Contribution of Geological Heritage to Geoeducation: A Case Study from Samaria Gorge and Mount Pentelicus (Marble Quarries)

Abstract

The promotion of geological heritage can significantly contribute to geoeducation. As geosites are areas that can be visited by everyone and not just experts on the field, a good comprehension of the processes under which they were formed can improve their understanding of the Earth in general. In this work, we have selected two Greek regions, namely Samaria Gorge (Crete) and Mount Pentelicus (Attica), and their sites of geological interest were mapped. Subsequently, some georoutes are proposed, covering both these sites and other locations of cultural, historical, archaeological, and/or religious interest. Through a detailed description of each site and its georoutes, we intend to promote the two areas’ geological heritage on the one hand, and contribute to the development of geoeducation on the other hand. For this purpose, we have also created an online story map and a Virtual Reality (VR) application for each one of them, both addressed to the general public.

1. Introduction

Geosites are an important aspect of geoheritage [1]. Wimbleton [2] defines them as sites or territories where one can identify features of geo(morpho)logical interest worthy of preserving. They are locations where at least one feature that can contribute to our understanding of the Earth’s history, evolution, and natural processes is present [3]. They are sites that may give us information on past processes and the conditions under which they were formed, and they can help us understand modern natural processes [1,4,5,6].

Geosites can vary in size from very small ones (e.g., a rock outcrop) to very large ones [7] (e.g., a macro-landform or large-scale geomorphological units, such as the Meteora). Thus, they have been classified as points, sections, areas, complex areas, and viewpoints [8]. While there are several studies focusing on geoheritage only for a specific discipline of geology (e.g., geomorphological heritage, the so-called geomorphosites [9,10], palaeontological heritage [11], and so on), the term “geoheritage” is all-inclusive. This means that the geological value of a geosite may be, for instance, palaeontological [11,12], geomorphological [9,13], tectonic [14,15], mineralogical [16,17], volcanic [6,18], etc., or it can be related to human activities, such as mining [19]. Ruban [20] has distinguished 21 different types of geosites.

Besides the scientific interest, it is important to select sites that are also characterised by other values as well, such as cultural, educational, ecological, and aesthetic [1,21,22,23]. The cultural value may refer to historical or archaeological interest (e.g., [24,25,26]), as well as the interest expressed in the literature [21,22]. Certain formations may also have a high religious significance (e.g., [24,27,28,29]). Reference [30] refers to these sites as geocultural sites. The educational value, which is a very significant aspect of geoheritage, is defined as the didactic relevance, i.e., how the geosite can be understood by the public, combined with its potential for geoeducational uses (e.g., georoutes or guided tours) [1,31].

Some geosites may have a higher educational potential than others, while some may be more suitable for attracting geotourists due to their aesthetics [32]. It is important to note that some geosites may not be suitable for geoeducational purposes, despite the very high geological value they may have [33,34]. For example, they may not be easily accessible or they may be dangerous for visits.

Geotourism, or geological tourism, consists of visiting sites of geological interest not only as mere observants but also with the aim of geoeducation [35,36]. It is becoming more and more common for tourists to visit natural monuments and express an interest in their formation process. Geotourism can promote the economic development of an area [37,38] but also its sustainability [39]. An advantage of geotourism is that it applies to any type of tourist, not only geoscientists [27]. And assessing and promoting geological monuments is key to geotourism development [26,40,41].

A very effective way to achieve geoeducation is through georoutes [42]. Georoutes are trails within an area of geological interest that can either be guided or self-guided and connect regions or sites of geological as well as cultural interest. By following a georoute, visitors can be introduced to the geological and cultural monuments of an area [24,43], and this can contribute to the development of geotourism [44].

Stolz and Megerle [45] identify georoutes in their area of interest as routes of at least three kilometres and five stations, of which 50% will be directly or indirectly linked to geology. The most common types of georoutes are hiking and driving ones; however, a georoute could also be followed by aeroplane, bus, train [46], and even bicycles [47,48,49]. In fact, a georoute could consist of different sub-routes with different transportation means (e.g., [43]). In some cases, this is the advised protocol, especially when there are safety or inaccessibility issues [47].

A benefit of short georoutes is that they can be managed more easily, while longer georoutes would require the coordination and cooperation of different authorities, e.g., from different municipalities [46]. Also, short georoutes (either hiking or driving ones) are more easily managed by families and other tourists, but georoutes can also be multi-day routes [50]. An advantage of driving georoutes, on the other hand, is that they can cover many topics of geology at individual stops, which may be located at a significant distance from one another [51].

The development of georoutes, accompanied by the necessary geological information of each geosite, can contribute to geoeducation [52,53]. The information needs to be appropriate for the target group [52]. It has also been proposed to provide visitors with pre-visit information, e.g., in a tourist centre, through a map or through a guide book [54]. Of course, in certain georoutes, it may be advised that touristic facilities be limited, so as to avoid potential environmental issues or threats to geoheritage [55].

In the present study, we have assessed the geological heritage of two Greek areas, Samaria Gorge (Crete) and Mount Pentelicus (Attica). These two areas are two totally different regional and geological settings, which is why they were selected for this study. Crossing the Samaria Gorge is a popular tourist activity, one of the most popular in southwestern Crete. Every summer, it is crossed by thousands of tourists, either in its entirety or only in its upper or lower part. And while its natural beauty is undeniably remarkable and its cultural, historical, and ecological significance are also notable, it is characterised by the presence of multiple geological and geomorphological formations. According to our research, it is an ideal location for non-geoscientists to comprehend the primary principles of geology, geotectonics, geomorphology, and landscape evolution. Unfortunately, such sites are not very well known to ordinary tourists, predominantly because of the lack of information. Thus, this study aims to promote the geological heritage and geoeducational potential of this area.

Concerning Mount Pentelicus, we have selected it as a case study due to its exceptional geological significance in relation to human settlements and activities since ancient times, as well as its renowned Pentelic marble, foundational to ancient Greek art. The mountain’s history, deeply tied to human activity, offers unique opportunities for georoutes that showcase its geological heritage. This study aims to promote sustainable development and foster education on geology and history.

We have selected a total of 15 geosites in Samaria Gorge and 4 geosites in Pentelicus Mount, which we have assessed quantitatively, following the methodology of [1]. We have assessed their scientific, educational, and touristic values, as well as their degradation risk. Subsequently, we developed two georoutes, one for each site, in order to highlight their geotouristic and geoeducational values. Besides mapping, assessing, and promoting the geological and cultural heritage of the two study areas, our work also aimed to promote their geoeducational potential, as both areas can be used by students, pupils, and geotourists, in general, in order for them to be geologically educated.

2. Study Areas

In this study, two different study areas from Greece have been selected, namely Samaria Gorge (Chania Prefecture) and Mount Pentelicus (Attica Prefecture) (Figure 1).

Samaria Gorge is located in the White Mountains of Crete and it extends for around 13 km in a roughly north–south orientation. It is crossed by the Tarraios river. The Gorge is surrounded by mountain that exceed 2000 m in height, such as Volakias (2116 m) and Gigilos (2005 m). It has a depth of up to 600 m and a width of 3–40 m [56]. In some parts, it is extremely narrow, with a minimum of 2 m width. Its starting point is located at the site “Kaloxylos”, and its exit is located at the village of “Aghia Roumeli”, overlooking the Libyan Sea (Figure 2).

Mount Pentelicus or Penteli is a mountain in the Attica Prefecture, Greece. Mount Pentelicus is a mountain with a maximum altitude of 1109 m at its peak, Pyrgari. It is located north of Athens and stretches between the Attica Basin and Marathon, with southern slopes overlooking Penteli and Melissia and northern slopes reaching Nea Makri. It features many peaks, including notable ones like Kotroni, and is surrounded by settlements such as Palaia and Nea Penteli, Dionysos, and Rapentosa. Renowned for its ancient marble quarries, it also boasts rich natural beauty with pine forests and an extensive network of trails.

The mount was known in ancient times as “Brilessos or Brilettos (Greek: Βριλησσός, Βριληττός)”, as early as the 7th century BC, which means “Strong Stone”. This is the name by which Mount Pentelicus is referenced to in the texts of Herodotus and Thucydides. In the 3rd century BC, the mountain was renamed Penteli after the establishment of the demos (“the people”) on the southwestern hill, situated in front of the mountain [57].

2.1. Geology of Samaria Gorge

The Gorge of Samaria belongs to the “Plattenkalk” geological zone, covered by thinly bedded limestones with chert intercalations and nodules, overlaid by the Trypali unit, which consists of dolomitic limestones ([58,59,60] and current research; Figure 3). The latter unit is characterised by intense brecciation and/or karstification [58]. In the northern part of the gorge, Gigilos formation is also present, which is characterised by much smoother relief compared to the central part, mainly consisting of phyllites and slates [58].

The steepest slopes of the gorge are in fact found in the bedded limestones ([58] and current research). On the other hand, the lower part, which is mostly covered by dolomitic limestones is less steep. Tectonic uplift has been very intense [56]. Along the river, there are several parts with particularly narrow walls and several others that are relatively wide, frequently forming smaller or larger pools ([56] and current research). Knickpoints are common along the river’s route, owed to both erosional and tectonic processes [56].

Fluvial erosion is intense along the gorge, principally between October and April, when precipitation is increased (mean annual rainfall reaches 654 mm in the station of Souda, 614 mm of which falls during this period) [61], as is water runoff. Moreover, while runoff is significant in the northern half of the gorge, where the drainage network is very well developed, the southern half is highly karstified and thus favours underground flow [58].

2.2. Geology of Mount Pentelicus and the Pentelic Marble

The geology of the Penteli area is complex, with the rocks divided into the following two main tectonic units: the Lower Tectonic Unit (LTU) and the Upper Tectonic Unit (UTU). These units are parts of Attic–Cycladic Complex. Both the LTU and UTU have undergone significant penetrative deformation during their tectono-metamorphic evolution. The overall structure of these units is characterised by large-scale nappes (large, folded rock formations) and a thrust-imbricated repetition of the original lithostratigraphy.

This means that the original sequence of rock layers has been repeated multiple times due to thrust faulting and folding. The Lower Tectonic Unit (LTU) in the Penteli area contains the following four primary lithologies: schists, marbles (which also include lenses of mafic-ultramafic rocks), quartzo-feldspathic orthogneisses, and migmatites. The Upper Tectonic Unit (UTU) is primarily composed of marbles, which are intercalated with a variety of schists and lenses of mafic greenstones that are found between the schists. Additionally, residual Neogene sediments are found to the west of the Penteli area and to the east of the Parnitha rocks, as noted by [62].

History of Marble Extraction

Marble is a type of metamorphic rock that is formed from the transformation of limestone under heat and pressure. It is characterised by its distinctive white colour, fine grain, and high degree of translucency, making it ideal for use in sculpture and architecture. The marble from the quarries of Mount Pentelicus has been extracted since the 4th century BC. In particular, the Pentelicus marble is white with a golden hue, and thus, it was used for the most important monuments of the Classical Age in Athens, including the Parthenon [57]. The extraction of the marble from Mount Pentelicus has a long history, dating back to ancient times. The ancient Greeks used simple tools and techniques to extract the marble from the mountain, and the marble was transported to Athens by mule or boat. The marble was then shaped and polished by skilled craftsmen to create some of the most iconic works of art and architecture in history.

In the 4th century BC, five years after the Athenians’ victory at Marathon, the decision was made to reconstruct the old Acropolis. This involved demolishing the original temple made of limestone and constructing a new temple in the Doric style using Pentelic marble [57]. It was quarried on the slopes of the mountain, about 16 km north of Athens. This marble was the first white marble of high purity to be used in a variety of constructions in Rome, particularly from the 5th century BC to the 2nd century BC [63].

Subsequently, it was used in numerous other ancient monuments both in Greece and abroad. Some examples include the Elefsina Ceremonial Palace, the Temple of Asclepius at Gortys, and the Temple of Olympian Zeus. According to Plutarch, during the reign of Domitian Augustus, the columns of the Temple of Zeus in the Capitol in Rome were crafted from Pentelicus marble [57,63]. In recent times, Pentelic marble has been widely employed in the construction of buildings in Athens, such as the Academy of Athens, the National Library, the Polytechnic, the Panathenaic Stadium, and the entrance to the Zappeion. Mining continues to this day at Dionysovouni, on the northern side of the Mount Pentelicus.

Figure 4 presents the geological setting of the study area. The two most dominant lithologies are marbles, which occupy the central part of the area, and schists surrounding the marbles. On the foot of the mountain on either side, alluvial and anthropogenic deposits are found, but these do not occupy a significant proportion of our study area.

3. Materials and Methods

The methodology followed in this paper is presented in the workflow shown in Figure 5. For both study areas, we followed four individual stages, namely geosite selection, mapping, assessment, and georoute development. Following the above, we also created two story maps and two Virtual Reality (VR) applications (one for each study area), both in English and Greek.

3.1. Geosite Selection

In order to select the geosites proposed in this research, we compared all sites of interest identified through field work and a literature review. During field work, we observed the two study areas and mapped the most important sites of interest (including sites of cultural interest, e.g., churches, old villages, archaeological sites, etc.), using the mobile application SW Maps v.2.10.1.0 [64].

As the selection of geosites should be based on objective criteria [31,41], we followed the guidelines available in the literature. Therefore, we first studied a literature review in order to identify potential sites of interest that have already been studied [31,65,66]. We then conducted detailed field work in both areas to identify additional geosites, as well as sites of cultural interest [31,40,66]. Also, geosites were selected simultaneously with the selection of cultural sites [67]. Finally, we avoided selecting more than one geosite with similar scientific interests [31]. In case several sites were found with a similar geological value/formation, we selected the one(s) whose form (referring to either the clarity of the geological processes intended to be shown and aesthetic value) would render these processes more easily observable and comprehensible to the general public, as well as sites with particular cultural interest besides the scientific one.

3.2. Geosite Mapping

In order to map the selected geosites, three software programs were used. Initially, we used SW Maps v.2.10.1.0. (mobile application) while in the field, in order to map all sites of geological interest, before we proceeded to the selection of the geosites. Moreover, in some cases, Google Earth Pro was used supplementarily. Furthermore, through this program, the assessment of the geosites was performed based on the methodology proposed by Brilha (2016) [1].

All sites of geological interest were imported into ArcGIS Pro v.3.2., where all maps were created. They were then classified according to their type as geomorphological, tectonic, sedimentological, stratigraphic, and anthropogenic. They were also given a code name, consisting of the following two components: (i) two capital letters, indicating the region they are located in (i.e., SA for Samaria and PE for Penteli); (ii) a two-digit serial number, following a “reasonable” geographical order (i.e., from north to south and then from west to east). Counting starts from 01 and is different for the two areas.

When it comes to the geosites’ names, they consist of two parts. (i) The first part is indicative of the area’s name. In case the formation or location itself does have a local name (such as Aghia Roumeli castle or Portes slot canyon in Samaria), this was used; otherwise, the name of a nearby location was used (e.g., in Samaria, a nearby spring or church). (ii) The second part indicates the primary formation, feature, or landform represented by the geosite (which also determined its classification).

3.3. Geosite Assessment

For the assessment of the geosites, we have followed the method proposed by Brilha (2016) [1]. This method is commonly used in geosite assessments (e.g., [68,69,70]). Four individual criteria are used, namely the scientific value (SV), the educational value (EV), the touristic value (TV), and the degradational risk (DR). Each of these was assessed separately, taking sub-criteria into account. To do so, we have used the methodology described in Brilha’s [1] work, without any modifications.

Table 1. Sub-criteria used for the geosites’ assessment according to [1].

Sub-Criterion	Geosite Characteristics	Value
Scientific value
Representativeness	The best example in the study area to illustrate geological elements or processes	4
	A good example in the study area to illustrate geological elements or processes	2
	Reasonably illustrates geological elements or processes	1
Key locality	Globally recognised as a reference site (e.g., by the IUGS)	4
	Used by international science	2
	Used by national science	1
Scientific knowledge	Papers in international scientific journals	4
	Papers in national scientific publications	2
	Abstracts presented in international scientific events	1
Integrity	Well preserved	4
	The main geological elements are well preserved, but the secondary elements are modified	2
	The main geological elements are preserved but modified	1
Geodiversity	More than three types of distinct geological features with scientific relevance	4
	Three types of distinct geological features with scientific relevance	2
	Two types of distinct geological features with scientific relevance	1
Rarity	The only occurrence of this type in the study area	4
	There are two to three examples of similar geosites	2
	There are more than three examples of similar geosites	1
Use limitations	No limitations	4
	There are limitations, but they can be resolved for field work/sampling	2
	There are limitations, but they are difficult to overcome	1
Educational and Touristic values 1
Vulnerability (B)	No possible deterioration by human activity	4
	Possible deterioration of the secondary elements	3
	Possible deterioration of the primary elements	2
	Possible deterioration of all geological elements	1
Accessibility (B)	Less than 100 m from a paved road and with bus parking	4
	Less than 500 m from a paved road	3
	Accessible by bus but through a gravel road	2
	No direct access by road but located less than 1 km from a road accessible by bus	1
Use limitations (B)	No limitations	4
	Can be used but occasionally	3
	Limitations are present but can be overcome	2
	Limitations are hard to overcome	1
Safety (B)	Safety facilities, mobile phone coverage, located less than 5 km from emergency services	4
	Safety facilities, mobile phone coverage, located less than 25 km from emergency services	3
	No safety facilities but with mobile phone coverage, located less than 50 km from emergency services	2
	No safety facilities, no mobile phone coverage, located more than 50 km from emergency services	1
Logistics (B)	Lodging and restaurants for groups of 50 people less than 15 km	4
	Lodging and restaurants for groups of 50 people less than 50 km	3
	Lodging and restaurants for groups of 50 people less than 100 km	2
	Lodging and restaurants for groups of less than 25 people less than 50 km	1
Population density (B)	Located in a municipality with more than 1000 inhabitants/km2	4
	Located in a municipality with 250–1000 inhabitants/km2	3
	Located in a municipality with 100–250 inhabitants/km2	2
	Located in a municipality with less than 100 inhabitants/km2	1
Association with other values (B)	Several ecological and cultural values less than 5 km away	4
	Several ecological and cultural values less than 10 km away	3
	One ecological and one cultural values less than 10 km away	2
	One ecological or one cultural values more than 10 km away	1
Scenery (B)	Currently used as a tourist destination in national campaigns	4
	Occasionally used as a tourist destination in national campaigns	3
	Currently used as a tourist destination in local campaigns	2
	Occasionally used as a tourist destination in local campaigns	1
Uniqueness (B)	Unique and uncommon features in the country and the neighbouring countries	4
	Unique and uncommon features in the country	3
	Common features in this region but uncommon in other regions of the country	2
	Common in the whole country	1
Observation conditions (B)	All elements are visible	4
	Some obstacles prevent the observation of secondary elements	3
	Some obstacles prevent the observation of the main element	2
	Some obstacles prevent the observation of all elements	1
Didactic potential (E)	Presents geological elements that are taught in all teaching levels	4
	Presents geological elements that are taught in elementary schools	3
	Presents geological elements that are taught in secondary schools	2
	Presents geological elements that are taught at university	1
Geodiversity (E)	More than 3 types of geodiversity elements	4
	3 types of geodiversity elements	3
	2 types of geodiversity elements	2
	1 type of geodiversity elements	1
Interpretive potential (T)	Geological elements have are clear and easily understood by all types of audiences	4
	Some geological background is needed	3
	Solid geological background is needed	2
	The site can only be understood by experts	1
Economic level (T)	Located in a municipality with a household income at least double the national average	4
	Located in a municipality with a household income more than the national average	3
	Located in a municipality with a household income similar to the national average	2
	Located in a municipality with a household income less than the national average	1
Proximity to recreational areas (T)	Less than 5 km from a recreational area or tourist attraction	4
	Less than 10 km from a recreational area or tourist attraction	3
	Less than 15 km from a recreational area or tourist attraction	2
	Less than 20 km from a recreational area or tourist attraction	1
Degradation risk
Deterioration of geological elements	Possibility of deterioration of all elements	4
	Possibility of deterioration of the main elements	3
	Possibility of deterioration of secondary elements	2
	Minor possibility of deterioration of secondary elements	1
Proximity to areas/activities with potential to cause degradation	Less than 50 m from a potential degrading area/activity	4
	Less than 200 m from a potential degrading area/activity	3
	Less than 500 m from a potential degrading area/activity	2
	Less than 1 km from a potential degrading area/activity	1
Legal protection	No legal protection and no control of access	4
	No legal protection but with control of access	3
	Legal protection but no control of access	2
	Legal protection and control of access	1
Accessibility	Less than 100 m from a paved road and with bus parking	4
	Less than 500 m from a paved road	3
	Accessible by bus through a gravel road	2
	No direct access by road but located less than 1 km from a road accessible by bus	1
Population density	Located in a municipality with more than 1000 inhabitants/km2	4
	Located in a municipality with 250–1000 inhabitants/km2	3
	Located in a municipality with 100–250 inhabitants/km2	2
	Located in a municipality with less than 100 inhabitants/km2	1

¹ Some sub-criteria are common to both of these criteria [1]. The following symbols are used: (E), if the sub-criterion is related to educational value; (T) for touristic value; and (B) for both.

summarises the sub-criteria and grading methodology according to [1].

As seen from Table 1, the scientific value is divided into seven sub-criteria, each of which is given a grade (0, 1, 2, or 4). The educational use consists of 12 sub-criteria, each of which is given an integral grade (from 0 to 4). The touristic use involves 13 sub-criteria, which are graded from 0 to 4. Finally, degradational risk has five sub-criteria, which are graded from 0 to 4 (in all cases, 0 applies where none of the above conditions are met). The above sub-criteria are given a weight, and for each geosite, the grade gained from each sub-criterion is multiplied by the weight. Thus, the final score of each geosite per each criterion can be calculated (

Table 2. Weights of each sub-criterion [1].

Criterion	Sub-Criterion	Weight
Scientific value (SV)	Representativeness (re)	0.3
	Key locality (kl)	0.2
	Scientific knowledge (sk)	0.05
	Integrity (in)	0.15
	Geodiversity (gd)	0.05
	Rarity (ra)	0.15
	Use limitations (ul)	0.10
Educational (EV) and touristic (TV) values	Vulnerability (vu)	0.10
	Accessibility (ac)	0.10
	Use limitations (ul’)	0.05
	Safety (sa)	0.10
	Logistics (lo)	0.05
	Population density (pd)	0.05
	Association with other values (as)	0.05
	Scenery (sc)	0.05 (0.15)
	Uniqueness (un)	0.05 (0.10)
	Observation conditions (oc)	0.10
	Didactic potential (dp)	0.20
	Geodiversity (gd’)	0.10
	Interpretive potential (ip)	0.10
	Economic level (el)	0.05
	Proximity to recreational areas (px)	0.05
Degradation Risk (DR)	Deterioration of geological elements (de)	0.35
	Proximity to areas/activities with potential to cause degradation (px’)	0.20
	Legal protection (lp)	0.20
	Accessibility (ac’)	0.15
	Population density (pd’)	0.10

).

Thus, the four criteria are calculated as follows:

SV = 0.3 × re + 0.2 × kl + 0.05 × sk + 0.15 × in + 0.05 × gd + 0.15 × ra + 0.10 × ul

(1)

EV = 0.10 × vu + 0.10 × ac + 0.05 × ul + 0.10 × sa + 0.05 × lo + 0.05 × un + 0.05 × pd + 0.05 × sc + 0.05 × as + 0.10 × oc + 0.20 × dp + 0.10 × gd’

(2)

TV = 0.10 × vu + 0.10 × ac + 0.05 × ul + 0.10 × sa + 0.05 × lo + 0.10 × un + 0.05 × pd +
0.15 × sc + 0.05 × as + 0.10 × oc + 0.10 × ip + 0.05 × px + 0.05 × el

(3)

DR = 0.35 × de + 0.20 × px’ 0.20 × lp + 0.15 × ac + 0.10 × pd’

(4)

3.4. Design of Georoutes

The design of georoutes was conducted based on the field observations on the two study areas, taking into account issues such as local conditions (e.g., relief, road network, etc. [71]), safety [24], distance from an access point (e.g., a public transportation stop or parking spot [45]), number of geosites and cultural sites included [24,43], the easiness of following the georoutes (e.g., presence of marks or a clear path [52]), and aesthetics.

To design them, we considered the guidelines available in the literature, i.e., (a) the georoutes should be related to various geological disciplines (e.g., tectonics, geomorphology, stratigraphy, etc.) and not a single discipline [24,47]; and (b) several sites of cultural interest need to be included and not just geological sites [24,43].

3.5. Development of the Story Maps and the VR Applications

Two story maps have been developed (one for each of the two study areas), acting as virtual field trips to the areas. They were created using the ArcGIS Story Maps platform by ESRI (https://storymaps.arcgis.com/—last accessed 20 November 2024). More specifically, we used the material and data collected from the field (including the geographic coordinates of each location and photographic material), in order to create these story maps. Thus, they include text, photographic material, audio, hyperlinks, as well as maps.

Developing Virtual Reality (VR) environments and Virtual Field Trips (VFTs) for educational settings is a work in progress that is guided by a structured methodology. This process begins with the necessary analysis and conceptualization, defining clear learning objectives aimed at enhancing digital skills and STEAM competencies (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics). These objectives include fostering computational thinking and deepening understanding in fields like geosciences. The scope of the VR experience is carefully outlined to suit the educational goals, ranging from full immersion to interactive 360-degree panoramas or hybrid setups combining virtual and physical elements.

The content design phase involves crafting an immersive VR landscape using 360-degree images, 3D models, and multimedia elements to create interactive points of interest. Practical educational tools, such as the A-Frame framework, are integrated to support hands-on activities and computational analysis. For instance, users can simulate forces or explore AutoCAD software (version 2023) for structural design. A-Frame, an open source web framework, simplifies the creation of 3D and VR experiences using HTML, enabling the development of environments compatible with both VR devices and web browsers. Guiding elements, such as avatars and information boards, help users navigate the VR space while reinforcing real-world skills in an immersive, controlled setting.

The methodology is concluded with the ongoing phases of implementation, testing, and evaluation. Testing involves gathering user feedback to refine usability, inclusivity, and educational impact, with iterative adjustments enhancing alignment with learning goals. The evaluation procedure of the VR environment’s effectiveness is achieved based on the STEAM competencies and computational thinking skills. By integrating principles of sustainability and planning for open access use, the platform is designed to be a long-term educational resource. Its adaptability and engaging content aim to support the continuous development of digital and STEAM skills, ensuring its value across diverse educational contexts.

4. Results

4.1. The Identified Geosites

4.1.1. Samaria Gorge

Geosite assessment needs to be quantitative and based on objective criteria [1,67,72]. The most common scientific criteria are representativeness, integrity, and rarity [1,73,74,75]. The integration of the scientific knowledge on a specific geosite is also an important criterion, and it can be assessed by the number and type of publications [76]. As many different geosite assessment methods have been proposed (e.g., [1,22,75,77]), they have different strengths and weaknesses. Thus, the best line of action is to apply a combination of several methods [78].

For Samaria Gorge, a total of 15 geosites were identified (

Table 3. The identified geosites in Samaria Gorge.

Name	Code_Name	Type
Xyloskalos view	SA01	Tectonic
Aghios Nikolaos step-and-pool sequences	SA02	Geomorphological
Prinari slackwater deposits	SA03	Sedimentological
Osia Maria stalactites	SA04	Geomorphological
Osia Maria conglomerates	SA05	Sedimentological
Old Samaria terraces	SA06	Anthropogenic feature
Perdika slot canyon	SA07	Tectonic
Portes folds	SA08	Tectonic
Portes cherts	SA09	Stratigraphical
Portes slot canyon	SA10	Tectonic
Portes bedded limestones	SA11	Stratigraphical
Aghios Antonios cave	SA12	Geomorphological
Aghia Roumeli Castle view	SA13	Tectonic
Aghia Roumeli beach	SA14	Geomorphological
Aghia Roumeli sea view	SA15	Geomorphological

, Figure 6). They have been categorised according to their primary geological feature(s), such as geomorphological, tectonic, sedimentological stratigraphical, and anthropogenic features. Fourteen of them are located within the drainage basin of Samaria, whereas the southernmost one is located in the sea. These are the following:

1.

Geomorphological geosites: As the gorge of the Tarraios River is the main geological feature of this area, geomorphological geosites are the most common; these are mainly related to fluvial geomorphology. These geosites include the following:

• Alluvial fan: It is usually formed when a river exits a narrow valley and flows into a nearly flat area. The alluvial fan of the Tarraios River was formed very close to the sea [56]. Although it is also visible from the castle of Aghia Roumeli, the best position to observe it is from a boat (Figure 7a).
• Step-and-pool sequences: These landforms are common in almost all rivers, and their characteristics are affected by the type and supply of bedload (e.g., [79,80]). These are best observed in locations where the bed is covered by water. One such location has been selected (Figure 7b).
• Karstic landforms: These are common as almost the entire gorge is covered by carbonate rocks. Several cavities can be seen, but they are impossible to reach without special mountain climbing equipment. Thus, the following two sites were selected: the cave of Aghios Antonios (also housing the homonymous church) (Figure 7c) and the stalactites near Osia Maria (Figure 7d).
• Beach: The Aghia Roumeli beach addresses the coastal geomorphology. The presence of tetrapods indicates a significant problem with coastal erosion (Figure 7e). In any case, the estuaries of the Tarraios River provide the area with terrestrial sediments. These render this site ideal for discussing coastal management and protection.

2.

Tectonic geosites: These are also very important because the configuration of the gorge is a result, among others, of intense tectonic uplift. These geosites include the following:

• Panoramic view of the gorge: There are two easily accessible sites where the gorge is visible and which are suitable for understanding the combined action of the endogenous and exogenous processes shaping the Earth’s relief. The first is located in Xyloskalos, overlooking the gorge’s entrance (Figure 8a), and the second is located in the castle of Aghia Roumeli, overlooking its exit (Figure 8b). In the latter, other geological features are also visible, such as side scree and the river’s alluvial fan (Figure 8c).
• Slot canyons: These are very deep and narrow canyons with nearly vertical walls, formed as a result of rapid tectonic uplift and the subsequent river downcutting (e.g., [81]). Two locations were selected as geosites, namely Perdika (Figure 8d) and Portes (Figure 8e).
• Folds: Folded limestones are present at almost any point of the gorge in the middle of the river’s course. We have selected one geosite to address this feature (Figure 8f) (even though folds can also be seen close to other geosites).

3.

Stratigraphic geosites: Limestones (and dolomites) cover almost the entire gorge, but they do provide some sites where the discipline of stratigraphy can be taught. These geosites include the following:

• Geological bedding: It is very common in the gorge’s middle, as well as its beginning. The thin beds indicate that these limestones are pelagic. Among all sites, one was selected as a geosite (Figure 9a).
• Cherts: In various locations, cherts are interbedded between the limestone strata, indicating deposition in a very deep marine environment (below the Carbonate Compensation Depth) (e.g., [82]). One geosite has been selected where chert intercalations can be observed very well (Figure 9b).

4.

Sedimentological geosites: Besides limestones, other sedimentary formations were identified in situ. These geosites include the following:

• Conglomerates: They are not very common in the gorge, but one very representative site was identified (Figure 10a).
• Slackwater deposits: They are coarse sediments deposited during one or more flood events, in contrast to the fine material surrounding them, which was transported during basal flow [83]. One very typical appearance was identified (Figure 10b).

5.

Anthropogenic geosites: Besides natural formations, geoheritage also covers artificially modified or created sites, provided that they are of geological interest (e.g., [84]). One such geosite has been identified as follows:

• Man-made terraces: They are located in the old village of Samaria and were used for agricultural reasons (Figure 11). Besides providing extra space for cultivation, terraces have generally been shown to reduce water velocity and soil erosion rates, thus protecting agriculture [85].

4.1.2. Mount Pentelicus

In the area of Penteli, a total of four geosites were selected (Figure 12,

Table 4. The identified geosites in Mount Pentelicus.

Name	Code_Name	Type
Davelis’ Cave—ancient marble quarry	PE01	Geomorphological
Odos Lithagogias	PE02	Anthropogenic
Aloula—Open-Air Museum of Quarry Art	PE03	Anthropogenic
Dionysovouni—modern marble quarry	PE04	Anthropogenic

).

• Davelis’ Cave: The Penteli marble was the primary construction material of the Parthenon. The marble quarry used for this project was located southwest of the mountain, in the Cave of Amomon, now known as Davelis’ Cave. Quarrying during that period involved the use of iron plates and wooden or copper wedges, with the transportation facilitated by pulleys, counterweights, and winches. The extracted marble blocks were transported by workers from the extraction point to the so-called “Lithagogia road” (Pendelethen Lithagogia). The craftsmen placed the marble blocks on sledges, and through the straight, narrow, and downhill cobbled road, they were moved to the loading station of the large waggons bound for Athens. In today’s Davelis’ Cave, the quarrymen established the Nymphaeum, an ancient oracle site dedicated to the worship of the nymphs inside the cave, that now serves as a place of rest from their strenuous work. Legend has it that within the shadows of the stalagmites in the cave, the figures of the nymphs in various poses can be seen (Figure 13) [57,63].
• Pentelethen Lithagogia: The Pentelethen Lithagogia or the “Pentelic Lithagogy” was the route followed by the marble from the ancient quarries of Penteli to Athens for the construction of the Parthenon. The descent of the marble from the heights of Penteli took place via the “Descent Road”, a well-designed, paved, and sloped road. This road had holes on its sides for the insertion of wooden stakes, through which ropes were passed to ensure the safe and controlled descent of the heavy carts carrying the marble (Figure 14).
• The “Descent Road” stretched approximately 3 kilometres and reached an elevation of 490 metres, where the main transport road, the “Lithagogy”, began. According to Emeritus Professor Manolis Korres [57], this route followed the right bank of the stream between Penteli and Chalandri for about 4 kilometres and the left side for another 4 kilometres. This route started from the current Perikleous Street in Nea Penteli and ended at the five-arched marble bridge of the Duchess of Placentia, which replaced an older bridge that connected the two banks of the stream along the ancient road.
  The modern topography of the route coincides with several contemporary streets in the municipalities of Nea Penteli and Melissia, such as Perikleous and Aristofanous Streets in Nea Penteli, and Sokratous, Aristeidou, Agias Marinis, Palaion Latomeion, Doukissis Plakentias, and Keas Streets in the area of Melissia.
  The ancient quarry at Davelis’ Cave and the paved route of the Pentelic Lithagogy are points of historical and cultural heritage, closely tied to the natural wealth and the creation of the Parthenon, and they are directly connected to the modern urban environment of the area. This route, which transported the materials used for the greatest marvel of classical antiquity, remains a living testament to the collaboration between man and nature in ancient Athens.
• Aloula—Open Air Museum of Quarry Art: Mining in the northern part of the mountain was carried out in the Aloula region without interruption for more than 40 years, where with the outbreak of the Second World War stopped that activity for good. In the 1940s, mining ceased, the quarries closed, and the English company left and never returned. In the late 1940s, all the facilities of the former English company were purchased by the company Quarries of Dionysos-Penteli S.A. Mining activity in the northern part of Mount Pentelicus ceased, while in the southern part, it continued until 1974. In 1974, following a decision of the Greek government, the mining quarries were closed and their facilities abandoned, but mining activity continued in the Dionysovouni area, north-east of the mountain. In 1994, the environmental restoration and regeneration of the quarry in the Aloula area took place with the establishment of the Open Museum of Quarry Art, with contributions from Parian quarrymen. The forgotten area of Aloula, which took its name from the contractor who started working there at the beginning of the mining activity in 1899, has been transformed into a unique space combining nature with the quarrying art of the old quarries of the area. The Aloula project stands out as one of the most significant environmental restoration initiatives for quarry sites in Europe during the 1990s, demonstrating the impact of private initiative (Figure 15).
• Dionysos Marble—Modern Quarry activities: Today, Dionysos Marble operates in an area with a historical legacy of marble mining activities. The company holds a prominent position among those engaged in the production, processing, and marketing of marble and other decorative stones, both in Greece and internationally. Simultaneously, it exploits the raw materials under its possession, producing and marketing additional materials such as marble powder and calcium carbonate powder. The mining activity is carried out using modern methods for cutting and transporting the mined boulders from the quarry. The company has successfully achieved zero waste in its mining operations. Since 2002, Dionysos Marble has undertaken a significant cultural project to supply the required marbles, compatible with the ancient ones, for the restoration of the Acropolis monuments, including the Parthenon (Figure 16).

4.2. Assessment of the Geosites

4.2.1. Scientific Value

The assessment of the scientific sub-criteria of the geosites is shown in Figure 17 and

Table 5. Results of the assessment of the scientific value of the geosites.

Code Name	Representativeness	Key Location	Scientific Knowledge	Integrity	Geodiversity	Rarity	Use Lim.	Total Scientific Value
SA01	4	1	2	4	2	2	4	2.9
SA02	2	0	0	4	0	4	1	1.9
SA03	4	0	0	4	1	4	1	2.55
SA04	4	0	0	4	1	4	0	2.45
SA05	2	1	2	4	1	4	0	2.15
SA06	4	1	1	4	1	4	2	2.9
SA07	2	0	2	4	2	2	2	1.9
SA08	2	1	2	4	2	4	2	2.4
SA09	2	0	1	4	2	4	2	2.15
SA10	2	0	2	4	2	2	2	1.9
SA11	1	0	2	4	0	4	2	1.8
SA12	4	0	0	4	1	4	1	2.55
SA13	4	0	0	4	4	4	4	3
SA14	4	0	0	4	0	4	4	2.8
SA15	4	0	0	4	4	4	4	3
PE01	2	2	2	4	2	1	1	2.05
PE02	2	2	2	4	2	1	4	2.35
PE03	4	4	4	2	2	2	4	3.3
PE04	1	4	4	2	2	2	4	2.4

. Overall, the representativeness, integrity, rarity, and use limitations have a high grade for most geosites, while only key location has a low grade (because these geosites have not been yet used as key locations for a particular geological discipline). Also, scientific knowledge shows intermediate values, as there are only a few pieces of scientific literature where the geosites of both study areas have been described. Their geographical distribution is shown in Figure 18 and Figure 19.

The overall scientific value of the geosites is presented in Figure 20. Six of the geosites (32%—of which five are in Samaria Gorge) have a value of more than 2.75. The highest value was scored by Davelis’ Cave, Penteli (3.3), followed by Aghia Roumeli (sea view and castle view), Samaria (3). A score of 2–2.75 was scored by nine geosites (47%—of which six are in Samaria), and two geosites (21%—both in Samaria) scored a low value (<2).

4.2.2. Educational and Touristic Value

As regards the educational and touristic values as well as for the individual sub-criteria, the results of the assessment are represent in

Table 6. Results of the assessment of the educational and touristic value of the geosites.

Code Name	Vuln.	Acc.	Us. Lim.	Saf.	Log.	Pop.	Oth.	Scen.	Uniq.	Obs.	Did.	Geod.	Inter.	Prox.	Econ.	Educ. Value	Touristic Value
SA01	4	4	4	2	4	1	4	4	2	4	1	3	2	4	3	2.85	2.9
SA02	3	1	3	1	3	1	4	4	1	4	1	1	2	4	3	2	2.25
SA03	3	1	3	1	1	1	4	4	1	4	1	2	1	4	3	2	2.05
SA04	1	1	3	1	1	1	4	4	1	4	2	2	4	4	3	2	2.15
SA05	1	1	3	1	1	1	4	4	1	4	1	2	2	4	3	1.8	1.95
SA06	3	1	3	4	1	1	4	4	1	4	2	2	3	4	3	2.5	2.55
SA07	2	1	3	1	1	1	4	4	1	4	1	3	4	3	3	2	2.2
SA08	2	1	3	1	1	1	4	4	2	4	1	3	3	3	3	2.05	2.15
SA09	1	1	3	1	3	1	4	4	1	4	1	3	3	3	3	2	2.1
SA10	2	1	3	1	3	1	4	4	1	4	1	3	4	3	3	2.1	2.3
SA11	2	1	3	1	3	1	4	4	1	4	1	1	3	4	3	1.9	2.25
SA12	2	1	4	2	4	1	4	3	1	4	2	2	3	4	3	2.35	2.4
SA13	4	1	4	2	4	1	4	3	3	4	1	4	1	4	3	2.65	2.5
SA14	4	1	4	2	4	1	4	4	1	4	1	1	2	4	3	2.3	2.55
SA15	4	1	4	2	4	1	4	4	2	4	1	4	1	4	3	2.65	2.5
PE01	1	4	3	1	4	3	3	3	4	3	3	2	2	2	4	2.7	2.4
PE02	1	4	1	1	3	3	3	4	4	3	3	2	3	3	3	2.6	2.4
PE03	2	4	1	2	1	3	3	4	4	3	2	3	2	3	1	2.6	2.3
PE04	1	3	1	2	1	3	3	4	2	3	4	2	3	2	1	2.6	2.05

. The educational potential of both areas was found to be quite high, as 12 geosites (63%—including all sites in Penteli) achieved a score >2.5 for the educational value, while 5 geosites (26%) had a value between 2 and 2.5 (Figure 21). The touristic potential is intermediate (2–2.5) for most geosites (79%) (including all geosites of Penteli), and only 16% have a value higher than 2.5 (Figure 22).

4.2.3. Degradation Risk

Finally, with regard to degradation risk (

Table 7. Results of the assessment of the degradation risk of the geosites.

Code Name	Proximity	Deterioration	Legal Protection	Accessibility	Population Density	Degradation Risk
SA01	1	4	1	1	4	2.35
SA02	1	4	1	4	4	2.8
SA03	1	4	1	4	4	2.8
SA04	1	1	1	4	4	1.75
SA05	1	4	1	4	4	2.8
SA06	1	4	1	4	4	2.8
SA07	2	4	1	4	4	3
SA08	2	4	1	4	4	3
SA09	2	4	1	4	4	3
SA10	2	4	1	4	4	3
SA11	1	4	1	4	4	2.8
SA12	1	3	1	4	4	2.45
SA13	1	4	1	4	4	2.8
SA14	1	4	4	4	4	3.4
SA15	1	4	4	4	4	3.4
PE01	3	1	4	1	2	2.1
PE02	2	2	4	1	2	2.25
PE03	2	2	4	1	2	2.25
PE04	3	3	4	2	2	2.95

), only one geosite (6%) was found to be at low risk, namely the Osia Maria stalactites, due to the inability to reach them directly (they can be easily observed up close, but their height does not permit direct contact). A total of 26% (including three sites at Penteli) of the geosites are at an intermediate risk and the remaining 68% are at a high risk (>2.75). Moreover, 32% have risk value ≥3, indicating that they are in urgent need of protection (Figure 23).

4.3. The Proposed Georoutes

4.3.1. Crossing of Samaria Gorge

The georoute we propose is the crossing of Samaria Gorge. For that, we have designed only one georoute, as the gorge’s morphology as well as the local regulations for visitors’ safety do not allow for any deviations from the standardised pathway. It is to be noted that the only way to cross the gorge is to arrive at Xyloskalos with a vehicle (car or bus), cross it on foot from north to south up to the port of Aghia Roumeli, and then leave Aghia Roumeli with a ship—or vice versa—as Aghia Roumeli is not accessible through the road network. Therefore, we included the position of the ship close to the port as a geosite for the reasons described.

While it is possible to cross the gorge in either direction, the georoute we propose follows the trunk river from upstream to downstream, given that during the summer months, there is a frequent connection between Xyloskalos and the city of Chania via public transportation, while this is not the case for the boat connecting Aghia Roumeli to other locations of Crete.

The aim of this georoute is to provide general insights into the geological evolution of the gorge, as well as each particular geological formation. By gradually addressing different geological aspects (e.g., tectonics, geomorphology, stratigraphy, sedimentology, etc.), visitors will be able to understand natural processes and how they interact with each other. Moreover, the Gorge of Samaria is one of the most spectacular gorges on the island of Crete; thus, visitors will have a very nice experience, especially if they are fond of hiking. And besides the above, visitors will also have the chance to explore the gorge’s historical, religious, and mythological significance.

To complete this georoute, visitors need to come to Xyloskalos early in the morning (taking into account that the national park opens at around 07:00 and the exit from the gorge must be completed by 18:00). Once they enter the national park, they will follow the clearly marked path towards the river mouth, which coincides with the riverbed in several parts. The total trekking distance is 13 km. They will then reach the old village of Aghia Roumeli, from which they can walk for an additional 1 km towards the new settlement (close to the sea) or use a public shuttle. From the port of Aghia Roumeli, they can take the boat to Chora Sfakion, from which there is a frequent connection to Chania with public transport. In this way, this route can be completed within one day.

While there is a frequent connection with Xyloskalos via public transportation (the first bus starting around 05:00 from the city of Chania), visitors have the option of reaching it by car as well. In this case, however, they need to take into account that they will not be able to return to Xyloskalos on the same day. Instead, they will need to return there via a bus from Chania to retrieve their car, which is not recommended. Also, it is important for visitors to take into account that Aghia Roumeli is not connected via road to any other settlement on the island; the only connection is via boat.

The georoute involves all geosites identified in this work (see Section 4), given that all of them are located en route; thus, omitting any of them would be meaningless. Besides geological features, the georoute also involves several points of historical, archaeological, religious, or mythological interest from the ones shown in Figure 2. The individual stops include the following (Figure 24):

1.  

Xyloskalos panoramic view (SA01): This is the exact point from which visitors can enter the national park. It offers a panoramic view of the White Mountains of Crete and the Gorge of Samaria. This is an excellent location for understanding the interconnections between tectonics and the evolution of the landscape, as well as for understanding the uplifting regime dominating south Crete.

2.  

Linoseli spring: This is a spring, considered to be among the coldest springs in Crete, and it has been referred to by several wanderers as Zeus’ spring.

3.  

Aghios Nikolaos step-and-pool sequences (SA02): These are very typical fluvial landforms, present in almost every flowing stream. These will give visitors a preliminary idea of fluvial processes (which are among the most commonly addressed geological processes present in this georoute).

4.  

Prinari slackwater deposits (SA03): Following the step-and-pool sequences, visitors will delve further into the fluvial processes, this time understanding the concept of flooding, realising that this is a natural process of every fluvial system. They will also have the chance to discuss the positive effects of flooding, including the formation of alluvial floodplains.

5.  

Osia Maria stalactites (SA04): Along the way, close to the old village of Samaria, large stalactites can be seen on the river’s right bank over a nearly vertical cliff. We consider the following two possible explanations for their formation: as they were part of a large underground cavity, they seem to have been exposed to the surface either due to cave collapse or due to river dissection.

6.  

Old Samaria village (SA05): The old village of Samaria (now abandoned) was located approximately in the centre of the gorge. This village currently hosts the medical practice of the gore and public toilets, but it is of great historical value. During the Turkish rule, it was a refuge point for both non-combatants and rebels. In 1941, it was the place of the accommodation of king George II and the prime minister Emmanuel Tsouderos, before heading to the Middle East. In fact, at this point, the last order given in Greek territory was mandated, urging the Greek army to resist the Germans.

7.  

Osia Maria church: St. Mary of Egypt is a small church located very close to the old village of Samaria. In fact, the name of the village, as well as the whole national park, is the corruption of this church’s name. The church is estimated to have been built in the 14th century and is richly adorned with wall paintings.

8.  

Osia Maria conglomerates (SA06): In this site, visitors have the opportunity to see a different type of rock compared to the limestone that is mostly observed upstream. They will have the opportunity to better understand the processes of sedimentation and its differentiation according to the geological environment.

9.  

Old Samaria terraces (SA07): These are artificial terraces constructed for agricultural reasons, given that the gorge’s morphology is steep and does not permit any cultivations. Besides its educational value (given that students can understand the process of soil erosion and the factors affecting it), it is also historically significance, given that it was used for the nutritional needs of the old village.

10.

Perdika slot canyon (SA08): This is one of the two sites where the width of the Tarraios river is less than 7 metres. This will allow visitors to delve even further into the tectonic evolution of the area and understand landscape evolution in tectonically active areas.

11.

Portes folds (SA09): This is a location where spectacular folds are found. Generally, folds are abundant along the route after old Samaria, but this location is among the most impressive ones. Here, visitors can obtain a combined idea of stratigraphy, lithology, and tectonics.

12.

Portes cherts (SA10): Following the previous stop, here, visitors will have the opportunity to obtain a very good understanding of the main principles of stratigraphy, as well as marine geology, as this location is the most characteristic example of thinly bedded limestones with chert intercalations along the route.

13.

Portes slot canyon (SA11): This is the narrowest part of the gorge. This will act in supplementation to the previous slot canyon location.

14.

Portes bedded limestones: This area provides an impressive view of thinly bedded limestones and will add to the chert intercalations geosite.

15.

Aghios Antonios cave (SA12): This is a small cave, hosting the homonymous church (Saint Anthony). While there is no internal decoration, this site is the easiest (and safest) to access cave within the gorge. It can be accessed through a short pathway starting from the old village of Aghia Roumeli.

16.

Aghia Roumeli Castle (SA13): This site requires an additional 1 km of hiking to reach (and another 1 km to return), as it deviates from the common route. However, it has been included in this georoute because, besides its historical value, it also provides a panoramic view of the Samaria Gorge, on the one hand, and its estuaries on the other. Here, visitors can be familiarised with fluvial processes, coastal processes, as well as slope processes, given scree is also visible. Also, exactly for this reason, it is among the most aesthetic points of view along the route and is ideal following 13 km of hiking.

17.

Aghia Roumeli beach (SA14): This site combines several scientific and cultural aspects, including archaeology (as the village of Aghia Roumeli is built on the remnants of the ancient Tarra, whence the name of the river is derived), history (as the village and the broader area played a very significant role during Turkish times), coastal processes (and specifically coastal hazards and protection), and an opportunity to relax after the trekking route. Aghia Roumeli is a touristic village, thus offering visitors several options (swimming, restaurants, and cafes).

18.

Aghia Roumeli sea view (SA15): Once visitors have reached Aghia Roumeli, returning back through the gorge is practically impossible (not only due to physical strain, but also because the national park closes at 18:00 on both sides). As a result, their only option is to take the boat from Aghia Roumeli. Thus, we have added an additional, “bonus” geosite, which is the alluvial fan of the Tarraios river, as it can be perfectly seen from the boat.

4.3.2. The Pentelic Marble (From Ancient Times to Today)

The geography of the Athens region and the rich natural material resources it provides have played an important role in the development of Athens’ history and culture. Mount Pentelicus, with its high-quality marble, is a prime example of the natural wonders that have made the Athens region famous throughout history. The beauty and durability of the marble have made it a symbol of excellence and luxury throughout history, and its extraction and use continue to be an important industry in the Athens region today.

The georoute we propose, which combines the cultural, historical, and geological heritage of Mount Pentelicus, has been designed to showcase the natural and cultural monuments of the region. The visitor begins at the historic Davelis’ Cave, continues along the ancient Marble Transport Road Odos Lithagogias (“Lithagogy Street”), passes by the Holy Monastery of Saint Panteleimon, visits the Open-Air Museum of Quarry Art in the Aloula area, and ends at the modern marble quarry at Dionysovouni. Each point along the georoute has been carefully selected to offer a comprehensive experience that blends nature, history, geoheritage, and the overall geological significance of the area.

The route has been designed to highlight the geological and cultural heritage of Mount Pentelicus, offering visitors a comprehensive experience. Each point was chosen based on its historical significance, cultural value and/or unique geological characteristics. From the mysterious allure of Davelis’ Cave to the modern quarry at Dionysovouni, the trail illustrates the continuous evolution of Pentelic marble use and the area’s connection to the history of architecture and art.

The individual stops are as follows (Figure 25):

• Davelis’ Cave—Amomon Cave (PE01). Davelis’ Cave is the first stop on the georoute. Located on the southwestern slopes of Mount Pentelicus, it is known for its mysterious history and the legends surrounding it. Beyond its natural beauty, the cave is linked to the infamous bandit Davelis and contains early Christian elements. Visitors can explore the interior formations while learning about the cave’s history and unique geological features. Access from Athens is via Pentelis Avenue, following signs leading to Davelis’ Cave.
• Ancient Marble Transport Road (Odos Lithagogias) (PE02): From the cave, the route continues toward the Ancient Marble Transport Road. This road, constructed in the 5th century BC, was used for transporting marble from the quarries of Mount Pentelicus to the Acropolis of Athens and other major projects of the time. Its remains, preserved to this day, reveal the historical importance of the area as a centre of marble extraction and processing. The trail follows the old road, giving visitors a unique opportunity to witness how ancient transportation systems operated.
• Holy Monastery of Saint Panteleimon: The Holy Monastery of Saint Panteleimon, located in the Kokkinara area of Penteli, is the third point of the georoute. It is a notable post-Byzantine monastery renowned for its picturesque location and breathtaking views of the Attica basin. It is situated at nearly 870 m above sea level, and it is part of the historic Monastery of Petrakis, also known as the Monastery of the Incorporeal Taxiarches, marking the northern boundary of its estate. Dating back to the Byzantine period, the monastery is set in the tranquil forested area of Mount Pentelicus and offers visitors a peaceful stop. The monastery is renowned for its architecture and rich iconography. From here, visitors can enjoy sweeping views of Attica and experience the serenity of the monastic setting. Access is easy by car, following the road from Penteli toward Nea Makri.
  The Holy Monastery of Saint Panteleimon is not only significant for its main church (the Katholikon) but also for its multiple chapels, each dedicated to different saints, including Aghios Nikodimos, the Transfiguration of the Saviour, the Holy Apostles, Aghios Nektarios, and the Akathistos Hymn. These chapels house holy relics of various saints, making it a place of deep spiritual significance. Currently, the monastery is home to a small community of nine monks and hieromonks, who live under the guidance of Elder Onufrios. A short distance from the monastery, a chapel dedicated to Agios Onufrios stands on a hill, marked by a large cross, symbolising the deep spiritual history of the area. The tradition of monastic life on Mount Pentelicus dates back to the early Christian times, with the mountain’s fresh water sources likely attracting monks to establish numerous chapels on its slopes. The Monastery of Aghios Panteleimon continues this rich spiritual heritage, offering a place of worship and reflection in the serene environment of Mount Pentelicus.
• Open-Air Museum of Quarry Art (Aloula area) (PE03): Next is the Open-Air Museum of Quarry Art in the Aloula area. This museum has been created to highlight the long-standing quarrying tradition of the region and to showcase the tools and techniques used over the centuries. Visitors can see both ancient and modern tools, as well as inscriptions that narrate the history of the workers and the marble extraction process. The museum is set in an open space, surrounded by old quarry areas, making the site especially impressive. Access is via Penteli, following the signs to the Aloula area.
• Modern Marble Quarry (Dionysovouni—Dionysos Marble S.A.) (PE04): The trail concludes at the modern marble quarry in Dionysovouni. Here, visitors have the opportunity to witness how the famous Pentelic marble is extracted today. The modern methods and machinery used offer an interesting contrast to the traditional techniques seen at the Open-Air Museum of Quarry Art. Visiting the quarry provides a striking end to the georoute, connecting the past with the present of marble craftsmanship in the area. Access is from Nea Makri, following the road toward Dionysovouni, with tours available by prior arrangement.

To follow the georoute, one should start from Athens, follow Kifisias Avenue and then Pentelis Avenue toward the area of Penteli. Then, they should turn towards Davelis’ Cave, following the signs from the main road. They should then continue to the Ancient Marble Transport Road, before proceeding to the Holy Monastery of Saint Panteleimon. Next, they should head to the Aloula area to reach the Open-Air Museum of Quarry Art. Finally, following the road toward Nea Makri and Dionysovouni, they should be able to reach the modern marble quarry.

4.4. The Story Maps and VR Applications

The two story maps are available in the following links:

• Story map in Samaria Gorge (in English): https://arcg.is/1PPrya1 (developed on 29 January 2024)
• Story map in Samaria Gorge (in Greek): https://arcg.is/0WXK5n (developed on 24 January 2024)
• Story map in Mount Pentelicus (in Greek): https://arcg.is/0K9Dr10 (developed on 4 April 2024)
• Story map in Mount Pentelicus (in English): https://arcg.is/1m1HuD1 (developed on 4 April 2024)

They contain informative texts, hyperlinks, interactive maps, as well as audiovisual material. Concerning Samaria Gorge, visitors are introduced to the process of gorge formation, as well as the geological structure and geomorphological evolution of this area. The information is presented in a simple way, making it easy to follow by non-experts rather than just the geological community. Concerning Mount Pentelicus, the story map contains a brief history of the area, as well as the proposed sites of interest, together with all the necessary information for potential visitors.

The VR applications, as well as instructions on how to access them can be found in these links:

• For Samaria Gorge: https://tripgift.eu/virtualReality/samaria/samaria_home.html (developed on 07 January 2025)
• For Mount Pentelicus: https://tripgift.eu/virtualReality/penteli/penteli-three-sixty.html (developed on 07 January 2025)

Through these links, one can choose to either navigate the applications using a computer or phone environment, or using VR goggles. In any case, one can visit all “stops” in the proposed order or in a customisable order. A zooming tool as well as a compass showing the orientation are available. Users can also conduct distance measurements, as well as view information about each specific “stop”, available in both Greek and English.

The platform’s development focuses on functionality, ensuring a user-friendly, accessible interface that accommodates varying levels of technical expertise. Its modular, open design allows for continuous updates and expansions, maintaining long-term relevance. Accessibility is also a priority; the VR environments are designed to function across diverse devices, including smartphones and computers, to reach a broader audience and to adapt to different educational contexts. Additionally, the platform is scalable and accessible across devices like smartphones and computers, making it adaptable to different educational environments and readily available to a broader audience.

5. Discussion

It is very important to promote geological heritage as it can aid in geo-conservation [40]. Additionally, it can help attract more geotourists [86,87] and thus help develop sustainable, alternative forms of tourism rather than massive tourism [9,13]. Besides geo-conservation, this could also contribute to the financial development of the local communities [37,38,39].

Geotourism is becoming more and more preferred by visitors, as they are eager to become familiar with the natural monuments and geological heritage. Besides naturalists, tourists that choose to be involved with typical mass tourism activities, also try to visit natural monuments too. Some typical examples in Greece include the Meteora [88], the Gorge of Acheron [40], or even Samaria Gorge. Such areas are not only a significant part of Greek geological heritage, but they make a great contribution to local tourism and the economy.

Also, a rich geological heritage, if promoted well, can attract geoscientists and experts from different geological fields, and they can visit and perhaps identify even more sites of geological interest based on their field of expertise, thus enriching the area’s geosite inventory [26,40,41]. This can also raise the local people’s awareness, including the local or regional authorities, which may be motivated to protect and preserve their natural heritage, given that many geological monuments of high or lesser scientific importance are deteriorated by the locals or tourists due to ignorance of their value (e.g., [40]).

Another value of geoheritage, which is often omitted from assessment methods, is the aesthetic value [22]. The attractiveness of the landscape or a particular formation is a key component of tourism [89,90]. People visiting, or living close to, “beautiful” areas or sites are more satisfied [89] and happy [91]. The aesthetic value is usually subjective [92], but it can be objectively assessed based on expert knowledge [93].

In relation to the aesthetic value, the touristic aspect of geosites needs to be taken into consideration as well. Many areas have a high geotouristic potential but remain unknown to the wider public. However, if geosites are adequately explained (e.g., through a booklet or an informative sign), they can satisfy visiting tourists [41]. Geotourists could be ordinary tourists who happen to come across a geosite—people eager to delve into an area’s geoheritage without having any scientific or professional background—and geoscience experts that do have the relevant background [94]. According to [51,95], geotourism consists of the following three components: tourism, forms, and processes. Tourism is the anthropocentric approach and relates to touristic activities. Forms refer to formations and landscapes, as well as their individual characteristics. Processes can be of any type (tectonic, geomorphological, etc.).

Geoeducation refers to the process of obtaining geological information by visiting a geological site. Its the basis is the comprehension of the principles of geology [96]. It can be applied to all levels of education, from primary to higher education [97]. Some of the objectives of geoeducation are to understand how the natural and human systems interact with each other and how different aspects of culture and society blend with the geological and ecological environment [98,99]. Geoeducators need to have an advanced knowledge and understanding of the geological processes in order to assess a geosite’s educational potential as well as communicate their knowledge to the general public [100].

Geoeducation can make a significant contribution to the protection, conservation, and management of geoheritage [97]. It can lead to an increased awareness and appreciation of the geological value of an area, an increased sense of responsibility, and can thus contribute to sustainable development [43,96,101]. It is also of fundamental importance in piquing visitors’ interest, not only in the geosites per se, but also in the various disciplines of geosciences as well [96].

Considering the lack of geological education in primary and secondary schools in many countries, geoeducation and environmental education seem necessary [88,96,102,103]. Many examples have been reported referring to the destruction or vandalism of sites of geological interest by the general public due to lack of knowledge on their value [104,105]. It is important that geoeducation be introduced in school, for instance with the form of educational workshops or guided tours, which could involve not only the students but also their families as well [100,106]. Introducing geoeducation to children is particularly important [99,107,108], because they are very interested in the environment and the natural processes, and it should be particularly attractive to them, given with their high rate of imagination. A very good way to reach this target audience is through interactive activities and games [108]. By integrating geoeducation into the school curriculum, we can foster a sensitised and responsible new generation, aware of the scientific, economic, cultural, and educational significance of geoheritage [99].

While several modern technologies have been developed to promote geohertitage and foster geoeducation [109], they need to act supplementarily to the physical visits to a site of geological interest. In situ visits bear many benefits that cannot be substituted by any technological means [109,110,111].

5.1. Overview of the Assessment Sub-Criteria

Concerning the scientific value, representativity, referring to the extent to which the geosites represent the geological feature(s) or process(es) of interest, is commonly used in geosite assessment [1,22,41,75]. According to the methodology of [1], the value of 4 is given to the best examples within the study area to indicate the intended process(es) or landform(s). In that sense, several geosites were found to be representative of these processes and landforms, including the panoramic views and the karstic landforms. Portes bedded limestones (SA11) and Odos Lithagogias (PE02) were given a low score, because they do not clearly express the primary geological feature(s) intended to be pointed out.

Integrity is also common in several geosite assessment methods. It has to do with the current condition of a geosite in terms of conservation and deterioration [1]. Almost all geosites were found to be very well-preserved, both concerning their primary and secondary geological elements, which is a very positive indicator for the area’s sustainability and geo-conservation. Only two geosites were given the value of 2, Davelis’ Cave (PE01) and Odos Lithagogias (PE02), both located in Penteli. These sites have been deteriorated due to human activities (vandalism and urbanisation, respectively).

Rarity, also a common criterion in many methods, concerns how rare a feature is within the study area. All geosites of Penteli have a medium or low value because these features are quite common in Mount Pentelicus (even though not all of these sites met the criteria to be designated as geosites). There are, for instance, several caves, as well as marble quarries. In Samaria, the two slot canyons, as well as Xyloskalos (SA01), have a medium value because these features can be found throughout the gorge in several locations. All other geosites within Samaria were found to be unique.

Key locality refers to whether the geosites have already been used as a reference point for some geological surveys. Scientific knowledge acts in a similar way to key locality, referring to the existing knowledge on a geosite from the literature. Up to now, most geosites of Samaria Gorge have been unused, giving them the value of 0 for this criterion. One possible explanation is that these sites were previously unknown to the broader geoscientific community. We aim to promote such sites not only to the general public but to geologists as well. Making an area’s geoheritage known to the scientific community may attract them to identify even more geosites, and may thus lead to an enriched geosite inventory [40]. Only the geosites of Mount Pentelicus have been assigned a higher value, and this can be explained by their proximity to Athens, which makes it easier for geologists to study this area, be they from the local geological department and survey or from abroad.

Geodiversity refers to the number of geological elements present, in addition to the primary one. Ideally, a geosite should address more than one geological discipline. In that sense, most geosites in both areas have scored a high value. This is because, typically, in Samaria Gorge, fluvial, karstic, and sedimentological features usually mix together, while some sites also include other elements, such as stratigraphical ones. Similarly, in Mount Pentelicus, geology-related human activities and karstic processes again intermix. Only a few sites in Samaria Gorge were found to address only one or two elements.

Finally, use limitations refer to whether the geosites can be used by the scientific community for research activities (including sampling, mapping, etc.) [1]. Regarding Mount Pentelicus, only the Dionysos marble quarry has limitations, in that it is still active, which means that a specific licence may be needed. In Samaria Gorge, given its protection status by the Natural Environment & Climate Change Agency, the values for this criterion were given based on the type of geosites and the potential field activities. For example, the panoramic views, which would be ideal for mapping, do not show any limitations. Other geosites, such as bedded rocks, do not allow for any sampling, but geologists may want to make in situ measurements (e.g., thickness, fold axis orientation, etc.). This can be easily achieved, but in any case, it would be best to obtain a typical licence from the agency, as there will be control. In sites where sampling may be needed, it is necessary to obtain a licence, perhaps from more than one agency, which would take a lot of time.

Concerning the educational and touristic sub-criteria, vulnerability refers to the possible deterioration of the geosites due to visits by tourists or students. The sites that are more prone to human activities, such as karstic features and human-related geosites, were given the lowest values.

Accessibility refers to the proximity to the road network, the availability of parking spaces, and places for a bus to stop. This relates to the ability of a geosite to be used for educational or touristic activities [1]. All sites of Mount Pentelicus are easily accessible and have thus received a high value. In Samaria Gorge, only Xyloskalos (SA01) is accessible through a road, while all other geosites are accessible only by walking (except SA15 which is accessible by boat). These have thus received a low value for this sub-criterion.

Use limitations refer to whether the geosites can be used for touristic or educational activities without any limitations. Samaria poses no limitations of that kind, except for the fact that the gorge is quite prone to landsliding phenomena, which may occasionally prevent people from visiting. In this regard, the entrance and exit are still accessible; thus, these geosites received a high value. The intermediate ones have received a lower value.

One limitation of Brilha’s method is that it does not take safety issues into account. The criterion of safety refers to the existence of safety and emergency facilities in close proximity rather than safety itself [1]. This means that the landslide hazard has been only indirectly considered in the previous criterion. Based on Brilha’s [1] criterion, all geosites of both study areas have a low value because they are far from any safety facilities. The only exception is the old village of Samaria (SA06), which contains a treatment room for visitors.

Logistics acts similarly to the previous sub-criterion, as it only refers to lodging and restaurants. In Samaria Gorge, only the entrance and exit of the gorge host such facilities; thus, these geosites received a high value. Some other sites that are quite close to the above received a lower value. All other geosites of Samaria, as well as those of Mount Pentelicus, received a low value.

Population density refers to the broader area where the geosites are located. A higher density means that more local people, and perhaps tourists, may visit the geosites for either educational or touristic purposes. Thus, Mount Pentelicus is quite close to Athens, and thus received a high value. On the contrary, Samaria Gorge is far from any inhabited places of Crete. The only active settlement is Aghia Roumeli, but only during the tourist season. Thus, all geosites received a low value.

As already mentioned, it is important that geosites have other values besides the scientific one, such as cultural and ecological. Association with other values is Brilha’s [1] sub-criterion that addresses them. All geosites have scored a high value in this sub-criterion because they are either associated with a cultural and/or ecological aspect themselves, or there is a site of cultural significance in their vicinity.

Scenery refers to whether the geosites are already used for tourism purposes. In our case, both study areas are indeed popular tourist destinations and all geosites are already visited and observed, giving them a high value. This is another limitation of the current methodology. It does not take into account whether the geosites themselves are actually visited and not just passed through. It is true that most geosites, especially in Samaria Gorge, are just observed and admired due to their aesthetics, but most tourists do not understand their geological value. This is one issue we intend to cover for our study areas.

The uniqueness criterion refers to whether the features addressed by a geosite are unique at a national, regional, or local level. In that regard, many geosites received a low value because their features are very common in the country (such as karstic and fluvial landforms and stratigraphic geosites).

Observation conditions refer to the presence of obstacles preventing the geosites from being observed. Thus, geosites have received a high value on this sub-criterion as there are no such limitations. Didactic potential refers to whether the addressed features are already taught in school. In this regard, Samaria Gorge provides a holistic approach to geology that is yet uncommon to most people, as it is not addressed in school. So, its geosites have scored a low value. Mount Pentelicus, on the contrary, has scored high values, as the features are well known to the public and are addressed in school, even to a limited extent.

Interpretive potential refers to whether the geosites are sufficiently explained in order for their geological feature(s) to be well understood by the general public. While there are a few (approximately half) sites in both areas where these features require either a solid geological background or guidance (e.g., guide or explanatory sign) to be actually observed and understood, the rest of the geosite features in both areas are very clearly expressed and have thus received a high value.

Finally, proximity refers to touristic attractions or recreational areas. The values are generally high but relate to the proximity to the most visited attractions in the nearby area. For example, in Samaria Gorge, the entrance and exit of the gorge are mostly visited by everyone, while the rest sites that require hiking are not preferred by everyone. In this regard, the values of 3 and 4 have been distributed accordingly.

Concerning the degradation potential, the first sub-criterion is the possibility for future deterioration by visitors. Generally, the landforms and formations of Samaria Gorge are generally hard to deteriorate because of several factors, such as the following: their magnitude (e.g., the slot canyons), their nature (e.g., the panoramic view), or their inability to be reached by “hard” human activities due to the lack of a road network. And because these factors are reversed in the case of Mount Pentelicus, its geosites do have a relatively high degradational potential.

Proximity, accessibility, and population density is similar to the sub-criterion used for the educational and touristic value, only it acts in a reverse way; a higher population density or proximity to degradation activities mean a higher possibility for degradation. Thus, the values here are the reverse from those of the educational and touristic sub-criterion.

Legal protection is present throughout Samaria Gorge as it belongs to the Natural Environment & Climate Change Agency and access is controlled. Therefore, the degradation risk values are low for this sub-criterion (with the exception of Aghia Roumeli village). In the case of Mount Pentelicus, this protection does not exist, and thus, the geosites have a high degradational potential based on this sub-criterion.

5.2. Implementation of the VR Applications in Geoscience

The use of Virtual Reality (VR) environments and Virtual Field Trips (VFTs) in educational settings is essential for developing students’ digital and STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) skills. These digital learning tools help bridge the gap between traditional teaching methods and the changing needs of today’s technology-driven education [112,113].

In particular, when creating inclusive STEAM activities, VR environments can enable the integration of Computational Thinking (CT) practices, providing fair access to technical fields that have been historically dominated by male participation [114]. The immersive quality of VR, combined with active engagement through VFTs, establishes an inclusive environment where all students, regardless of gender, can effectively participate in STEAM learning activities [109,110,111,115].

One VR tool used for improving digital skills in STEAM education is the A-frame, which is commonly used in construction and engineering. The A-frame acts as a teaching tool that encourages interdisciplinary learning by involving students in both physical and digital aspects. Students can use computer-aided design (AutoCAD) software to create A-frame structures, applying principles of geometry, physics, and material strength before constructing physical models. This approach allows students to explore structural stability and balance while using digital simulations to forecast and analyse outcomes. Consequently, the A-frame promotes critical problem-solving skills and improves computational thinking, effectively connecting theoretical knowledge with practical application.

In geoscience education, virtual reality (VR) applications and, more specifically, the A-Frame tool, offer an innovative way to explore complex natural phenomena. By using high-quality interactive 360-degree panoramic images, students can virtually visit different geoscientific environments. These interconnected images create a cohesive virtual landscape, allowing users to observe and explore points of interest with a sense of immersion that is difficult to achieve in a traditional classroom setting. The addition of audiovisual materials and 3D models further enhances the experience, making it visually engaging, informative, and comprehensive. These virtual experiences simulate the real world in a way that deepens students’ understanding of geological and geomorphological processes, spatial relationships, and environmental changes, which are often abstract and challenging to grasp through conventional educational methods [112,114].

The A-frame provides hands-on experience with physical tools while also enhancing digital competencies. It encourages students to track and analyse variables such as force, tension, and durability through digital tools and sensors. This combination of physical construction and digital analysis prepares students for future STEAM fields and supports the development of data analysis and computational thinking skills. Whether through simulations or physical projects, the A-frame complements the immersive learning offered by VR environments, allowing students to explore and understand both physical and digital realms. By merging traditional engineering concepts with modern technology, the A-frame becomes a vehicle for developing the key competencies essential for success in a digitalized world [114,115,116].

The VR environments created for these VFTs are not just interactive learning tools but also flexible, scalable platforms that can be continually updated with new content. This adaptability ensures that the learning materials stay relevant and up to date, providing students and educators with the tools needed to keep up with the latest developments in geosciences. These platforms are accessible on any smart device or computer with an internet connection, making them easy to integrate into various learning environments. Moreover, the open access nature of the platform ensures that it will remain a valuable resource beyond the duration of the specific educational project for which it was initially developed.

The A-frame tool fosters a multidisciplinary approach and supports the creation of a user-friendly learning environment, especially for those without extensive technical expertise. The platform is designed to be user-friendly, with learning activities and simulations that guide users through the content in an intuitive way. Key features like interactive objects, avatars, bots, and multimedia educational materials are included in the virtual environment to create an interactive and immersive learning experience. Additionally, usage guidelines and information boards within the virtual world help users navigate the simulations effectively [117].

To ensure further scalability and sustainability, the developed platform is designed to be open and modular, allowing for continued expansion and future use. Users can study learning modules, test their knowledge, and implement related scenarios during simulations and experiential learning activities. The 3D virtual world, including landscapes, buildings, and interactive objects, aligns with specific project learning objectives and is enhanced by conceptual scenarios that provide a framework for exploring the subject matter. All interactions within the virtual world are facilitated through scripts, ensuring that the educational objectives are met in an engaging and structured manner [113,114,117].

In summary, incorporating VR environments and VFTs into geoscience education, along with a focus on digital and STEAM competencies, offers a more engaging and inclusive approach to learning. The adaptable and expandable nature of these platforms, along with their ability to encourage critical and creative thinking, ensures that they remain valuable educational tools for both students and educators. This technological integration not only enhances students’ comprehension of complex scientific concepts but also provides them with the digital skills necessary for success in an increasingly interconnected and digital world.

6. Conclusions

In this research, we have identified a total of 15 geosites in the Samaria Gorge (SE Crete) and 4 geosites in Mount Pentelicus (Attica), in combination with several cultural sites. Through field work on both areas and the usage of GIS, we have mapped them and assessed them based on the methodology of [1]. The assessment criteria were scientific value, educational value, touristic value, and degradation risk. According to our findings, both areas are rich in geological heritage, while also having high cultural and aesthetic values, rendering them suitable for geoeducation purposes.

More specifically, Samaria Gorge is an area of high geoeducational value, in that it addresses many different disciplines of geoscience (fluvial geomorphology, karstic geomorphology, tectonics and morphotectonics, sedimentology, stratigraphy, and coastal processes). At the same time, it addresses human interventions and how they interact with the landscape. A major advantage of this area, which was identified through this research, is the fact that, besides the primary geological, geotectonic, and geomorphological processes in a general sense, visitors can also see specific features that are case- or process-specific.

As already mentioned, the crossing of Samaria Gorge is one of the most popular tourist attractions in this part of the island of Crete. It is visited by thousands of tourists, mostly during the summer months, because of its high aesthetic value. Most tourists, however, do not pay any attention to the geological and geomorphological formations and do not bother to inquire about their formation processes and history. This is not due to a lack of interest, but primarily due to a lack of the necessary information (which could take the form of a guided tour or explanatory signs). In this study, we have made the geological heritage of Samaria Gorge known. While we have not proposed an alteration of the classical touristic route, we have added some “stops” where the geological part can be covered. As a first auxiliary step, we have created a story map and a virtual reality application, both of which are available in English and Greek, which are addressed to the general public rather than only geologists. These can later be used by local authorities to provide informative signs or guided tours.

With regard to Mount Pentelicus, we highlight the geo-historical dimension of a place of impressive geological and historical importance from antiquity to the present day. Its geology is linked to its history according to the path of the marble. The proposed georoute at Mount Pentelicus differs significantly from a simple tourist route, especially since no formal tourist path currently exists in the area. Unlike standard routes, the georoute aims to connect the region’s rich history with its geology, bridging the relationship between humans, the earth, and culture. It highlights the legacy of Pentelic marble, used from antiquity to the present, while offering an immersive experience that combines natural beauty, geological significance, and historical depth. This approach transforms a simple walk into an educational journey through time, linking ancient quarry art with the geological processes that shaped the land.

For these reasons, we have designed one educational georoute for each area, where visitors (either students or ordinary tourists) can see the sites of geological interest, as well as sites of cultural interest, thereby promoting geoeducation and geological tourism. Also, we have created two story maps for these areas and two virtual reality applications, where their geological status and the proposed geosites are simply presented, explained, and visualised. These can be used by visitors, as well as students or educators, in order for them to understand the geological regime of the areas and realise their geological values.

The georoute of crossing Samaria Gorge has the disadvantage of being remote from most sites of Greece, while due to safety reasons, it is best for pupils to trek it only under constant supervision and in small groups. Even so, it is a georoute with a high geoeducational potential because it combines different fields of geology (e.g., geomorphology, hydrology, structural geology, sedimentology, and petrology) while also showing their interactions with human presence and cultural sites. Furthermore, it is an impressive and very popular route for tourists due to its attractiveness. Thus, it can combine an integrated geological education with a very nice walk in both nature and history.

Concerning Mount Pentelicus, the proposed georoute offers a truly unique opportunity to delve into the rich history and evolution of marble art on Mount Pentelicus. By combining Attica’s natural beauty, deep historical roots, and vibrant cultural traditions, this journey invites visitors to experience the legacy of the Pentelic marble in a way that educates, inspires, and connects them with the timeless artistry and landscape of the region.

At the same time, the two tools that were created, namely the story maps and the VR applications, promote the remote visiting of the two areas. This can be twofold as follows: On the one hand, it should help people who are not able to visit them physically (e.g., due to financial reasons or due to disabilities). On the other hand, future visitors will be able to obtain an idea of the natural monuments of the two areas before planning a physical visit.

Further and more detailed field trips are necessary in both areas in order to identify more sites of geological significance and enrich the proposed georoutes. This can help promote the natural monuments of these areas, develop alternative forms of tourism, aid in preservation, and also contribute to the geoeducation of visitors.