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Article

Influence of Limestone Dust on PV Panel Efficiency in a Small Solar Park in Bulgaria

by
Penka Zlateva
1,
Angel Terziev
2,
Krastin Yordanov
1,
Martin Ivanov
2,* and
Borislav Stankov
2
1
Department of Thermal Engineering, Technical University of Varna, 9010 Varna, Bulgaria
2
Faculty of Power Engineering and Power Machines, Technical University of Sofia, 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Eng 2025, 6(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6010010
Submission received: 16 November 2024 / Revised: 26 December 2024 / Accepted: 3 January 2025 / Published: 9 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Engineering for Sustainable Development 2024)
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Abstract

:
The presented paper analyzes the impact of limestone dust accumulation on photovoltaic (PV) panel performance, focusing on the specific surrounding conditions near quarries. The results from the performed field measurements show that high concentrations of limestone dust accumulate significantly faster in these areas, and a hard layer is formed in the presence of moisture. This layer of dust is resistant to removal, even in moderate precipitation and winds with speeds between 6 and 9 m/s, making it a significant problem for the long-term performance of the systems. The analysis revealed that the lack of systematic cleaning of the panels leads to a drop in efficiency of over 20%, with this loss pointedly limiting the return on investment. This study highlights the need for innovative maintenance approaches, such as regular cleaning, use of special coatings and adapting designs to specific environmental conditions. This is essential for the development of strategies to manage, maintain and improve PV systems in areas with high levels of dust pollution.

1. Introduction

With the increase in technology development and the population in Bulgaria, the need for electricity is also increasing [1,2,3]. Traditional electricity generation methods that use fossil fuels are a serious source of CO2 (carbon dioxide) and play a major role in global warming and climate change [4,5]. In response to these environmental challenges, Bulgaria, as well as many other countries, is turning to the use of renewable energy sources, such as solar energy [6,7,8].
Photovoltaic (PV) panels play a key role in the transition to renewable energy [9], but their efficiency is significantly threatened by the accumulation of limestone dust. Although the research in [10] addresses the problem and proposes solutions to mitigate its negative impact, the proposed approaches remain poorly adapted to different climatic and ecological conditions. The lack of detailed analysis of the specific characteristics of limestone dust, such as its adhesive properties and its interactions with moisture, reduces the applicability of these solutions. This highlights the need to develop more integrated and robust methods to ensure the long-term performance of panels in real-world conditions.
The study of the process of limestone dust accumulation on photovoltaic panels and its impact on their performance is essential for the life of the equipment, and it is a prerequisite for considering optimization and maintenance strategies that guarantee consistently high efficiency of the panels [11,12,13,14]. Given the importance of renewable energy sources and by discussing the economic and environmental benefits, proper care of the photovoltaic systems can be achieved [15,16,17,18].
Environmental factors, such as low temperatures, humidity, wind and lime dust contamination, can significantly affect the performance of PV systems in Bulgaria, making it necessary to develop effective methods to address these challenges and ensure their sustainable operation [19,20,21,22,23,24].
Many research studies have analyzed the impact of various conditions on the operation of photovoltaic systems on a global scale, based on examples from different countries and regions [25,26,27,28,29,30,31]. Current scientific efforts are focused on understanding how temperature, humidity and dust affect the performance of solar panels in Bulgaria [32,33,34,35,36].
Comparable climatic features with other regions of the world, as discussed in [37,38,39,40,41] where solar energy is actively used, provide us with the opportunity to enhance scientific research and practical experience in overcoming similar problems. From the analysis of variable climatic parameters, such as temperature amplitudes, humidity and the presence of dust from the studies in [42,43,44,45], it is clear that they play a key role in the performance and durability of the photovoltaic systems.
The study in [46] shows that nighttime temperature changes lead to dew formation, which traps fine dust particles, and evaporation during the day leaves a permanent layer of dust on the panels. Although this provides insight into the mechanisms of dust accumulation, a thorough analysis of the long-term impact on the efficiency and sustainability of PV systems is lacking. Additionally, in [47,48] it was found that humidity, combined with wind and dust, resulted in a reduction in the maximum power output of the systems by about 10% in five weeks. However, these findings do not address the impact of different weather conditions and dust chemical properties, which limits the applicability of the results to real-world conditions.
The research data in [49,50,51,52,53] focus on the fact that dust becomes a significant problem in such regions, where more than half of the system performance reduction is recorded within six months without regular cleaning. These results emphasize the need to create and implement methods for servicing and maintaining photovoltaic systems, especially in dry climate conditions. Dust accumulation can significantly reduce the performance of solar modules, and this is essential to ensure proper operation and management of these systems.
The research studies in [54] concentrate on the experimental analysis of the impact of various atmospheric pollutants that can be accumulated on the photovoltaic panels. The results of their study highlighted that red soil had the strongest influence on panel performance degradation, followed by limestone and carbon ash. In addition, experiments were conducted in [55] that studied the influence of five types of dust particles on the performance of photovoltaic cells. This study reveals that finer dust particles cause the greatest losses in the performance of the photovoltaic modules.
The research studies in [56] focused on the analysis of six different types of dust collected from different areas. This type of research provides important information on both the diversity and characteristics of dust and how this dust can affect photovoltaic systems. The study of the physicochemical characteristics of the accumulated dust and its impact on photovoltaic systems is of crucial importance for optimizing the efficiency and sustainability of this clean energy technology in Bulgaria.
The research by the authors in [57] demonstrates the significant impact of dust on the performance of PV systems, but there is a lack of in-depth analyses of the mechanisms by which different dust properties affect panel performance. Although dust with high moisture content leads to significant losses in performance and differences of 6% are observed for different dust agents, these results do not provide sufficient information on long-term consequences and sustainable solutions [58,59]. Furthermore, proposed methods, such as spontaneous processes, mechanical approaches and electrochemical technologies, remain inadequately adapted to local climatic conditions [60]. In the Bulgarian context, where variable climatic conditions and atmospheric pollution are significant factors, the lack of integrated, practical and sustainable solutions limits the development of PV technologies and the transition to clean energy.
Innovative solutions, such as electrostatic methods with electrodynamic shielding (EDS) [61] and self-cleaning technologies with special coatings that prevent moisture and dust adhesion, offer significantly higher potential to improve the performance of PV systems. The combined application of these technologies in Bulgaria could contribute to increasing the efficiency of systems, especially in areas with high levels of pollution and specific climatic conditions. However, the studies carried out often do not provide integrated solutions adapted to local conditions, and the analyses only highlight the importance of climatic parameters, panel orientation and dust chemistry [62]. Panel orientation is seen as a key factor in studies, demonstrating that the correct choice of installation angle can optimize energy output [62]. At the same time, urban air pollution has been shown to reduce the efficiency of systems by up to 60%, especially in large cities. These observations highlight the lack of sustainable approaches for pollution management and panel optimization, under a variety of climatic and urban factors. To address these gaps, a more in-depth scientific approach that combines innovation and locally adapted strategies is needed.
The studies in [63,64,65] show that dust accumulation and changes in PV glass transmittance are directly related to climatic conditions, but long-term analysis of these processes is often lacking. The interaction between dust and PV systems is crucial for effective panel planning and management, especially in specific climatic conditions such as those in Bulgaria. However, the current studies rarely combine data from the field and laboratory conditions, which limits their applicability in real-world scenarios. The lack of integrated approaches delays the development of sustainable optimization strategies, which is critical to fully exploit the potential of solar energy in the country.
With the increasing use of solar energy in Europe, and specifically in Bulgaria, it is vital to understand how external factors such as dust can modify the efficiency of the systems. The purpose of this study is to examine the specific impact of dust on photovoltaic systems in Bulgarian climatic conditions. Through detailed analysis of dust properties and direct testing of solar panels outdoors, it is expected to determine how limestone dust particles affect the systems. This experimental research will contribute to the development of innovative methods and strategies, ensuring long-term and stable performance of the photovoltaic systems.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Background

The processes resulting from limestone mining are extremely energy intensive. With the prices of conventional energy sources continuously rising, industrial enterprises carrying out such activities are increasingly giving serious consideration to the use of renewable energy sources to power their most demanding energy facilities. The use of photovoltaic panels to generate electricity is one of the most common approaches. For these reasons, sites in the vicinity of the industrial systems are subject to analysis in relation to energy generation. However, these sites are subject to increased pollution due to the activities of the plant, which makes it imperative to carry out a feasibility study in order to show to what extent the pollution of the panels affects their performance. It should be noted here that, besides the natural air dust, the local climatic conditions lead to a multiplication of dusting, due to the presence of limestone-processing operations. The performed literature study shows that this dust is characterized by a number of specific properties which, in combination with other local climatic features, make it extremely adhesive.
Due to the above features, the focus of this work is to investigate the impact of limestone dust on the efficiency of PV modules. The influence of local climatic conditions, such as wind speed and rainfall, on the dust retention ability of PV panels is investigated.

2.2. Experimental Set-Up

The experimental studies were conducted with two of the most widely used types of PV panels, distinguished by the type of PV cell: monocrystalline and polycrystalline. These panel types were chosen due to their wide application and well-known performance characteristics, which allow an in-depth analysis of their behavior under different environmental conditions. The technical specifications and performance parameters for the two panels are summarized in Table 1, providing basic information to compare their performance and applicability.
The experimental setup shown in Figure 1 includes two photovoltaic modules: one monocrystalline and one polycrystalline. These modules are mounted on a support structure with an inclination of 32°, chosen to optimize the energy capture under typical operating conditions. The structure allows manual adjustment of the tilt angle, enabling experimentation with different tilt configurations, with both modules permanently oriented in a north-south direction to maximize solar irradiance.
Each module is equipped with an amplifier and is connected to a data logger via an ESP32 microcontroller. This configuration provides precise monitoring of the electrical parameters of each module. The data are recorded locally on an SD card and transmitted wirelessly to a desktop computer (PC), located in a nearby building, using LORA E32 wireless transceivers. The transmitted data are visualized in real-time on the PC and stored for subsequent detailed analysis. This set-up provides a robust and flexible platform for investigating the performance of PV systems under variable environmental and operating conditions.
For the purpose of the experiment, an integrated wireless data acquisition system, based on ESP32 microcontroller, was designed. The system included the sensors and peripherals required to measure the key PV panel parameters, with the data transmitted wirelessly via a LORA E32 transceiver. All components were housed in a protected plastic enclosure, shown in Figure 2, which provides protection from external influences and facilitates installation and operation. Data was recorded on an SD card and sent to a PC for visualization and storage.
DS18B20 temperature sensors: these digital sensors were chosen for their reliability, high accuracy and compatibility with the ESP32 microcontroller. The DS18B20 provides an accuracy of ±0.5 °C over the −10 °C to +85 °C range, which is critical for analyzing panel temperature variations. In addition, the sensors are designed to operate over a wide temperature range from −55 °C to +125 °C, making them suitable for use in a variety of climates. The power supply voltage (3.0 V to 5.5 V) is fully compatible with the experimental platform. Prior to use, the sensors were calibrated against a reference thermometer, with deviations kept to a minimum, ensuring reliable and accurate measurements.
MAX471 amplifiers: the MAX471 was chosen for measuring the current produced by PV panels due to its high accuracy (±2%) and measurement range of voltage (3.0 V to 25.0 V) and current (0 A to 3 A). In addition, the amplifiers offer direct conversion of voltage to current values with a 1 V/A ratio, which facilitates the data processing. Calibration of the MAX471 was performed by comparison with a professional amperemeter, and results showed minimal deviations within the specified accuracy.
BPW34 photodiode for solar radiation measurement: the BPW34 was chosen for its high sensitivity to the sunlight spectrum and its low power consumption. The sensor provides reliable solar radiation intensity data, which is critical for analyzing the efficiency of PV panels. Its calibration was performed by comparison with a pyrometer to ensure the accuracy of the measurements under real-world conditions.
The wireless data transmission system implemented by the LORA E32 transceiver ensures stability and reliability of the connection, allowing data to be transmitted over long distances without significant losses. A computer located near the experimental area visualizes the collected data in real-time and stores them for further analyses. This combination of calibrated sensors and a reliable communication platform ensures the accuracy and reliability of the presented below results.
An anemometer and a pyrometer are located near the experimental setup to collect data on climatic conditions. The anemometer records the mean, minimum and maximum wind speed, as well as the standard deviation of the values, which is important for assessing the effects of wind and dust accumulation on the panel performance. The pyrometer measures the intensity of solar radiation, providing precise data for quantitative analysis of the irradiance received by the panels. This equipment ensures the high accuracy of the measurements, which are essential to validate the performance of PV panels in different climatic conditions. Technical information on the meteorological equipment used is presented in Table 2.

2.3. Experimental Procedure

The estimation of the efficiency of a PV module requires the measurement of the ampere and voltage values. This characteristic of each PV module varies depending on the solar radiation and dustiness, as well as the temperature of the module, and it is not necessary to keep these parameters as constant as possible during the measurement. In field measurements of efficiency, irradiance varies rapidly due to the rapid changes in the atmospheric conditions, while the variation in temperature, responsible for thermal dynamics, is much more inert. The conditions of the field dusting efficiency tests require that the experiment must be carried out for as long as possible. Therefore, each PV module is connected to the measurement module, which has a constant load connected to the PV module, to measure and store the current and voltage values. The solar radiation is measured both by the sensor placed between the two panels and by the pyranometer placed on the measuring mast. Ambient temperature and wind speed are recorded by the weather station. The temperature of each module is monitored with a more powerful digital thermometer placed on the back of the module.
The experiment was conducted in a location, characterized by high levels of particulate matter, situated within a quarry. The measurements were conducted during September 2021 (a one-month period), including a comprehensive assessment of the meteorological parameters and atmospheric conditions prevailing during this period. This time range was chosen to capture a different dataset, the dynamic weather patterns and atmospheric dynamics characteristic of the late summer season in the region.
The experimental design has been precisely created to enable an in-depth investigation of the impacts of particulate matter from vehicles and industrial activities on PV panel performance and power generation between monocrystalline and polycrystalline panels. By carefully examining the atmospheric dynamics in this highly dust-loaded environment over a time interval, the study aims to reveal the complex interactions between the challenges faced in maintaining optimal performance and energy yield of PV systems in industrial settings, especially in areas characterized by this type of activity. A view of the measurement equipment on site is presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3 shows the electronic measuring device in a protective blue plastic housing designed for operation in industrial or field conditions. The device contains a printed circuit board with electronic components and interconnecting wires that provide data processing, transmission and logging, as well as integration with external sensors, power lines and utility interfaces via clearly marked input/output connectors.
The field measurements were carried out in the vicinity of the pre-fabrication site, where the installation of a photovoltaic power plant is envisaged later. The measurement period covers the month of September, where there is an enviable solar radiation potential, as well as a moderate influence of atmospheric climatic conditions.

3. Results

The on-site experimental set-up allows the recording of the electricity production of the two PV modules and the wind speed, as well as the value of the solar radiation, measured with a pyranometer. The 10-min averaged values of the recorded parameters are implemented.
Figure 4 presents the data on the solar radiation variation for the period of the experimental studies. Clearly distinguishable are the days during which fluctuations in the values of solar radiation are seen, which is evidence of the presence of cumulus clouds or rainfall (19–20 September; 27–28 September).
Figure 5 shows the power output of each panel (monocrystalline and polycrystalline) at the solar irradiance value presented in Figure 4. From the figure, it can be concluded that, for the same installed peak power of the PV panels, the efficiency of the monocrystalline panel is higher.
It is known that the performance and the efficiency of a PV panel are not proportional to the value of the solar radiation. Furthermore, the efficiency also depends on the surface temperature of the panel. Figure 6 is evidence of this, namely, at higher levels of solar radiation value, the efficiency of the panels reaches up to 16%. At low values and under dense cloud cover, the efficiency is very low.
The main objective of the work is to study the influence of the environmental parameters on the cleaning efficiency of the photovoltaic panels under the conditions of limestone dust. The influence of the wind speed and the amount of rainfall on the cleaning rate of the panels is investigated.

3.1. Impact of Rainfall on Cleaning Efficiency

The field measurements were carried out during the period from 10 September 2021 to 10 October 2021 (a one-month period). For this period, information on the rainfall conditions from the nearby meteorological spot was collected from the automatic meteorological stations [66]. From Figure 7, it can be seen that there are 5 days in which rainfall is observed—18, 19, 28 and 29 September, and 9 October 2021. The rainfall can be classified as moderate, as it was in the range between 1.0 and 10 mm. In order to evaluate the impact of rainfall on the cleaning of the panel from lime dust, the performance of the panels before and after the rainfall is investigated, and the comparison is made at relatively the same value of solar intensity for the selected days.
The 16 September was the first cloudless day on which the performance of the panels was assessed. The average solar radiation for the day was 408 W/m2, and the energy production of the monocrystalline panel was 7.76 kWh/day, which determined a specific energy production of 19.01 Wh/(W/m2). By analogy, the specific energy production of the polycrystalline was 17.6 Wh/(W/m2). On the first solar day after the first rainfall, the specific energy production for the monocrystalline panel was 18.75 Wh/(W/m2), and for the polycrystalline panel was 17.36 Wh/(W/m2). This indicates a decrease in efficiency of 1.36% compared to before the rainfall. Consequently, this indicates that the accumulated amount of dust not only did not wash off from the panel but also created a prerequisite for the formation of a hard surface, which further deteriorated the efficiency of the panel. The same was observed after the second recorded rainfall. This indicates that the accumulated lime dust cannot be removed naturally in the presence of only moderate rainfall. Summary results are presented in Table 3.

3.2. Influence of Wind Speed on Cleaning Efficiency

The second studied parameter that affected the efficiency of the panels was the wind speed. For this purpose, an analysis of the recorded wind speed at the height of the panels was performed. Figure 8 shows the variation in the maximum wind speed and the standard deviation of the mean wind speed over the experimental period. From the graph, it is evident that the majority of the maximum wind speed records were above 2.5 m/s. Records with maximum speeds of more than 6 m/s were also observed, and even cases of more than 8 m/s can be seen. The recorded speed of 9.4 m/s on 18 September 2021 coincided with the first rainfall on the panels. As is evident from Table 3, both the investigated parameters (rainfall intensity, wind speed) were not able to wash away the accumulated limestone dust from the panels.
A similar analysis can be made for the second period, with higher values of maximum wind speed—06-10.Oct. In the absence of rainfall, even with a relatively high average wind speed, limestone dust is difficult to remove from the surface of the panels. A view of the accumulated dust on the panels is presented in Figure 9. The same figure also shows the possibility of mechanical repeated cleaning in order to establish the thickness of the layer of accumulated dust, which is also evidence of the impossibility of its natural cleaning.

4. Discussion

This study investigates the specific influence of limestone dust, generated in industrial conditions, on the efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) panels. The dust concentration in such environments is significantly higher than the standard atmospheric concentration, leading to unique challenges for the maintenance and management of PV systems. The results highlight the importance of industrial conditions on dust accumulation and its impact on performance, providing an opportunity for comparison with data from previous studies.
The results of the presented study are consistent with the analyses presented in [67,68], which show that dust accumulation on PV panels under standard atmospheric conditions results in a 5–10% per month drop in efficiency. The present study, however, provides an addition to these findings by revealing that, under industrial conditions, lime dust causes a significantly faster drop in efficiency—over 20% over the same period. This is directly related to the high concentration of dust and its specific physicochemical properties that favor the formation of a persistent layer. This layer, unlike standard dust, cannot be removed naturally by moderate precipitation or wind at medium speed. The presented findings verify and complement the author’s observations in [69], which highlight the need for specialized maintenance strategies in industrial settings.
While studies such as those of the authors in [70] analyzed the impact of different dust types such as coal dust or urban dust, the present study focuses on the specific characteristics of limestone dust. Unlike other types of dust, which can be partially removed by natural mechanisms such as rain and wind, limestone dust forms a permanent layer under the influence of moisture and solar heat, which requires mechanical cleaning. This finding is consistent with research in [69,70] and highlights the challenges associated with industrial conditions.
The authors in [71] found that self-cleaning coatings can reduce dust accumulation by up to 30%. However, the present study shows that at high concentrations of limestone dust, these coatings are not effective enough as the dust forms a hard layer when it is in contact with moisture and under solar heat. This highlights the need to develop more effective coatings to address the specific challenges posed by lime dust.
While most studies, such as the one in [72], recommend cleaning PV panels once a month under standard conditions, this study sub-emphasizes that twice a month is the minimum required frequency for industrial areas. This observation coincides with the practical conclusions of the researchers in [73], who stress the importance of adapting the cleaning frequency to the specific pollution conditions. Further observations in the present study show that no cleaning for a period of one month leads to a drop in efficiency of more than 20%, which significantly exceeds the values reported in studies for standard conditions.
This study proposes an evidence-based recommendation for mechanical cleaning of PV panels at least twice a month in industrial settings with high concentrations of lime dust. Furthermore, combining regular mechanical cleaning with the use of innovative self-cleaning technologies can reduce efficiency losses and optimize maintenance. The development of new coatings that are specifically adapted to the adhesive properties of lime dust is recommended.

5. Conclusions

The presented study analyzes the impact of limestone dust on the performance of photovoltaic (PV) panels, focusing on conditions in industrial areas with high dust concentrations. The results show that dust accumulation significantly reduces panel performance, with panel efficiency dropping by over 20% within one month without cleaning. It was found that moderate rainfall (up to 10 mm) and winds of up to 9 m/s were not sufficient to remove the dust, which, in the presence of moisture, forms a hard and persistent layer. This requires mechanical cleaning to restore the normal operation of the system.
The study also showed that even for short periods of two weeks without cleaning, the panels’ efficiency decreased by about 1.36%. These results highlight the need for regular maintenance, with a minimum recommended frequency for mechanical cleaning of twice a month in areas of high dust contamination. Furthermore, the application of innovative technologies, such as self-cleaning coatings or robotic cleaning systems, can reduce the need for frequent intervention and optimize panel performance.
For users of small PV systems, regular cleaning, the use of hydrophobic coatings to minimize dust accumulation and proper panel tilt to facilitate natural dirt removal are recommended. Also, monitoring the performance of the systems is important to timely identify performance declines and take corrective action.
The presented results are of significant importance to users and operators of PV systems, as they highlight the important role of regular maintenance in keeping the long-term efficiency and economic viability of systems. Lack of systematic cleaning not only significantly reduces performance but also limits return on investment and increases operating costs. The study highlights the need to develop and apply specialized coatings and technologies that are tailored to the specific conditions of dust contamination. The implementation of these innovations is crucial for the optimization of PV systems in environments with high concentrations of particulate matter and will play a key role in driving the sustainable development of renewable energy sources.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.T. and K.Y.; methodology, A.T. and K.Y.; formal analysis, P.Z. and A.T.; investigation, P.Z. and K.Y.; resources, P.Z. and M.I.; data curation, A.T. and K.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, P.Z., A.T. and M.I.; writing—review and editing, M.I. and B.S.; visualization, K.Y. and B.S.; supervision, A.T. and M.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study is financed by the European Union—NextGenerationEU, through the National Recovery and Resilience Plan of the Republic of Bulgaria, project No. BG-RRP-2.004-0005.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Experimental set-up—a principal diagram.
Figure 1. Experimental set-up—a principal diagram.
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Figure 2. Designed data acquisition system with wireless transmission: (1) circuit board, (2) E32 wireless transmitter, (3) SD card slot, (4) ESP32 WROOM microcontroller, (5) BPW34 solar radiation sensor, (6) 12.8 V/7 Ah battery, (7) MAX 471 voltage and current sensor, (8) DS18B20 digital temperature sensors, (9) resistance, (10) battery charging block, (11) plastic electrical panel.
Figure 2. Designed data acquisition system with wireless transmission: (1) circuit board, (2) E32 wireless transmitter, (3) SD card slot, (4) ESP32 WROOM microcontroller, (5) BPW34 solar radiation sensor, (6) 12.8 V/7 Ah battery, (7) MAX 471 voltage and current sensor, (8) DS18B20 digital temperature sensors, (9) resistance, (10) battery charging block, (11) plastic electrical panel.
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Figure 3. The designed wireless data collection system in the field study plot.
Figure 3. The designed wireless data collection system in the field study plot.
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Figure 4. Solar radiation value for the experimental period.
Figure 4. Solar radiation value for the experimental period.
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Figure 5. Output power from monocrystalline and polycrystalline panels.
Figure 5. Output power from monocrystalline and polycrystalline panels.
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Figure 6. Performance and efficiency of the monocrystalline panel.
Figure 6. Performance and efficiency of the monocrystalline panel.
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Figure 7. Solar intensity and rainfall for the period of the field measurements.
Figure 7. Solar intensity and rainfall for the period of the field measurements.
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Figure 8. Maximum wind speed and standard deviation (SD) of the mean wind speed.
Figure 8. Maximum wind speed and standard deviation (SD) of the mean wind speed.
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Figure 9. View of contaminated panel with limestone dust and establishment of resistance to the accumulated dust.
Figure 9. View of contaminated panel with limestone dust and establishment of resistance to the accumulated dust.
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Table 1. Technical information on the used PV panels.
Table 1. Technical information on the used PV panels.
PV Module Electricity Performance Parameters, “Cellevia Power”
Model:CL-SM20MCL-SM20P
Silicon solar cell type:MonocrystallinePolycrystalline
PictureEng 06 00010 i001Eng 06 00010 i002
No. of cells and connections36 (4 × 9)36 (2 × 18)
Maximum power (Pmax)20 W20 W
Voltage at Pmax (Vmp)18.6 V18.2 V
Current at Pmax (Imp)1.08 A1.12 A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc)22.9 V22.6 V
Short-circuit current (Isc)1.12 A1.18 A
Temperature coefficient of Voc−(0.40 ± 0.05)%/°C
Temperature coefficient of Isc(0.065 ± 0.01)%/°C
Temperature coefficient of power−(0.5 ± 0.05)%/°C
NOCT (Air 20 °C; Sun 0.8 kW/m2 wind 1 m/s)47 ± 2 °C
Max system voltage:600 V DC
Temperature range:−40 °C to +85 °C
Power tolerance+3%
Module dimension435 mm × 356 mm × 25 mm
Weight2.1 kg
Table 2. Technical data of measuring equipment.
Table 2. Technical data of measuring equipment.
SensorModelRangeAccuracy/Uncertainty
Cup anemometerNRG #40C1 up to 96 m/s±0.14 m/s
PyronometerNRG R2−200 up to 4000 W/m2<2°
Table 3. Specific production under rainfall conditions.
Table 3. Specific production under rainfall conditions.
DateSR, W/m2P-Mono (Wh/Day)Specific Efficiency_MonoP-Poly (Wh/Day)Specific Efficiency_Poly
16 Sept. 2021408.407764.1219.017187.4017.60
21 Sept. 2021379.227111.3918.756584.6117.36
26 Sept. 2021380.527072.7418.596555.6517.23
1 Oct. 2021284.614875.3117.134534.9915.93
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Zlateva, P.; Terziev, A.; Yordanov, K.; Ivanov, M.; Stankov, B. Influence of Limestone Dust on PV Panel Efficiency in a Small Solar Park in Bulgaria. Eng 2025, 6, 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6010010

AMA Style

Zlateva P, Terziev A, Yordanov K, Ivanov M, Stankov B. Influence of Limestone Dust on PV Panel Efficiency in a Small Solar Park in Bulgaria. Eng. 2025; 6(1):10. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6010010

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zlateva, Penka, Angel Terziev, Krastin Yordanov, Martin Ivanov, and Borislav Stankov. 2025. "Influence of Limestone Dust on PV Panel Efficiency in a Small Solar Park in Bulgaria" Eng 6, no. 1: 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6010010

APA Style

Zlateva, P., Terziev, A., Yordanov, K., Ivanov, M., & Stankov, B. (2025). Influence of Limestone Dust on PV Panel Efficiency in a Small Solar Park in Bulgaria. Eng, 6(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6010010

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