Unpacking the Multifaceted Benefits of Indigenous Crops for Food Security: A Review of Nutritional, Economic and Environmental Impacts in Southern Africa

Abstract

Indigenous and traditional food crops (ITFCs) are essential to initiatives aimed at increasing food and nutrition security and diversifying the food supply. Therefore, this study sought to evaluate the benefits associated with ITFCs, particularly for food security. The Vigna subterranea (Bambara groundnut), Vigna unguiculata (Cowpea), Colocasia esculenta (Taro), and Sinapis arvensis (Wild mustard) are examples of indigenous crops that were introduced for food security in Southern Africa. This review assessed the advantages of indigenous crops for food security and examined literature, reports, and case studies from 2009 to 2024 using academic databases, like Scopus, Web of Science, JSTOR, Google Scholar, and AGRIS, to assess how indigenous crops impact on food security and the benefits thereof. The primary inclusion criteria were nutritional, economic and environmental impacts of these indigenous crops for food security in Southern Africa. The review concludes that maximizing these benefits requires removing obstacles through capacity-building and policy reforms. The need to integrate precision agriculture to increase production of indigenous crops should be considered and the coherent use of food crops associated with food security must be developed by the government. A comprehensive strategy centered on investment in sustainable farming and climate smart agriculture is recommended to ensure food security.

1. Introduction

The global food system has changed significantly over the last 50 years [1] due to declining agricultural productivity in the Global South and the depletion of indigenous and traditional food crops (ITFCs). Since the Green Revolution in the 1960s, agriculture has mostly focused on creating traditional horticultural and cereal crops. Consequently, the creation and production of ITFCs were severely undervalued as these other foods became popular and replaced many locally grown crops [2]. Foods with less nutrients have replaced ITFCs, which were once widely consumed, because of this transition, spreading so widely over the world, and increasing health-related problems [1]. For millennia, ITFCs were a significant source of food for communities. However, because colonists perceived them as the diet of the poor, these foods and associated eating habits were displaced during colonization [3]. Research and extension have categorized traditional leafy vegetables in Southern Africa as weeds since the 1960s; this unfortunate classification has stigmatized these crops, especially among young people [4]. This has led to a decline in the use of these wild food sources and in the dissemination of information about these plants in many societies. Nowadays, three major staples—rice, maize, and wheat—provide more than half of the world’s daily protein and calorie needs [5]. Additionally, 80% to 90% of our total dietary intake comes from 12–20 species [6]. Although this ensures adequate calories, it inadvertently ignores the need for a diverse diet and essential nutrients [7]. ITFCs are more varied than exotic cuisines and 7000 species have been used as food sources and for other reasons throughout human history [8,9]. Given the demand for dietary diversity and continuing worries about environmental effects, like climate change, ITFCs are ideally situated to provide food options that could enhance nutrition, increase dietary diversity, and be adapted to climate change [10]. According to the literature on mainstreaming agrobiodiversity for sustainable food systems [11], the benefits of ITFCs in promoting more equitable and sustainable food systems can be categorized into four main areas: environmental benefits, like the potential of ITFCs to withstand drought in the face of climate change [12], nutritional benefits, like the potential for higher nutrient densities than in other foods [13], economic advantages, including the support of livelihoods and income from ITFC sales [10], and social and cultural advantages, including the connection between indigenous foods’ nutritious content and local knowledge [14].

Despite these obvious benefits, however, little research has been done on the usage of traditional foods in Africa [15]. Few are used commercially [5], mostly due to human perceptions, cultural norms, and a lack of customer awareness of their benefits [16]. In addition to offering a great opportunity to diversify the diet, traditional foods serve as a source of history, a brand, and a cultural symbol. These cuisines play an important role in shaping the cultural identity of many ethnic communities [17,18]. Preserving a range of culinary practices, particularly those pertaining to food preparation and consumption, is essential because this knowledge can be readily lost over a few generations [19]. There is a significant possibility that knowledge of ITFCs is already dwindling, and that knowledge could include crucial techniques for farming [20].

The loss of food sovereignty and the capacity to govern their own food system and management have resulted in several recorded cases in the African context where communities have faced food insecurity [21]. This is evident in the context of other emerging countries, like Mexico, where rural people have encountered several issues that have caused them to become less independent and more dependent on food chains that manufacture goods [22]. Likewise, in most African nations, regarding the ethnobotany [23], wild food resources are inconsistent and inadequately recorded, and it consists primarily of lists of plant names, offering scant to nonexistent data regarding administration and use [11,23]. Researchers argue that the industrialization of food and the formalization of markets in countries such as those in Southern Africa have resulted in a decrease in the use of long-established, domesticated wild plants and foods that had been reliable for many years, even though native food plants have historically played a significant role in the diets of African communities [24].

According to Wooten [25], traditional foods have been marginalized for a number of reasons, such as a lack of awareness of their economic worth, the extent to which they are utilized and are significant in rural economies, the fact that most of them (apart from a few products) do not have global markets, irregular supply, quality standards, and technological advancements in processing and storage [20]. Although for native food plants, according to academics, there are still large gaps in knowledge in Africa, there is a dearth of information on ITFCs, especially in sub-Southern Africa, despite the World Trade Organization (WTO) declaring that “Indigenous agriculture and biological resources are vitally important to the economies, cultures, environment, food security and livelihoods of sub-Southern Africa” [26]. Without this vital information, the demand for ITFCs cannot be adequately realized or investigated [16]. Research by scientists like Osabor et al. [16] indicates that, if native plants were better understood and used more frequently as staple foods, there might be much promise for African food systems and food security [27]. It is evident that more research in this field is necessary to add new scientific knowledge and raise awareness of the conventional usage and management of ITFCs [11]. To support the claim that these foods can support food and nutrition security on the continent, we hope to synthesize the information currently available on ITFCs in Africa [28]. Overall, ITFCs are nutrient-rich, adaptable to the local environment, capable of preserving biodiversity, and crucial for ensuring food security in Southern Africa. For instance, Southern African indigenous food crops, like the Bambara peanut, cowpea, amadumbe (taro), wild mustard, and dune spinach, are rich in vitamins and minerals that can help prevent malnutrition [29]. Indigenous food crops are not well studied compared to commercially established crops, leading to reduced demand, public awareness, environmental degradation, reduced food security, and unexplored economic potential. This study sought to add to the existing knowledge of the intricate factors that lead to food insecurity and poverty in Southern Africa due to the effects of climate change.

Problem Statement

People in Southern Africa still experience food insecurity despite the region’s wealth of locally grown fruits and vegetables [29]. It seems that local people do not think highly of these foods and their ability to end hunger and poverty, improve nutrition and health, and bring in money for families [5]. Traditional foods, including cowpeas, pumpkin leaves, Bambara groundnuts, and green leafy vegetables, are becoming less popular in most Southern African nations [30]. Among the factors contributing to this loss are the westernization of African diets, the bitter taste of wild vegetables, culture, and the perception that wild vegetables are inferior [31]. A lack of interest in studying indigenous foods, or the elder generation’s failure to instruct the younger generation on how to identify, gather, prepare, and preserve them, have also been blamed for the decline [32]. Commercial farming is another factor. Because these foods have received little attention from research and development, they are not as competitive as well-known big crops [33]. A comprehensive analysis of data from 2011 to 2021 regarding the accessibility of native foods in Southern Africa, together with the elements that influence their use, was carried out to determine the laws governing the use, preparation, harvesting, and preservation of native foods [33]. These foods were more commonly consumed in rural areas, primarily by the elderly and jobless. Certain indigenous vegetables derived from multipurpose plant species are used as food and medicine to support health, according to studies in our systematic review [34,35]. There are also a variety of beverages derived from local foods, such as herbal teas, fermented non-alcoholic beverages, and traditional beer [36].

A lack of information about sustainable agricultural practices, high transaction costs, and restricted market access are only a few of the many issues facing smallholder farmers in Southern Africa [5]. These obstacles frequently prevent smallholder farmers from using sustainable agricultural practices, which are crucial for improving resilience to climate change and food poverty [6]. Food security crops can help to reduce these challenges by lowering transaction costs, connecting farmers to broader markets, and providing timely access to vital information [10,13]. The growth of food security crops has facilitated the expansion of farming platforms across Southern Africa. Indigenous crops pertaining to food security are also essential in terms of disseminating information regarding sustainable agricultural marketing [29]. For example, food security crops might provide real-time guidance from agricultural experts, best practice guidelines, and training modules. Through these crops, smallholder farmers can learn about water conservation techniques, crop rotation, and organic farming, all of which are essential for sustainable agriculture [10]. By creating a community of practice that encourages innovation and learning among the stakeholders, this information exchange benefits smallholder farmers [37]. Furthermore, smallholder farmers now have the financial means to engage in sustainable agriculture as food security crops incorporate integrated services, like extension education [38]. Therefore, this study seeks to unpack the multifaceted benefits of indigenous crops for food security in Southern Africa.

2. Methodology

2.1. Research Design

Using a systematic review methodology, the benefits of indigenous crops for food security in Southern Africa were reviewed. To summarize the study and identify trends, gaps, and new material from various literature sources, a systematic review proved to be a suitable method [19]. This strategy made sure that the subject’s level of expertise was thoroughly and objectively assessed. To ensure a high-quality summary and recommendations, the systematic review process involved the following steps: (i) developing the research questions; (ii) locating relevant literature for the review; (iii) assessing the quality of studies using appraisal guidelines; (iv) synthesizing data to summarize the evidence; and (v) interpreting the results [15].

2.2. Data Collection

Reputable academic databases, like Scopus, Web of Science, JSTOR, Google Scholar, and AGRIS, provided content for the review. Additionally, reports from organizations, like the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Bank, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and other regional organizations that monitor agricultural and socioeconomic development in Sub-Saharan African nations, were consulted to find pertinent grey literature [29]. Many search terms were utilized, including SSA, sustainable agriculture, smallholder farming, market access, agricultural practices, and indigenous crops for food. To guarantee a comprehensive and wide search, these terms were combined in a variety of ways. Research on South Africa (SA), studies performed in English, studies conducted between 2021 and 2024, and studies on the impact of food security initiatives on agriculture were the focus of the study. Peer-reviewed articles and reports were also examined. Finally, research focusing on areas outside of SA, non-English publications, and studies irrelevant to the impact of e-commerce on agriculture were omitted.

The diagram (Figure 1) above visually summarizes the screening process of the review, which initially records the number of articles found and then makes the selection process transparent by reporting on decisions made at various stages of the systematic review. The total number of all screened, included and excluded articles is demonstrated in Figure 1 to show how the data were extracted for synthesis. Researchers’ disagreements and conclusions were confirmed by examining the data’s correctness, consistency, and applicability. The paper’s conclusions were supported by a survey of the literature.

2.3. Data Extraction

By concentrating on the topics and abstracts of the papers, the first search turned up some potentially interesting pieces. Two reviewers independently checked the eligibility of these articles. Disagreements were resolved by discussion or the involvement of a third reviewer. Key data were extracted using a standardized data extraction form for each of the chosen studies. This data included the name and year of the author(s), the study’s location, the goals and methods of the research, the sample size and composition, the main conclusions about income, market accessibility, and sustainable practices, and the obstacles and enablers detected.

2.4. Data Analysis

Thematic analysis was used to identify and assemble the main topics from all included papers. To identify recurring themes and classify the recovered material into more generic groups, these were coded. The institutional repositories of many tertiary institutions were also used to access academic journals, with pertinent scientific materials, from University of Mpumalanga library and University of Free State, South Africa, while simultaneously searching its Digital, Cat Plus, and Online Public Access CatLog (OPAC) collections. The following search criteria were noted by the authors: (1) Only English was used as the language for the chosen scientific papers; (2) agriculture and food security, as well as the role of indigenous crops in food security, were the subjects of the scientific materials found, and their contents were related to the main goals of this review paper; (3) the articles were gathered from reputable, peer-reviewed, and standard journals. To find relevant articles, several keywords and phrases were used. To eliminate content that was unrelated to the paper’s subject, the authors separately reviewed the abstracts, keywords, and themes. In the end, scientific publications and grey literature from the mid-2000s to 2024 were chosen, with most of the reviewed articles published in peer-reviewed journals, and nearly all the literature dealt with food security and indigenous food crops.

3. Benefits of Indigenous Crops for Food Security in Southern Africa

Local communities benefit greatly from food security crops in terms of climate smart agriculture. Indigenous crops for food security assist communities in becoming self-sufficient [33]. World Health Organization (WHO) and the Global Food Crisis (2008) contends that poverty and hunger, which people face daily, are the reasons why these crops were first established [22]. Food security crops provide equal opportunities for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and large corporations to compete in the global market. Furthermore, these native crops facilitate the smooth integration of local companies and communities into global social, economic, and cultural networks [21]. These crops’ significance will only increase as they develop further, propelling an environmental and sustainable revolution that will significantly affect human society and outstrip the Industrial Revolution in both scale and depth [38]. This will change people’s lifestyles, perspectives, and methods in addition to increasing productivity and efficiency, making it a revolutionary force in human history. The utilization of food security crops in agriculture enables farmers to practice sustainable farming and reduce land exploitation [39].

3.1. Nutritional Benefits of Indigenous Crops for Food Security in Southern Africa

Indigenous food crops play a vital role in various societies, particularly in diversifying food sources to enhance food and nutrition security [1]. These crops, originating from Africa or naturalized through introduction, offer a rich source of traditional nutrition [10]. Notably, research reveals that only 8% of Africa’s indigenous crops were introduced, while over 90% have ancient origins on the continent [1]. Globally, 820 million people suffer from undernourishment, with 239 million of these individuals residing in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) [7].

Consequently, nutritional risk factors contribute to approximately 11 million fatalities annually, with hunger increasing in Western Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Moreover, inadequate fruit and vegetable consumption has led to nearly two million deaths, with 500,000 occurring in South Africa alone [8]. A diet lacking essential fruits and vegetables increases the risk of strokes, heart disease, and cancer [3]. Therefore, revisiting Southern Africa’s indigenous foods is crucial to addressing regional food insecurity. Indigenous crops have gained global attention for supporting sustainable diets and improving nutrition. Studies demonstrate that consuming diverse indigenous crops leads to higher intakes of micro- and macronutrients, enhancing food security [4]. In Southern Africa, about 33 indigenous crops are regularly consumed, with Amaranthus viridis, Cleome gynandra, Citrullus lanatus (watermelon), and Bidens Pilosa (blackjack) being the most popular [1]. Vigna unguiculata (cowpeas) and Ipomoea batatas (sweet potatoes) are considered traditional due to their commercial production and accessibility. Similarly, research in Zambia and Malawi indicates that sweet potatoes, Amaranthus viridis, and Cleome gynandra are frequently traded and consumed [5]. To prepare indigenous crops, various methods are employed, with cooking being the most common technique for enhancing flavor and digestibility. Additionally, boiling leaves or frying vegetables are preferred methods in Malawi [6].

Indigenous crops in Southern Africa are highly nutritious, offering a rich source of essential macronutrients and micronutrients that are often lacking in conventional diets. For example, Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) contains protein levels ranging from 19–24%, higher than common staples such as maize (7–12%), making it a vital protein source in areas experiencing protein-energy malnutrition [40]. Similarly, Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is rich in lysine and tryptophan, essential amino acids that are deficient in many cereal-based diets. Additionally, indigenous leafy vegetables, like amaranth, provide up to 40 mg of iron per 100 g, which is crucial for combating anemia, a widespread condition affecting 30% of women and children in sub-Saharan Africa [41]. The inclusion of these crops in daily diets can substantially enhance nutritional security, particularly for vulnerable populations.

The diversity of indigenous crops also ensures a balanced intake of vitamins and minerals. For instance, Amaranthus species are excellent sources of Vitamin A, contributing significantly to reducing vitamin A deficiency, which is responsible for approximately 250,000–500,000 cases of childhood blindness globally each year [41]. Moreover, indigenous tubers, like taro (Colocasia esculenta), are high in dietary fiber and potassium, aiding in gastrointestinal health and reducing the risk of hypertension. Such nutrient-dense crops address multiple aspects of malnutrition simultaneously, making them indispensable in the fight against hidden hunger in Southern Africa.

Furthermore, indigenous crops are culturally integrated into traditional diets, which facilitates their acceptance and consumption. Incorporating these crops into school feeding programs improved the nutritional status of children by 20% within a year compared to diets dominated by imported staples [42]. This highlights the potential of these crops to improve public health while preserving cultural food heritage. However, awareness campaigns and nutritional education programs are needed to promote their widespread adoption. Furthermore, the indigenous crops which are primarily found in Sub-Saharan Africa are essential for enhancing nutrition and food security, encouraging sustainable eating habits, and lowering food poverty. In contrast to alien crops, indigenous crops are notable for their ability to improve overall health outcomes by preventing malnutrition using abundant minerals and vitamins, including proteins, calcium, iron, potassium, and zinc.

Table 1. Micro and Macronutrient value of ITFC’s.

Type of ITFC	Nutrient	Distribution
Amaranthus viridis	Zinc, Iron, Phosphorus And Magnessium	South America
Cleome gynandra	Ascorbic acid and Lutein	South and East Africa
Citrullus lanatus	Sodium, Potassium and Magnessium	South and Western Africa
Bidens Pilosa (Blackjack)	Copper, Magnessium, Iron and calcium	South America, Eurasia, Africa, Australia and Pacific Islands
Vigna subterranea (Bambara groundnut)	Calcuim, Iron	West Africa Central African Replublic and Southern Africa
Vigna unguiculata (Cowpea)	Calcium, Magnessium	East and West Africa
Ipomoea batatas (Sweet potatto)	Potassium	Southern Africa
Colocasia esculenta (Amadumbe)	Potassium	Southern Africa
Sinapis arvensis (Wild mustard)	Iron, Calcium, Zinc, Manganese	North Africa

below illustrates the macro and micronutrients of indigenous food crops for food security and their distribution throughout Africa.

3.2. Economic Benefits of Indigenous Crops for Food Security in Southern Africa

Indigenous crops are not only nutritionally beneficial but also play a significant role in improving the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. For instance, households participating in indigenous crop markets in Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces reported a 25% increase in their annual income, which translated to an 18% reduction in food insecurity [42]. The revenue generated from selling indigenous crops, such as Bambara groundnut and cowpea, is often higher than that from conventional crops, like maize, due to growing demand in local and niche markets. These economic benefits contribute to rural development and poverty alleviation, especially in marginalized communities. Numerous traditional vegetable species have a high economic value; sales of these products can significantly impact household income and standard of living. Examples are cowpeas, sweet potatoes, amadumbe, and imifino (morogo). According to the Water Research Commission (WRC) [42], most small-scale farmers who grow native vegetables in rural areas are unemployed, production is a major source of income for them, and there is potential to grow the local economy and create job opportunities for poor rural people. Farmers produce indigenous crops for consumption and sell the surplus to regional and local markets to contribute to household income [43]. In urban areas. the consumption of native foods is reduced by their lack of availability in many stores and cities because most of the producers are rural farmers with lack of access to the market. According to ref [44], several supermarkets are selling pricy indigenous foods to customers in such areas. Moreover, the commercialization of indigenous crops opens opportunities for value addition. Processing crops into flour, snacks, or other products increases their market value significantly. In supporting the increased market value, Akinnifesi et al. [43] reported that value-added products from indigenous crops generate an average of $1500 (United States Dollar) per hectare annually, compared to $800 per hectare from conventional cereals. Such income potential encourages farmers to diversify their cropping systems, leading to increased economic resilience. Furthermore, indigenous crops have a longer shelf life, reducing post-harvest losses, a critical issue in sub-Saharan Africa, where up to 40% of food produced is lost before reaching the consumer [41].

The economic advantages of indigenous crops extend beyond the farm gate. Their production supports local supply chains, including seed suppliers, processors, and traders, creating jobs and boosting local economies. In South Africa, smallholder farmers engaged in indigenous crop production contribute to local agri-food systems, with spillover effects on employment and community development [45]. This highlights the potential of indigenous crops to enhance economic stability while promoting sustainable agricultural practices.

Many rural households now depend heavily on the commercialization of locally grown vegetables as a source of income, because the expansion of exports will boost the national economy while increasing export revenue [45]. Native vegetable crops in Africa frequently exhibit exceptional environmental adaptation (abiotic and biotic variables), low input requirements, cropping system compatibility, easy seed production, convenient harvesting, and traditional post-harvest methods, for communities that are economically disadvantaged, and so farming becomes more sustainable because of the decreased financial strain on farmers and increased profitability [46]. New farmers entering the agricultural industry can start small, test the local market, and expand their business due to the low barrier to entry related to farmers’ income. Thirteen full-time farm operator jobs are created for every rand generated by farmers who raise and sell their crops locally [40]. Supporting farmers’ businesses or commodities so that they can raise their income can help satisfy demand in global markets by raising production levels. To prevent overproduction, income support can be separated from production levels. Higher returns on investment could help farmers become more competitive in global markets and increase the supply of food at reduced costs [41].

3.3. Environmental Benefits of Indigenous Crops for Food Security in Southern Africa

Indigenous crops, often referred to as traditional or underutilized crops, are important for maintaining food security, especially in areas with harsh weather conditions [46]. Indigenous crops are important in the battle against poverty and malnutrition due to frequently being more adapted to local climates and ecosystems than conventional crops [47,48]. The nutritional variety of indigenous crops is one of the main means of supporting food security. Nutrients, such as proteins, vitamins, and minerals, are abundant in many indigenous crops, including sorghum, millet, cassava, and amaranth [49]. This is especially crucial in areas where diets depend mostly on a small number of staple foods that may not offer enough nutrients.

Indigenous crops are not only highly nutritious but are also very resistant to climate change [49]. Communities can improve food security in areas sensitive to climate-related disruptions by cultivating these resistant crops, which would lessen their reliance on non-indigenous crops and minimize climate-related hazards. Additionally, indigenous crops provide agricultural biodiversity, which is necessary for robust food supply [50]. The narrow variety of high-yield staple crops that are frequently the emphasis of modern agricultural practices, such as wheat, rice, and maize, can result in a loss of biodiversity [51]. Due to their reliance on a small number of crops, food systems are more susceptible to illnesses, pests, and climate change. On the other hand, indigenous crops decrease the hazards connected with monoculture farming by bringing variety to agricultural systems [52]. For instance, sorghum, a widely grown indigenous crop, uses 30% less water than maize, making it a crucial alternative in drought-prone areas [43]. Similarly, cowpea and Bambara groundnut are drought-tolerant and can thrive in nutrient-poor soils, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers. The nitrogen-fixing ability of legumes, like cowpea, can add up to 140 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year, improving soil fertility and reducing reliance on chemical inputs [41]. Moreover, intercropping cowpea with maize reduces pest infestations by over 30%, as reported in field trials in Zimbabwe by Akinnifesi et al. [43] Owing to the range of crops that may be harvested at different seasons and flourish in diverse environments, biodiversity guarantees a more dependable food supply [53]. Therefore, encouraging the growth of indigenous crops can strengthen food systems’ resilience and provide a safety net against food shortages.

Indigenous crops can aid in climate change adaptation since they are well adapted to the local climate. Compared to commercial crops, they are more robust against local pests and climate fluctuations. Due to their high genetic variety, indigenous crops are better able to adjust to local climatic change. Indigenous crops can withstand harsh conditions, including heat, drought, and salinized soil. Additionally, using native crops in crop rotation might help break disease and pest cycles. Indigenous crops have developed to coexist with other native species and flourish in their habitats [10]. Indigenous insect populations, which provide food for mammals and birds, are sustained by indigenous crops. Indigenous crops offer services like pollination, water retention, and soil retention. The variety of beneficial native animals can be increased by using indigenous crops. For instance, incorporating native plants, like cowpeas, into urban greening initiatives aids in preservation [20].

Lastly, indigenous crops are better for the environment compared to traditional farming methods due to their minimal input needs. When compared to current crop varieties, indigenous crops usually require fewer synthetic inputs, including chemical pesticides and fertilizers [1]. This is a result of their superior soil adaptation and inherent resistance to a variety of pests and illnesses. Because of this, growers can use fewer chemical inputs, which decreases production costs and lessens the harm that chemical runoff into water bodies does to the environment [54]. This decreased reliance on inorganic and carbon-emitting inputs promotes more environmentally friendly agricultural methods that protect soil quality and cut down on pollution.

3.4. Consuming Promoted Indigenous Crops for Food Security

Consuming indigenous food crops, such as amadumbe, cowpeas, and Bambara groundnuts, has several advantages, starting with fewer calories, which aid in weight management [15]. Indigenous crops are higher in iron, which is beneficial for muscles and blood, lower in saturated fat, which is healthy for the heart, and higher in zinc, which aids in wound healing and infection prevention. Lastly, vitamin A, which is vital for vision and disease prevention, is more abundant in native crops [30]. To boost the rate of consumption of indigenous crops in Southern Africa, tastier hybrids can also be acquired. For instance, the Sarpan Seed Cowpea Hybrid Beans, a yield variety with robust white grains and a black eye, are a tastier hybrid cowpea [39]. The bushy plants can be utilized as dry grains or as fresh beans. There are several ways to consume these locally grown vegetables for food security:

• Fresh: local crops are suitable for consumption right away.
• Dried: indigenous crops can be allowed to air dry, or by being exposed to sunlight. Drying is a long-standing technique that can aid in food preservation in times of scarcity.
• Fermented: During times of scarcity, food can be pre-preserved by fermenting native crops.
• Smoke: smoke can be applied to indigenous crops.
• Processed: To boost their consumption rate, indigenous crops for food security can be processed using locally available tools and equipment, such as winnowing baskets, threshing sticks, and grinding stones.

3.5. Emphasis of Sustainable Practices, Knowledge Sharing, and Capacity Building

Indigenous crops aimed at ensuring food security could play a major role in motivating smallholder farmers to adopt climate smart agricultural practices [40]. Users often obtain access to a wealth of information on ecologically friendly farming methods, such as precision agriculture, organic farming, and integrated pest management, thanks to these crops [55]. Farmers can participate in virtual training events, webinars, and online resources to learn about strategies that can reduce their environmental effect while increasing productivity in the long run [56]. Farmers are more likely to employ precision agriculture methods, for example, which use technology to maximize crop growth at the field level. Furthermore, crops for food security might facilitate access to sustainable inputs [57]. Farmers may easily purchase environmentally friendly products, including energy-efficient machinery, organic fertilizers, and biopesticides [58]. The fact that these inputs are accessible online encourages the use of ecologically friendly farming methods that raise the quantity and caliber of agricultural production [23]. Through the promotion of sustainable inputs and practices, food security crops help farmers reduce their ecological footprint, enhance the health of their soil, and ensure the sustainability of their farming operations for future generations [59]. Furthermore, capabilities that support the capacity-building and knowledge-sharing of smallholder farmers are commonly included alongside food security crops [60].

These crops can provide farmers with valuable information on soil health, pest management, modern agricultural practices, and other subjects [30]. Because of these native crops, farmers are more equipped to apply innovative methods that can increase agricultural output and encourage sustainability [25]. A culture of ongoing learning and development can be fostered by introducing farmers to new knowledge and practices through webinars and online training sessions conducted by experts in agriculture [61]. Peer-to-peer learning and community development are further benefits of food security crops. Through social media groups and online forums, farmers can communicate with one another, exchange experiences, and ask questions [62]. This collaborative environment facilitates the sharing of practical knowledge that can be applied immediately in the field. By fostering a sense of community, food security crops assist farmers in problem-solving and innovation, leading to more resilient and sustainable farming techniques. To address common issues and foster agricultural development, the combined expertise of a farming community can be highly valuable [63].

3.6. The Implications of Indigenous Crops for Food Security

Indigenous crops addressing food security have an influence on various sectors, including enhanced productivity, improved traceability and stakeholder participation, and management of food wastes [64]. Food waste control, sustainable farming, increased productivity, youth empowerment and agriculture education, and infrastructure development are now the main areas in which food security crops are implicated in the agricultural sector [65,66]. Customers’ ability to track agricultural products to determine where they were produced, how they were produced, and whether the producer complied with market requirements to produce the type of produce that consumers demand, is another indication of how food security crops impact sustainable agriculture practices [67].

In the agricultural sector, the implementation of indigenous crops, together with its guiding principles and instruments, helps farmers increase revenue while cutting expenses associated with production. This is largely because organic farming and conservation agriculture have been implemented, along with concurrent activity reduction [57]. As a result, when smallholder farmers produce any agricultural product, they obtain specifications from their clients, who thereafter have access to the production process data (traceability and transparency). By reducing the gap between farmers, buyers, and suppliers of production inputs, the use of food security crops also improves stakeholder participation in the agricultural value chain [68]. Therefore, by lowering stress, time constraints, and financial strains, indigenous crops not only benefit producers over consumers, but they also contribute to environmental preservation, ensuring that production does not jeopardize the potential and capacity of future generations to produce their own food [59].

4. Initiatives Implemented in Improving Food Security Across Southern Africa

4.1. Government-Led Initiatives

The strategies used by government so far have involved projects for food security, such as unemployment and social grants, etc. The integration of food strategy, nutrition, and food safety is vital, while providing for the improvement of monitoring and methods to support stronger multi-sectorial partnerships, thus supporting targeted interventions [4]. Overall, for Southern Africa to maintain and improve food security in a sustainable way, indigenous crops for food security must be central to planning and to ensuring that there is sustainable innovation in farming [62]. The strategy plan of the Ministry of Agriculture claims that Southern Africa’s scarcity of land limits its potential to increase food production. In addition, agricultural land is being developed into property for homes and companies. To increase food production in Southern Africa, more land should be set aside for growing crops [69]. The following data indicate the results of government initiatives towards food security.

The distribution data regarding government initiatives for food security in the study area are presented in

Table 2. Distribution of data for government initiatives regarding food security.

Government Initiative	Reduced Food Insecurity %	References
Special initiative for food security	8.2	[10]
Support for emerging farmers	6.5	[15]
Social grant and unemployment	83.7	[25]
Other initiatives	1.6	[40]

. A proportion of 83.7% of food insecurity was combated by the Unemployment and Social Grant initiative. About 6.5% of food insecurity was reduced by the Support for Emerging Farmers initiative, leaving 8.2% of insecurity to be dealt with by the Special Project for Food Security. Finally, 1.6% of food insecurity was addressed by other initiatives, like the PESI voucher initiative for small-scale-farmers. The following are community initiatives for promoting indigenous crops.

• Community Supported Agriculture (CSA)

Through this initiative, community members can purchase a portion of the produce from local farmers. CSA initiatives can support farmers, provide access to food, and advance sustainable agriculture.

• Agroforestry

In this initiative, native fruit trees are planted alongside other crops that can withstand drought. Deforestation and desertification can be addressed with the aid of agroforestry.

• Community based partnerships

Through workshops, radio programming, television shows, and educational projects, these collaborations can aid in the promotion of indigenous crops.

• Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Crop rotation, mixed cropping, and intercropping are some of the techniques used in these systems. They can predict rainfall, lessen insect pests, and increase soil fertility.

4.2. Improve Access to Land

The strategy plan for improving food security claims that Southern Africa’s scarcity of land limits its potential to increase food production [64]. Aside from that, agricultural land is being developed into property for homes and companies. To increase food production in Southern Africa, more land should be set aside for growing crops and breeding cattle [4]. Convincing the owners to rent the property out for livestock and agricultural development can be accomplished by producing an exhaustive inventory of all the land that sugar farmers are abandoning [9]. This information can be made available to planters who need additional land to cultivate more crops. However, many of the region’s countries are keen to cede territory to South Africa in order to entice South African investment, according to NESC [34]. For small planters or cooperatives involved in food production and livestock breeding regions, the Southern African government may provide financial assistance for travel abroad. By doing so, they will be able to identify opportunities for increasing food production in other countries that can be exported to Mauritius [67].

This exercise may be carried out by the Regional Development Co. Ltd. and the Board of Investment, two governmental bodies in charge of promoting both local and foreign investment. As a result, Southern African farmers will be able to use their expertise to increase food production in this sub-Saharan region of Africa [12]. Through the agricultural marketing board, the Southern African government is also able to guarantee a price for the products of these farmers, giving them extra incentives to start producing in these neighboring countries. Because of economies of scale and the cheap labor that is easily accessible in these nations, planters who are farming on a greater scale will be able to produce food at a lower cost due to lower transportation costs [14].

4.3. Integrate Agriculture in the School Curriculum

In Southern Africa, the workforce is aging, and fewer young people are interested in working in agriculture, according to studies [15,19]. In this case, the government must arouse youth enthusiasm for the agricultural sector. This may aid future food production as well as the nation’s unemployment rate. The value of agriculture can be taught to people at a very young age; hence, it should be included in the elementary, secondary, and university curriculum [13]. Primary school children might receive gardening instruction as part of extracurricular activities scheduled by the institution. The establishment of agricultural groups might be encouraged, and all secondary students must be taught about agriculture [30]. The government can also provide funding for the installation of hydroponic facilities in every secondary school in the country to encourage alternate methods of food production [27]. The idea of agribusiness needs to be promoted at the tertiary level to boost the number of young people interested in starting degrees in this field. People should be encouraged to start doing their own gardening. Government officials in Southern Africa must encourage people to start backyard gardens [37]. Consequently, there may be less food insecurity in South Africa [25]. Press and national television commercials emphasizing the advantages of home gardening for Southern African homes must be deployed. The ministry of agriculture can also provide technical advice on how to grow crops and raise animals at home. The spread of drought-tolerant crops can be encouraged because water is scarce in urban areas [70]. This can result in households spending less on fresh vegetables. Additionally, this move might help to reduce international imports of specific foods [71].

4.4. Reduction in the Wastage of Food

The economy and environment are negatively impacted by food waste, and this persistent issue requires significant action. To raise public awareness of the country’s food security concerns and to motivate citizens to minimize food waste, the government of Southern Africa may plan advertisements in the local newspapers and press [69]. This might lessen the quantity of food that is imported from other nations. In Southern Africa, there is a paradox, in which many people squander food while others are impoverished. The undernourishment rate in Southern Africa can be decreased by encouraging people to give more food to those in need [62]. Moreover, research [72,73] indicates that spontaneous or impulsive food purchases are less significant.

4.5. Improvement of Hygiene and Safety Standards in Food

Good food hygiene practices can help reduce the risk of foodborne illnesses and food spoilage. The food safety process reveals that many people have serious concerns about the quality of the food available in Southern Africa. They claim that Southern African cuisine is not hygienic or nutritious despite being extensively available [74]. Southern African food vendors frequently flout hygiene laws, which could be dangerous for the local population’s health. Recently, many Southern Africans have become ill from eating contaminated food [48]. In Southern Africa, numerous regulations have been created to protect consumers from such risks, but the fundamental problem is still how to enforce them. Representatives of the government assert that this situation is due to a lack of manpower [66]. The government must in this instance inform food producers of the dangers posed and the safety precautions that need to be taken to prevent such occurrences [43]. In general, food handlers are required to wear clean clothes, wash their hands, and use gloves when necessary. Pest control methods must be employed to eliminate rodents and insects that contaminate food, and raw food must be kept far from cooked food [50]. Finally, stored food needs to be kept at the right temperature, and any chemicals used need to be utilized according to the manufacturer’s guidelines [40]. These recommendations should be further communicated to stakeholders through emails, presentations, noticeboards, and regular meetings through video or in person.

5. Food Security Policy Implications for Southern Africa

Southern Africa urgently needs a food security policy for these additional reasons. Firstly, there are several conceptual definitions and interpretations of food security among the major players (government, the international community, research institutions, and civil society) [67]. As a result, there is disagreement over the diagnosis, prognosis, and solutions related to food security, which eventually affects program design. A food security policy is required to outline the essential components and scope of the idea in an inclusive manner that considers all opposing viewpoints [36]. Common understandings and widespread ownership can be attained in this way [40]. Second, food security is a multifaceted problem that involves interdisciplinary approaches, functions at several levels, and necessitates various actions depending on the circumstances. The intended impact of these programs is defeated by the lack of a comprehensive policy framework that would allow them to be coordinated and redirected to regions with the highest levels of food insecurity [26].

Thirdly, Southern Africa makes a significant contribution to regional food security as a member of the Southern African Development Community [SADC]. A food-insecure neighbor will significantly affect Southern Africa’s food security status; thus, this policy is necessary to decide on solutions for the nation and to outline its planned international engagements to help the region remain food secure [32]. Improving South Africa’s stability and sufficiency of access to wholesome food at the national and family levels is the strategic aim of the Food Security Policy. The goal of this policy is to decrease the number of people in Southern Africa (11.5 million) who have inadequate to extremely inadequate access to food [75]. To provide markets for community food production initiatives, such as Ilima/Letsema, LARP, land reform, and farmer settlement, this policy calls for reprioritizing government procurement of food and increasing and better targeting public spending on social programs, education and health services, and public works programs. Additionally, it demands more infrastructure assistance for smallholder farmers [CASP] and more access to production financing for the developing agricultural sector [MAFISA].

Furthermore, the SADC region’s nations are distinguished by their uneven development, which encourages population movement [76]. Therefore, to guarantee that the region achieves self-sufficiency, we must also be dedicated to promoting food production, trade, and development in the area. The government’s dedication to achieving global food security is emphasized by its commitments to the FAO World Food Summit in 1996, the SADC Dar es Salaam Declaration on Food Security and Agriculture in 2001, and the MDG targets [77]. The goals of the policy are as follows:

• A sustainable long-term national agricultural production plan should be used to coordinate land reform and agricultural development and to fortify ties between support services.
• Assure resource-poor farmers have access to support services (lower-cost finance and inputs, research data, technology, and market data).
• Encouragement of domestic trade via a program for sustainable food purchases connected to the burgeoning agricultural industry.
• Ensuring the presence of a market environment that will support family and national food security.
• Improving food management and consumption.

5.1. Measure That Government Can Take to Support the Integration of Indigenous Cultures into Food Security Policies

Through eating habits, people establish a connection with their ethnic or cultural group. They frequently use food to maintain their cultural identity. In terms of availability, accessibility, stability, use, and food taboos, culture influences food security. Because some cultural customs demand that food be served to please, which can result in food waste, culture affects eating choices through ideas and emotions [70].

To bring Southern African countries closer to attaining food security for all their inhabitants, the government should step in by giving agricultural investments top priority, bolstering social safety nets, and encouraging inclusive cultures and policies. Governments should implement food security policies that encourage the preservation of traditional food processing methods and genetic resources [74]. Lastly, the integration of indigenous cultures into food security policy can be supported by working with cultural heritage guardians, including chefs, gastronomy and food scientists, and the tourism sector [75].

5.2. Legislative or Other Possible Obstacles That Could Affect Implementation of These Policies

Prolonged dry spells, floods, and droughts can result from long-term shifts in weather patterns. While natural catastrophes can ruin infrastructure and food supplies, poverty can make it difficult for people to afford food. Growing and distributing food or holding seminars to inform people about food security policy can be challenging due to conflicts between humans and wildlife [77]. Gender inequality is another significant barrier that may prevent implementation of the Food Security Policy.

Interventions, like promoting self-production, are therefore necessary. The effects of value chain activities on the number of food insecure people should be analyzed. The production of nutrient-dense crops should be encouraged by households that lack market stability or financial means to consistently buy food [78].

6. Measures to Address Cultural and Social Differences Among Smallholder Farmers

A range of tactics, including information-sharing programs and fostering relationships and trust among smallholder farmers, may be used to address socioeconomic and cultural differences within smallholder farming communities to successfully increase the adoption of food security crops [13]. It is also crucial to provide specialized training programs that consider the unique needs and abilities of smallholder farmers [78]. Enhancing and highlighting the benefits of sustainability and dispelling any misconceptions or fears regarding sustainable farming should be the main goals of these efforts. When these educational programs are modified to consider local languages, customs, and learning preferences, they have a greater chance of overcoming cultural obstacles. Another essential strategy for bridging social and cultural gaps among smallholder farmers is developing connections and trust [15]. Smallholder farmers typically prioritize trust-based networks and personal relationships in their business operations. Therefore, it is essential to construct reliable food security crops for these smallholder farmers to boost farm output and ensure timely supply of commodities [79]. Smallholder farmers who are hesitant to use indigenous crops for food security are thus encouraged by the addition of feedback and dispute settlement procedures [16]. In summary, overcoming the cultural and societal barriers that prevent smallholder farmers from implementing food security crops requires a holistic approach that incorporates relationship-building, education, and trust-building [73]. Therefore, stakeholders may enable smallholder farmers to utilize the advantages of food security crops to enhance production, sustainable farming methods, and livelihood by being cognizant of and sensitive to the difficulties and circumstances they encounter [37].

Scientific Training Programs for Smallholder Farmers

• Agri production

A multidisciplinary initiative helped smallholder farmers adapt to climate change while meeting their social and cultural requirements through outreach, training, and research [30]. Organic production, horticulture, agribusiness, farm management, farm planning, agronomy, and other agricultural methods are among the subjects covered in its courses. The goal of this initiative is to equip smallholder farmers with the information and useful skills they need to fight climate change while farming and to boost their revenue [79].

• Agri-seta

This is a program that provides free online courses on subjects like basic agribusiness, introduction to plant production, and introduction to animal production. Additionally, the program assists smallholder farmers in making better use of land, water, energy, and nutrients, and boosts knowledge of farm diversity and soil plant water dynamics [38]. The cooperation of technology and culture to increase output is another advantage of this program for farmers [40].

• Integrating indigenous cultures into diverse communities

A more sustainable and inclusive world can be achieved by incorporating indigenous knowledge and customs into mainstream society. Because it provides distinct viewpoints on how to guarantee the sustainability of natural resources and advance environmental sustainability, indigenous knowledge is significant for the entire planet [32]. Understanding which groups have strong relationships to their land, spirituality, and shared values is made easier by incorporating such cultures. For instance, interacting with indigenous communities is much easier when one respects their people and culture. Gaining knowledge of the region’s colonial past and political system facilitates improved relations [76].

7. Summary of Study Findings

Indigenous food crops in Southern Africa are foundational to the region’s nutritional and food security [80]. They include cereals like sorghum and millet, legumes, such as cowpeas and Bambara groundnuts, and leafy vegetables, as presented in Table 3. These crops are highly valued for their nutrient density, providing essential vitamins, minerals, and protein to communities that often face malnutrition and food scarcity [81]. In addition to their nutritional benefits, these crops are resilient to drought and poor soil conditions, making them suitable for cultivation in a region increasingly affected by climate change [82]. Culturally, indigenous crops are woven into the traditions and daily lives of Southern African people as they feature prominently in culinary practices, rituals, and traditional medicine [83]. Local festivals and ceremonies often celebrate dishes made from these crops, and their preservation methods, like fermentation and drying, have been passed down through generations [83]. There is also growing economic potential for indigenous crops [84], with markets developing both locally and internationally, especially for products like baobab and marula, which have become sought-after health foods.

Despite these advantages, indigenous food crops face obstacles that hinder their widespread adoption. These include a lack of awareness, limited research, and challenges in market access and infrastructure [83]. Furthermore, agricultural policies often prioritize modern cash crops over indigenous varieties [85]. Addressing these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach that includes policy support, increased research investment, and community engagement. By enhancing value chains and promoting the benefits of indigenous crops, the region can leverage these resources for sustainable agriculture and economic development.

Table 3. Indigenous food crops in Southern Africa and their benefits.

Indigenous Food Crops in Southern Africa	Benefits	References
Cereals (Sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet)	Sorghum and millet are rich in fiber, iron, magnesium, and B-vitamins. They also have a low glycemic index, which is beneficial for people with diabetes.	[86]
Legumes (Bambara groundnuts, marama beans, and cowpeas)	Bambara groundnuts, marama beans, and cowpeas are rich in protein and can be grown with minimal external input, making them essential in regions with less fertile soils.	[87,88]
Tubers (Amadumbe/Taro and cassava)	Crops such as amadumbe (African yams) and cassava serve as key energy sources. They are resilient to harsh climatic conditions, which makes them crucial for food security.	[89]
Fruits (Baobab fruit, marula, wild loquats, and mobola plum)	Baobab fruit, marula, wild loquats, and mobola plum provide essential vitamins and minerals and are used in various traditional dishes and beverages, such as amarula cream liqueur, which is an internationally recognized beverage.	[90]
Leafy vegetables (African spinach, momordica balsamina, and jute mallow)	African leafy greens, such as amaranth and jute mallow, are rich in calcium, iron, and vitamins A and C. These are crucial for combating malnutrition, especially among children and pregnant women.	[49]

Table 3. Indigenous food crops in Southern Africa and their benefits.

Indigenous Food Crops in Southern Africa	Benefits	References
Cereals (Sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet)	Sorghum and millet are rich in fiber, iron, magnesium, and B-vitamins. They also have a low glycemic index, which is beneficial for people with diabetes.	[86]
Legumes (Bambara groundnuts, marama beans, and cowpeas)	Bambara groundnuts, marama beans, and cowpeas are rich in protein and can be grown with minimal external input, making them essential in regions with less fertile soils.	[87,88]
Tubers (Amadumbe/Taro and cassava)	Crops such as amadumbe (African yams) and cassava serve as key energy sources. They are resilient to harsh climatic conditions, which makes them crucial for food security.	[89]
Fruits (Baobab fruit, marula, wild loquats, and mobola plum)	Baobab fruit, marula, wild loquats, and mobola plum provide essential vitamins and minerals and are used in various traditional dishes and beverages, such as amarula cream liqueur, which is an internationally recognized beverage.	[90]
Leafy vegetables (African spinach, momordica balsamina, and jute mallow)	African leafy greens, such as amaranth and jute mallow, are rich in calcium, iron, and vitamins A and C. These are crucial for combating malnutrition, especially among children and pregnant women.	[49]

7.1. Unique Contribution of the Paper’s Findings Regarding Food Security

By providing a thorough analysis of indigenous crops for food security, emphasizing important discoveries, and pointing out shortcomings, this study serves a unique and significant role. The following special contributions are made by indigenous crops towards food security. Due to their high fiber and vitamin content, indigenous crops are frequently more nutrient-dense than common crops [86]. Numerous native crops offer therapeutic qualities that guard against long-term illnesses. They need less water to flourish and are adapted to the local climate. Indigenous crops contribute significantly to the preservation of cultural heritage because they sustain local biodiversity and the populations of birds and insects [87].

7.2. Future Research Direction

The review paper states that the government must continue to support the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), while extending this to sustain the momentum of local wealth creation, policy transformation, and food security [88]. This extension should establish normative techniques and performance standards that are consistent with the socioeconomic limitations that smallholder farmers experience while conforming to the change in policy focus [90]. However, the poor ability of extension to deliver specialized services and the extension to farmer ratio raise concerns, because farmers will constantly experience a backlog of unsolved issues at the farm level [91].

The extension plan must also prioritize the needs of the populace and encourage voluntary involvement [92]. These challenges point to a potential national food security issue. Careful handling of the current unjust land expropriation is necessary to avoid a recurrence of the injustices of the past [93]. The Southern African governments must act quickly to resolve these policy concerns and challenges to help agriculture move from its current state to a strategic level of reasonable access and increased food security [94]. To clearly elaborate on the subject of indigenous crops for food security, more indigenous species and supplementary data must be studied to raise awareness and indicate the scale of their omission globally [95].

8. Conclusions and Recommendation

Since the implementation of indigenous crops for food security, the agriculture industry has undergone significant transformation. This has enabled comprehensive yet timely and fruitful discussions between all stakeholders in agriculture, including producers (farmers), buyers (market), industry partners (production input), and research and innovation organizations (e.g., commissions or universities). This study examined research on the advantages of using indigenous crops for food security for sustainable farming methods, especially for smallholder farmers in Southern Africa. This research examined the multifaceted benefits of indigenous crops for food security on sustainable farming, which uses integrated pest and weed management, and Mixed Farming, which produces both crops and livestock. The market, or the clients, have an impact on these procedures since they determine what needs to be produced and how. The agricultural sector and industry are using indigenous crops more and more, which has ramifications for policy. The need to integrate precision to increase production and efficiency is necessary. The market necessitates that policies outlining the ethical use of food security crops are developed and implemented, along with criteria on how agricultural products should be produced. It is crucial to legislate and put into practice laws that govern the moral use of precision farming, artificial intelligence (AI), and food security crops in commercial transactions within the agricultural industry.

These factors will also direct government initiatives to support smallholder farming in Southern Africa, while also guiding the marketing of agricultural products to increase awareness in a way that is acceptable to society. Indigenous crops aimed at ensuring food security have a significant impact on the agricultural sector, helping it to produce more and to create jobs, particularly when it comes to technical skills rather than just semi-skilled labor. In addition, policies will direct the hiring and placement of food security representatives for both domestic and foreign purchases and sales. There should be rapid rural development (RRD), particularly through smallholder farming, which would reduce poverty and ensure food security for rural residents. It is also advised that politicians respond quickly to the request for policy development to direct online transactions in all relevant directions, particularly considering the projects’ popularity among Southern African smallholder farmers. Furthermore, it is advised that the government organize events and initiatives to increase public awareness and encourage the adoption of food security measures. The business climate needs to be addressed to guarantee the success and progress of smallholder farmers in Southern Africa. Future studies can focus on how social and cultural factors affect farmers’ acceptance of food security crops and how youth extension programs can use implementation to identify solutions for many of the obstacles to the adoption of these crops

Food security is expected to decline because of climate change in many countries worldwide. Even though it is very challenging to manage the many consequences of climate change for agriculture, more research can be conducted to develop crops that are resistant to climate change effects. The development of coping mechanisms may also be aided by regional research collaboration and interchange. Every country in the region can benefit from its own specialization in this field. However, to motivate farmers to transition to protected farming, more robust incentives are required.

To help them manage environmental elements, like temperature and disease that can damage crops, many Southern African farmers continue to employ traditional farming practices. These farmers should be encouraged to transition to greenhouse or hydroponic farming. The governments can provide these farmers with more financial incentives in this case, including loans with favorable interest rates. However, those from the ministries of agriculture in all the Southern African countries must provide the necessary technical advice and training to farmers who employ these innovative farming methods. Finally, to help viewers and authors better understand an area of literature regarding indigenous crops for food security which they were not aware of, more indigenous species and supplementary data must be studied to indicate the scale of their omission globally.

9. Limitations of the Study

Research with favorable results is more likely to be published, so the review could be susceptible to publication bias. By limiting the review to English language publications, most studies used to draft this review paper were from 2010 to 2024, along with a few studies published in the mid-2000s. Furthermore, the review study mostly looked at literature on Southern Africa as a geographical region, rather than concentrating on each of the 16 countries that comprise the region. As a result, research on smallholder farmers’ adoption of food security programs from other Southern Africa nations could have been overlooked.

The results’ validity may be impacted by methodological restrictions that restrict the findings’ capacity to be generalized. These restrictions can occur due to several factors, including researcher bias and unforeseen difficulties that may come up during the review, which can restrict how broadly the findings can be applied. Consequently, these limitations have been noted and utilized to propose areas for future study direction to promote validity. When gathering information for future review, more papers should receive attention as, owing to time constraints, the Pan African priority of other indigenous species and supplementary data indicating the scale of their omission could not be addressed.

In summary, a study to cover the progress made to domesticate indigenous crop species found naturally across two or more sociopolitical regions in Southern Africa would be of the utmost importance to fill this knowledge gap. Nevertheless, the issue of acknowledging other indigenous species was raised in the review’s recommendation and future research directions to help readers and authors better understand the importance of indigenous food crops in enhancing food security [96]. Lastly, the review did not clearly elaborate on the warm regions in each country found in Southern Africa, as the focus was on indigenous food crops and their role in promoting food security.