, with building consumption contributing more than 40%. In this scenario, new technological conceptions, such as building-integrated photovoltaic technology, emerged in order to satisfy the requirements of sustainability imposed by the European Union. Therefore, the aim of this work is to provide a technical and economical comparison of the performances of different vertical-mounted innovative photovoltaic systems, potentially integrated on a building instead of on traditional windows or glass walls. The proposed investigation was carried out by means of experimental tests on three different next-generation vertical structures. The related results are described and discussed, highlighting the advantages and the drawbacks of the proposed technologies. Full article

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23 pages, 15149 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Doubly Orthogonal Wavelet Packets for Multi-Users Indoor Visible Light Communication Systems

by Arslan Khalid, Hafiz Muhammad Asif, Konstantin I. Kostromitin, Sattam Al-Otaibi, Kazi Mohammed Saidul Huq and Jonathan Rodriguez

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030085 - 30 Jul 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4384

Abstract

Visible Light Communication (VLC) is a data communication technology that modulates the intensity of the light to transmit the information mostly by means of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). The data rate is mainly throttled by the limited bandwidth of the LEDs. To combat, [...] Read more.

Visible Light Communication (VLC) is a data communication technology that modulates the intensity of the light to transmit the information mostly by means of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). The data rate is mainly throttled by the limited bandwidth of the LEDs. To combat, Multi-carrier Code Division Multiple Access (MC-CDMA) is a favorable technique for achieving higher data rates along with reduced Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) and easy access to multi-users at the cost of slightly reduced compromised spectral efficiency and Multiple Access Interference (MAI). In this article, a multi-user VLC system is designed using a Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) that eradicates the use of cyclic prefix due to the good orthogonality and time-frequency localization properties of wavelets. Moreover, the design also comprises suitable signature codes, which are generated by employing double orthogonality depending upon Walsh codes and Wavelet Packets. The proposed multi-user system is simulated in MATLAB software and its overall performance is assessed using line-of-sight (LoS) and non-line-of-sight (NLoS) configurations. Furthermore, two sub-optimum multi-users detection schemes such as zero forcing (ZF) and minimum-mean-square-error (MMSE) are also used at the receiver. The simulated results illustrate that the doubly orthogonal signature waveform-based DWT-MC-CDMA with MMSE detection scheme outperforms the Walsh code-based multi-user system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lightwave Communications and Optical Networks)

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13 pages, 3628 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Generation of Coherent and Spatially Squeezed States of an Electromagnetic Beam in a Planar Inhomogeneous Dielectric Waveguide

by Anna Bogatskaya, Andrey Schegolev, Nikolay Klenov and Alexander Popov

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030084 - 30 Jul 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3351

Abstract

We use slow-varying amplitude approximation (SVA) for the wave equation to study both analytically and numerically propagation of an electromagnetic beam in the waveguide structure with parabolic susceptibility spatial dependence. Such a structure is similar to the harmonic oscillator in quantum mechanics. We [...] Read more.

We use slow-varying amplitude approximation (SVA) for the wave equation to study both analytically and numerically propagation of an electromagnetic beam in the waveguide structure with parabolic susceptibility spatial dependence. Such a structure is similar to the harmonic oscillator in quantum mechanics. We analyze this structure as a single mode guide and introduce the notion of number of “photons” in the mode. In particular, we pay special attention to the possibility of effective build-up of the coherent and spatially squeezed vacuum states of the mode that can be of interest for a number of practical applications. The way to provide these types of mode excitation is suggested. Several applications for controlling the mode composition of an electromagnetic wave in the parabolic index-gradient waveguide for various frequency ranges are considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Optical Materials and Devices)

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15 pages, 2580 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Multi-Distance Frequency-Domain Optical Measurements of Coherent Cerebral Hemodynamics

by Giles Blaney, Angelo Sassaroli, Thao Pham, Nishanth Krishnamurthy and Sergio Fantini

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030083 - 26 Jul 2019

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4080

Abstract

We report non-invasive, bilateral optical measurements on the forehead of five healthy human subjects, of 0.1 Hz oscillatory hemodynamics elicited either by cyclic inflation of pneumatic thigh cuffs, or by paced breathing. Optical intensity and the phase of photon-density waves were collected with [...] Read more.

We report non-invasive, bilateral optical measurements on the forehead of five healthy human subjects, of 0.1 Hz oscillatory hemodynamics elicited either by cyclic inflation of pneumatic thigh cuffs, or by paced breathing. Optical intensity and the phase of photon-density waves were collected with frequency-domain near-infrared spectroscopy at seven source-detector distances (11–40 mm). Coherent hemodynamic oscillations are represented by phasors of oxyhemoglobin (O) and deoxyhemoglobin (D) concentrations, and by the vector D/O that represents the amplitude ratio and phase difference of D and O. We found that, on an average, the amplitude ratio (|D/O|) and the phase difference (∠(D/O)) obtained with single-distance intensity at 11–40 mm increase from 0.1° and −330° to 0.2° and −200°, respectively. Single-distance phase and the intensity slope featured a weaker dependence on source-detector separation, and yielded |D/O| and ∠(D/O) values of about 0.5 and −200°, respectively, at distances greater than 20 mm. The key findings are: (1) Single-distance phase and intensity slope are sensitive to deeper tissue compared to single-distance intensity; (2) deeper tissue hemodynamic oscillations, which more closely represent the brain, feature D and O phasors that are consistent with a greater relative flow-to-volume contributions in brain tissue compared to extracerebral, superficial tissue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurophotonics – Optics for the Brain)

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8 pages, 3293 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

λ-Scale Embedded Active Region Photonic Crystal (LEAP) Lasers for Optical Interconnects

by Shinji Matsuo and Koji Takeda

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030082 - 25 Jul 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4703

Abstract

The distances optical interconnects must cover are decreasing as Internet traffic continues to increase. Since short-reach interconnect applications require many transmitters, cost and power consumption are significant issues. Directly modulated lasers with a wavelength-scale active volume will be used as optical interconnects on [...] Read more.

The distances optical interconnects must cover are decreasing as Internet traffic continues to increase. Since short-reach interconnect applications require many transmitters, cost and power consumption are significant issues. Directly modulated lasers with a wavelength-scale active volume will be used as optical interconnects on boards and chips in the future because a small active volume is expected to reduce power consumption. We developed electrically driven photonic crystal (PhC) lasers with a wavelength-scale cavity in which the active region is embedded in a line-defect waveguide of an InP-based PhC slab. We call this a λ-scale embedded active region PhC laser, or a LEAP laser. The device, whose active region has six quantum wells with 2.5 × 0.3 × 0.15 μm³ active volume, exhibits a threshold current of 28 μA and provides 10 fJ/bit of operating energy to 25 Gbit/s NRZ (non-return-to-zero) signals. The fiber-coupled output power is 6.9 μW. We also demonstrate heterogeneous integration of LEAP lasers on a SiO₂/Si substrate for low-cost photonic integrated circuits (PICs). The threshold current is 40.5 μA and the output power is 4.4 μW with a bias current of 200 μA. These results indicate the feasibility of using PhC lasers in very-short-distance optical communications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonic Crystal Laser and Related Optical Devices)

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10 pages, 19287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Sideband Injection Locking Using Waveguide Based External Cavity Semiconductor Lasers for Narrow-Line, Tunable Microwave Generation

by Md. Rezaul Hoque Khan and Md. Ashraful Hoque

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030081 - 20 Jul 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4172

Abstract

The generation by optical injection locking of spectrally unadulterated microwave signals using waveguide based external cavity semiconductor lasers (WECSL) is demonstrated. A tunable frequency of 2–11 GHz, limited by the modulator’s bandwidth and the photodetector (PD), was created as proof-of-experiment by the injection [...] Read more.

The generation by optical injection locking of spectrally unadulterated microwave signals using waveguide based external cavity semiconductor lasers (WECSL) is demonstrated. A tunable frequency of 2–11 GHz, limited by the modulator’s bandwidth and the photodetector (PD), was created as proof-of-experiment by the injection locking of the two WESCLs. A single sideband (SSB) phase noise of −75 dBc/Hz from the generated carrier at 10 kHz offset and a phase noise variance at an optimum injection ratio region was 0.03 rad², corresponding to 1.7°, were observed. The main feature of this approach is the consolidation of the upsides of microwave generation at low phase noise with a broad tuning range and the capacity of hybrid photonic integration. In addition, the injection locking characteristics were used to determine the Q factor of the complicated optical cavities with unknown inner losses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Semiconductor Laser Dynamics: Fundamentals and Applications)

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9 pages, 1391 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceLetter

A Robust Method for Adjustment of Laser Speckle Contrast Imaging during Transcranial Mouse Brain Visualization

by Vyacheslav Kalchenko, Anton Sdobnov, Igor Meglinski, Yuri Kuznetsov, Guillaume Molodij and Alon Harmelin

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030080 - 13 Jul 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 8959

Abstract

Laser speckle imaging (LSI) is a well-known and useful approach for the non-invasive visualization of flows and microcirculation localized in turbid scattering media, including biological tissues (such as brain vasculature, skin capillaries etc.). Despite an extensive use of LSI for brain imaging, the [...] Read more.

Laser speckle imaging (LSI) is a well-known and useful approach for the non-invasive visualization of flows and microcirculation localized in turbid scattering media, including biological tissues (such as brain vasculature, skin capillaries etc.). Despite an extensive use of LSI for brain imaging, the LSI technique has several critical limitations. One of them is associated with inability to resolve a functionality of vessels. This limitation also leads to the systematic error in the quantitative interpretation of values of speckle contrast obtained for different vessel types, such as sagittal sinus, arteries, and veins. Here, utilizing a combined use of LSI and fluorescent intravital microscopy (FIM), we present a simple and robust method to overcome the limitations mentioned above for the LSI approach. The proposed technique provides more relevant, abundant, and valuable information regarding perfusion rate ration between different types of vessels that makes this method highly useful for in vivo brain surgical operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Photonics Advances)

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25 pages, 3958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Optical Effective Attenuation Coefficient as an Informative Measure of Brain Health in Aging

by Antonio M. Chiarelli, Kathy A. Low, Edward L. Maclin, Mark A. Fletcher, Tania S. Kong, Benjamin Zimmerman, Chin Hong Tan, Bradley P. Sutton, Monica Fabiani and Gabriele Gratton

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030079 - 12 Jul 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5160

Abstract

Aging is accompanied by widespread changes in brain tissue. Here, we hypothesized that head tissue opacity to near-infrared light provides information about the health status of the brain’s cortical mantle. In diffusive media such as the head, opacity is quantified through the Effective [...] Read more.

Aging is accompanied by widespread changes in brain tissue. Here, we hypothesized that head tissue opacity to near-infrared light provides information about the health status of the brain’s cortical mantle. In diffusive media such as the head, opacity is quantified through the Effective Attenuation Coefficient (EAC), which is proportional to the geometric mean of the absorption and reduced scattering coefficients. EAC is estimated by the slope of the relationship between source–detector distance and the logarithm of the amount of light reaching the detector (optical density). We obtained EAC maps across the head in 47 adults (age range 18–75 years), using a high-density dual-wavelength optical system. We correlated regional and global EAC measures with demographic, neuropsychological, structural and functional brain data. Results indicated that EAC values averaged across wavelengths were strongly associated with age-related changes in cortical thickness, as well as functional and neuropsychological measures. This is likely because the EAC largely depends on the thickness of the sub-arachnoid cerebrospinal fluid layer, which increases with cortical atrophy. In addition, differences in EAC values between wavelengths were correlated with tissue oxygenation and cardiorespiratory fitness, indicating that information about cortical health can be derived non-invasively by quantifying the EAC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurophotonics – Optics for the Brain)

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16 pages, 6086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proposal for a Quad-Elliptical Photonic Crystal Fiber for Terahertz Wave Guidance and Sensing Chemical Warfare Liquids

by Izaddeen Yakasai, Pg Emeroylariffion Abas, Shubi F Kaijage, Wahyu Caesarendra and Feroza Begum

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030078 - 8 Jul 2019

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 5152

Abstract

A porous-core photonic crystal fiber based on a cyclic olefin homopolymer (Zeonex) is proposed; it shows high birefringence, high core power fraction, low losses, and near-zero flat dispersion. The fiber’s core was designed with quad-elliptical (QE) air holes with its center occupied by [...] Read more.

A porous-core photonic crystal fiber based on a cyclic olefin homopolymer (Zeonex) is proposed; it shows high birefringence, high core power fraction, low losses, and near-zero flat dispersion. The fiber’s core was designed with quad-elliptical (QE) air holes with its center occupied by bulk background material. The superiority of the QE design over the commonly adopted tri- and penta-elliptical (TE and PE) core designs is demonstrated. The presence of the bulk material at the core center and the geometrical configuration cause a broad contrast in phase refractive indices, thereby producing high birefringence and low transmission losses. A high birefringence of 0.096 was obtained at 1.2 THz, corresponding to a total loss of 0.027 cm⁻¹ and core power fraction of approximately 51%. The chromatic dispersion and effective area of the reported fiber were also characterized within a frequency range of 0.4–1.6 THz. The QE air holes were then filled with chemical warfare agents, namely, tabun and sarin liquids. Then, the relative sensitivity, confinement loss, fractional power flow, and effective material loss (EML) of the sensor were calculated. Nearly the same relative sensitivity (r = 64%) was obtained when the QE core was filled with either liquid. Although the obtained EML for tabun was 0.033 cm⁻¹ and that for sarin was 0.028 cm⁻¹, the confinement loss of the fiber when it was immersed in either liquid was negligible. The proposed fiber can be fabricated using existing fabrication technologies. Moreover, it can be applied and utilized as a THz radiation conveyor in a terahertz time domain spectroscopy system for remote sensing of chemical liquids in the security and defense industries. Full article

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22 pages, 1073 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Photobiomodulation for Alzheimer’s Disease: Has the Light Dawned?

by Michael R. Hamblin

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030077 - 4 Jul 2019

Cited by 80 | Viewed by 22998

Abstract

Next to cancer, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and dementia is probably the most worrying health problem facing the Western world today. A large number of clinical trials have failed to show any benefit of the tested drugs in stabilizing or reversing the steady decline [...] Read more.

Next to cancer, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and dementia is probably the most worrying health problem facing the Western world today. A large number of clinical trials have failed to show any benefit of the tested drugs in stabilizing or reversing the steady decline in cognitive function that is suffered by dementia patients. Although the pathological features of AD consisting of beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles are well established, considerable debate exists concerning the genetic or lifestyle factors that predispose individuals to developing dementia. Photobiomodulation (PBM) describes the therapeutic use of red or near-infrared light to stimulate healing, relieve pain and inflammation, and prevent tissue from dying. In recent years PBM has been applied for a diverse range of brain disorders, frequently applied in a non-invasive manner by shining light on the head (transcranial PBM). The present review discusses the mechanisms of action of tPBM in the brain, and summarizes studies that have used tPBM to treat animal models of AD. The results of a limited number of clinical trials that have used tPBM to treat patients with AD and dementia are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurophotonics – Optics for the Brain)

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17 pages, 7250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Theoretical Concept of Polarization Reflectometric Interference Spectroscopy (PRIFS): An Optical Method to Monitor Molecule Adsorption and Nanoparticle Adhesion on the Surface of Thin Films

by László Janovák, Imre Dékány and Dániel Sebők

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030076 - 30 Jun 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5211

Abstract

In this paper, we present an improved reflectometric interference spectroscopy (RIfS) sensor principle which is suitable for thin films. The conventional RIfS technique is an appropriate method to detect interfacial interactions at the solid–gas or solid–liquid interface in the case of thin films [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present an improved reflectometric interference spectroscopy (RIfS) sensor principle which is suitable for thin films. The conventional RIfS technique is an appropriate method to detect interfacial interactions at the solid–gas or solid–liquid interface in the case of thin films with a thickness of a few hundred nanometers, but when a significantly lower layer thickness (~100 nm) is required, the method is barely usable. By applying polarized reflected light and monitoring the ratio of the p- and s-polarized components, a characteristic curve can be obtained with one or a few local extreme value(s) with significantly favorable intensity ratios compared to the conventional method. In this work we studied the effect of film thickness, incident angle and the refractive indices of the thin film, the medium and the substrate. As a main result, it was demonstrated that the sensitivity of the PRIfS method is 4–7 times higher than that of the conventional technique near a critical angle. In simulated adsorption experiments, it was determined that the sensitivity of RIfS is around 550 nm/RIU (refractive index unit), while it is 1825 and 3966 nm/RIU for PRIfS in gas and aqueous phase, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Optical Materials and Devices)

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20 pages, 6593 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Surface Lattice Resonances in THz Metamaterials

by Thomas CaiWei Tan, Eric Plum and Ranjan Singh

Photonics 2019, 6(3), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics6030075 - 26 Jun 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 7933

Abstract

Diffraction of light in periodic structures is observed in a variety of systems including atoms, solid state crystals, plasmonic structures, metamaterials, and photonic crystals. In metamaterials, lattice diffraction appears across microwave to optical frequencies due to collective Rayleigh scattering of periodically arranged structures. [...] Read more.

Diffraction of light in periodic structures is observed in a variety of systems including atoms, solid state crystals, plasmonic structures, metamaterials, and photonic crystals. In metamaterials, lattice diffraction appears across microwave to optical frequencies due to collective Rayleigh scattering of periodically arranged structures. Light waves diffracted by these periodic structures can be trapped along the metamaterial surface resulting in the excitation of surface lattice resonances, which are mediated by the structural eigenmodes of the metamaterial cavity. This has brought about fascinating opportunities such as lattice-induced transparency, strong nearfield confinement, and resonant field enhancement and line-narrowing of metamaterial structural resonances through lowering of radiative losses. In this review, we describe the mechanisms and implications of metamaterial-engineered surface lattice resonances and lattice-enhanced field confinement in terahertz metamaterials. These universal properties of surface lattice resonances in metamaterials have significant implications for the design of resonant metamaterials, including ultrasensitive sensors, lasers, and slow-light devices across the electromagnetic spectrum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terahertz Photonics)

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Photonics, Volume 6, Issue 3 (September 2019) – 26 articles

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