Interorganizational Relations and Destination Marketing in Anime-Induced Tourism: The Effect of Joint Dependence

Abstract

Traveling to locations featured in anime has become a significant tourism behavior as the number and popularity of Japanese anime works have increased. The widespread phenomenon of anime-induced tourism has called for destination marketing that welcomes anime fans. This study focuses on the dyadic relationship between destination marketers and anime production teams, who hold definitive discretion over copyrights in anime-induced tourism. Using the concept of joint dependence derived from the theoretical assumptions of resource dependency theory, this research investigates how organizations with imbalanced power relations choose to collaborate. By comparing three qualitative cases that distinctly demonstrate temporal structural changes in anime tourism, this study reveals that joint dependence facilitates interorganizational cooperation through domain consensus between destination marketers and anime production teams. The current study makes a significant theoretical contribution to the fields of interorganizational relations, destination marketing studies, and anime-induced tourism research. Additionally, it provides highly practical insights into tourism development strategies for destination marketers and anime production companies.

1. Introduction

As the popularity of Japanese anime works has grown, traveling to locations featured in anime, known as anime-induced tourism, has garnered significant attention. In 2016, the Anime Tourism Association was established by companies from the publishing, tourism, public transportation, anime, and other industries. This type of travel, often referred to as an “anime pilgrimage”, stems from the enthusiasm of otaku participants, who exhibit unique and highly motivated behaviors, as demonstrated in previous studies (Okamoto, 2013, 2014). Pop culture can be a strong motivator for travel to destinations associated with it (Gibson & Connell, 2024; Lexhagen et al., 2023). Since the 1980s, anime production companies have increasingly incorporated real-world locations into their works to enhance realism (Yamamura, 2017). The number of slice-of-life anime works featuring real-world Japanese landscapes has rapidly increased since the 2000s. This trend has encouraged anime-induced tourism. By 2020, 1724 locations had served as settings modeled in 70 anime works (Maieria, 2020). This has the potential to attract not only Japanese fans but also a significant number of international visitors, demonstrating a broad appeal beyond Japan (Kasai & Hsu, 2012). The Japanese National Government reported that approximately 10% of surveyed inbound visitors mentioned “visiting film/anime settings” as one of their motivations for revisiting Japan (Japan Tourism Agency, 2023). Notably, the 2016 film Your Name significantly expanded the global reach of the anime-induced tourism phenomenon (Nishijima, 2020). The emergence of this new tourism landscape has necessitated the development of destination marketing (DM) strategies to target anime fans. Over the past two decades, the Japanese National Government has promoted regional development through tourism, particularly by leveraging media works like films (MLIT et al., 2005). Anime fan visits have been proven to stimulate local economies.

Tourism is generally driven by a network of multiple stakeholders, and tourism research has consistently focused on stakeholder relationships (Beaumont & Dredge, 2009; Beritelli, 2011; Bramwell & Lane, 2000; Heitmann, 2010; Reed, 1997; Selin, 1994; Selin & Beason, 1991; Wilke et al., 2019). Among these discussions, scholars such as Ford et al. (2012) and Saito and Ruhanen (2017) have argued over issues arising from power dynamics. Jamal and Getz (1995), for example, highlighted the influence of external capital. In anime tourism, DM inevitably faces challenges in building relationships with anime production companies or copyright holders, as destination activities rely on copyrighted elements such as characters, voice actors, and background visuals. In other words, destination marketers are responsible for initiating and maintaining good relationships with copyright holders, who are external private entities (Beeton, 2016).

Research on anime-induced tourism has emerged as a distinct stream within tourism studies. While many scholars have focused on visitor studies (Kusumi & Yoneda, 2018; Mori & Tai, 2023; Nishijima, 2020; Okamoto, 2014; Ono et al., 2020; Tsumura et al., 2020), DM has received comparatively less attention (e.g., Shibata, 2021; Tung et al., 2017; Yamamura, 2014, 2018). Existing studies have predominantly limited their discussions to normative or descriptive arguments about the necessity of stakeholder collaboration. Otani et al. (2018) explored relationships between destination actors and copyright holders through comparative case studies, but they lacked theoretical contributions. There is still a notable gap in the research regarding the structural characteristics and preconditions intrinsic to DM and program development in anime-induced tourism, specifically through empirically grounded research integrated within a theoretical framework.

For this study, the author aimed to conduct empirical research from a theoretical perspective to explore the development of DM in anime tourism. Drawing on the hypotheses of the resource dependency approach, which understands interorganizational relationships through power and mutual dependence, this research examines how dyadic links marked by power imbalances between destinations and copyright holders emerge and which conditions support the formation and maintenance of these relationships. By adopting a theoretical perspective, the present research was designed to illuminate key characteristics in the establishment and development of DM within anime tourism through case studies. Thus, it contributes not only to anime tourism research but also to theories of interorganizational relations, DM research, and broader discourse in tourism studies. Furthermore, this study offers practical insights for destination marketers and anime production companies by proposing strategies to address the uncertainties that arise from structural power imbalances.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Resource Dependence Theory

According to Thompson (1967), organizations are not self-sufficient and must maintain ties to their external environments, as organizations operate as open systems. Sustaining relationships with external entities is essential in enhancing organizational viability. Consequently, organizations must adopt strategies for building relationships with stakeholders, although such efforts inherently carry risks of failure. This is because organizations may become dependent on resources controlled by others. Resource dependence theory (RDT) addresses the effects of such dependencies on organizations.

RDT is based on the premise that the dependency of Organization A on Organization B is equivalent to the power that B holds over A. The more critical an externally controlled resource is to an organization and the less substitutable that resource is, the more dependent the organization becomes on its external environment (Pfeffer & Salancik, 2003; Salancik & Pfeffer, 1974). Pfeffer and Salancik (2003) argued that RDT effectively explains how dependency constrains organizational decision-making, leading to external actors imposing behavioral demands on dependent organizations. This external dependency creates asymmetric interorganizational relationships, which can introduce uncertainties, threatening organizational stability and survival. RDT posits that power dynamics or “politics” (Pfeffer, 1994, p. 30) emerge to mitigate uncertainty and secure organizational survival.

Traditional RDT primarily focused on power dynamics among players, but recent scholars have introduced modifications. These include distinguishing between dimensions of power imbalance and interorganizational dependence levels. Casciaro and Piskorski (2005) advanced this perspective by separating resource dependency into two concepts: power imbalance and mutual dependence. Building on this, Gulati and Sytch (2007) proposed measurement methods for interorganizational relationships and performance using the concepts of dependence asymmetry and joint dependence.

Dependence asymmetry reflects the degree to which one organization relies on its counterpart more than the other way around, essentially describing power imbalance. In contrast, joint dependence refers to the mutual reliance between two organizations, indicating a level of interdependence. Higher joint dependence fosters value creation within the relationship, enhancing organizational performance regardless of power imbalance (Gulati & Sytch, 2007; Sytch & Gulati, 2008). Traditional RDT emphasizes power dynamics between focal organizations and their counterparts, referred to as the “logic of power”. On the other hand, joint dependence operates on the “logic of embeddedness”, which emphasizes collaboration (Gulati & Sytch, 2007, pp. 35–40). High joint dependence enhances engagement, high-quality information flows, and shared benefits between organizations, even amid dependency asymmetries (Sytch & Gulati, 2008).

The concept of joint dependence has been supported by studies across diverse fields, including supply chain management (Hofer, 2015), buyer–supplier relationships (Caniëls et al., 2018), inter-company R&D cooperation (Jakobsen, 2020), early childhood care ventures (Villanueva et al., 2012), and NGO partnerships (O’Brien & Evans, 2017).

While not explicitly stated in prior studies, joint dependence can be linked to the notion of domain consensus, a concept discussed by organizational scholars such as Levine and White (1961). Domain consensus refers to “agreement among organizations about the roles that they can and should play relative to one another, in regard to their programs and services and clients” (Tolbert & Hall, 2009, p. 145). Such consensus is essential in ensuring resource exchange between organizations, as the mutual acknowledgment of roles and functions is necessary in cooperative relationships (Levine & White, 1961). Even in dependency asymmetries, domain consensus can facilitate joint dependence, resolving power imbalances.

RDT assumes that organizations proactively act when selecting strategies (Tolbert & Hall, 2009). Traditional RDT offers a repertoire of strategies that organizations might employ, which can be categorized into compliance and avoidance strategies (Pfeffer & Salancik, 2003; Sleet, 2010). Compliance strategies involve accepting external power to secure critical resources, while avoidance strategies aim to absorb or mitigate dependence on external entities. For example, Aldrich (2008) suggested strategies such as controlling strategic resources, changing dependency sources, exercising coercion, and escaping dependency by altering organizational goals. Conversely, revised RDT emphasizes long-term relationship maintenance to create value through recognizing high joint dependence (Gulati & Sytch, 2007). Joint dependence promotes long-term relational orientation, often requiring organizations to relinquish short-term gains and exchange operational information (Hofer, 2015, p. 444).

Tourism research has long adopted the resource dependence model in whole or in part for its hypotheses (Jamal & Getz, 1995; Selin & Beason, 1991; Sheehan & Brent Ritchie, 2005), as tourism development inherently exhibits characteristics of open systems (McKercher, 1999; Sheehan et al., 2016). For instance, Selin and Beason (1991) demonstrated that domain consensus positively impacts the formation of interdependence. Sheehan and Brent Ritchie (2005) argued that key stakeholders, critical as funding sources, could simultaneously pose threats to destination management organizations. However, the application of revised RDT, mainly its focus on joint dependence, has yet to be sufficiently explored in tourism studies. Tourism researchers examining interorganizational power imbalances have drawn on the revised RDT perspective. For instance, Ford et al. (2012) and Mwesiumo and Halpern (2016) highlighted the importance of interdependence in fostering organizational cooperation. However, their focus was primarily on strategies for balancing power dynamics rather than assessing the effectiveness of embeddedness strategies in cultivating joint dependence (Ford et al., 2012; Mwesiumo & Halpern, 2016). Conversely, high levels of interdependence have been linked to successful interorganizational collaboration in the tourism sector, as noted by H. R. Lee et al. (2015). Regardless of the state of power relations, stakeholders in the tourism industry should frequently establish collaborative relationships to achieve mutual benefits (Saito & Ruhanen, 2017; Sheehan & Brent Ritchie, 2005). The revised RDT offers a robust theoretical framework for analyzing interorganizational dynamics in the context of tourism.

2.2. The Relationship Between Copyright Holders and Destinations: The Role of Joint Dependence

Anime production companies and destination marketers often form their respective coalitions. Typically, companies involved in Japanese anime production organize teams to manage processes such as production, marketing, and copyright clearance (Masuda, 2018). Among these companies, the one planning anime production frequently serves as the leading company within the production team, with producers from that company playing a central role in team decision-making (Hasegawa, 2022). Similarly, destination marketers comprise broad coalitions, which may include local governments, chambers of commerce, business associations, and non-profit organizations. The extent of integration among these stakeholders varies by destination. This study’s analysis focuses on dyads formed between these coalitions.

The key stakeholders for destinations hosting anime-induced tourists are the anime production teams, as they hold discretion over copyrights. Since anime tourism marketing depends on the decisions of copyright holders, conflicts and discrepancies may arise between the two parties. Beeton (2016) highlighted potential conflicts and strict constraints when destinations use film sets for tourism. For example, Warner Brothers prohibited using the Harry Potter-related information in tourism promotion for Goathland, the filming location for the series, to “protect its own product” (Beeton, 2016, pp. 111–112). As copyright holders prioritize safeguarding the benefits of their works, they naturally approach copyright permissions cautiously. Even when permission is granted, destinations often have no choice but to accept the restrictions imposed by copyright holders (Beeton, 2016).

Studies on anime-induced tourism from a destination perspective have demonstrated cooperation between anime production teams and anime locations. Yamamura (2014) discussed the collaboration between the 2007 TV anime Lucky Star production team and the town of Washimiya, which served as the setting model. KADOKAWA, the leading company in the production team, recognized anime-induced tourism as part of its promotional strategy and initiated a cooperative approach with Washimiya. KADOKAWA facilitated copyright clearance processes, including relaxing copyright fee regulations and permitting the secondary creative use of copyrighted materials at the destination (Yamamura, 2014, 2020a). As a result, Washimiya successfully organized robust marketing programs, such as official events featuring voice actors and the development of anime-themed merchandise (Yamamura, 2014). This success prompted KADOKAWA to adopt a similar cooperative attitude with other anime-related sites (Yamamura, 2020a). The company now publishes a journal dedicated to anime-induced tourism.

However, as Yamamura (2014) noted, copyright holders like KADOKAWA remained rare, and not all chose cooperative relationships with destinations, as seen in Beeton’s (2016) conflict scenarios. Nonetheless, attitudes among copyright holders have shifted over time. Yamamura (2023) observed a structural shift in anime tourism. In the 2000s, relationships were often unilateral, with destinations approaching copyright holders. By the 2010s, the two parties began collaborating after anime broadcasts to develop tourism initiatives. Today, production teams increasingly aim to form relationships with locations during the planning stages of new anime, recognizing the value creation potential of such collaborations (Matsuyama, 2022). Production teams prioritize locations to enhance the quality of anime works, which are often based on real-world elements. Furthermore, as Seaton and Yamamura (2014) noted, the media mix strategy in recent anime marketing (Steinberg, 2012) positions locations as integral media elements within production and promotional efforts. Prior research has shown that anime-themed travel experiences encourage fans to purchase anime-related merchandise (Rakuten Marketing Platform, 2021). The mediatization of anime locations has become a critical strategy in anime marketing (Hirayama, 2024). Simultaneously, model locations expect anime tourism to mediate local revitalization. In the context of film tourism, research has emphasized the effectiveness of “destination placement” (Roesch, 2009, pp. 32–33), which involves showcasing locations and backdrops in movies or television shows. Filming locations exemplify this strategy, aiming to influence audiences’ tourism behavior by fostering a positive destination image through films and other media content (Hudson & Brent Ritchie, 2006; S. Lee et al., 2008). With regard to anime tourism, providing models for anime settings can contribute to creating exceptional destinations. The symbiotic relationship between anime production teams and destination marketers thus yields mutual benefits, advancing both parties’ viability.

Despite these shifts in attitude, copyright remains an essential and irreplaceable resource for destination marketers planning anime-induced tourism. Consequently, the power held by copyright holders over destinations remains fundamentally unbalanced (Mori, 2017b; Pfeffer & Salancik, 2003). Anime production teams possess definitive discretion over copyright clearance processes (Kitayama & Kakizaki, 2017), monopolizing decision-making and contributing to the power imbalance. If a destination chooses to develop anime-related tourism, Beeton (2016) asserts that it must comply with the strict conditions imposed by copyright holders. Conflicts may arise, creating areas where cooperation is unattainable.

However, domain consensus can generate a high degree of joint dependence, even amid power imbalances. According to revised RDT and Yamamura (2014), copyright holders who recognize mutual dependence are likely to adopt cooperative attitudes based on the “logic of embeddedness” (Gulati & Sytch, 2007, p. 37), even at the expense of short-term profits. These attitudes may include granting discretionary actions related to copyright and sharing information with destinations. As a result, from the destination’s perspective, such cooperation can lead to developing high-performing DM programs for successful anime tourism (Figure 1).

3. Methodology

This study aimed to clarify how DM in anime tourism has attempted to build relationships with copyright holders and what outcomes have resulted from these efforts. For this study, the author adopted an inductive approach and addressed the research questions using qualitative data.

The data were obtained from comparative case studies. The criteria for selecting cases are as follows. The first criterion is whether the case has a significant explanatory power for each stage of change in anime tourism. As noted by Yamamura (2023), the structure of stakeholders in anime-induced tourism has gradually evolved. For this study, the author selected cases from the earliest phase (the late 2000s), the transitional phase in the early 2010s, and the mature phase in the mid-2010s. The second criterion is whether the production teams in the selected cases involve distinct company combinations, although there is some overlap across cases. As noted by Yamamura (2014), KADOKAWA has been constructing domain consensus as part of its management philosophy based on the “logic of embeddedness” (Gulati & Sytch, 2007, p. 37) since the 2000s. Focusing on teams with a different composition facilitates the verification of the significance of ideological variables in joint dependence. The third criterion is the geographical proximity between the anime production teams operating in Tokyo and the destination. Proximity has been identified as a variable influencing interorganizational relationships (Selin & Beason, 1991; Tolbert & Hall, 2009). This study controlled for geographical conditions by selecting sites within about 1.5 to 3.5 h of travel from Tokyo using Shinkansen or rail.

According to the above criteria, for the current study, the author chose three destinations: Toyosato, Oarai, and Numazu. These places have become highly popular among anime fans, as all the anime works set in these locations are hugely successful slice-of-life series. Both academics and practitioners frequently refer to these cases as prominent examples of anime-induced tourism (e.g., Development Bank of Japan, 2017; Okamoto, 2019).

In line with Yin (2018), this study’s qualitative approach attempted triangulation across multiple sources of information, including academic research papers, media articles, interview-based resources, archival records, administrative documents, official publications related to anime, official website information, and direct observations of destinations conducted by the author.

4. Case Studies

4.1. Toyosato

The TV anime series K-On! was broadcast from 2009 to 2010. The Japanese television company TBS was listed as part of the production team for the TV series titled Sakurako Keionbu (Sakura High Band, “桜高軽音部”) (Manga Time Kirara, 2010). On the other hand, the production team for the 2011 K-On! Movie included TBS, PONY CANYON, MOVIC, and Kyoto Animation (Nakamoto, 2013). This study collectively refers to these entities as the production team. While the anime portrays various locations, the most significant setting is the school attended by the main characters. This school is modeled after the old Toyosato Elementary School buildings in Toyosato Town, northeast of Kyoto. However, the town’s residents were unaware that their local scenery had been used as the backdrop for the anime until after the series was broadcast (Hasuda, 2012b; Sakamoto, 2012). Immediately following the anime’s broadcast, fans exchanged information online, identifying Toyosato’s buildings as the models for the anime’s settings (Kadono, 2013; Toyosato Town Government, n.d.). In other words, Toyosato did not receive any prior information from the production team before the anime broadcast.

In response, local volunteers established the K-On Town Revitalization Executive Committee, a marketing coalition involving various organizations (Okamoto, 2012; Sakamoto, 2012). This coalition and other destination marketers planned various anime-related initiatives (Hasuda, 2012a; Kadono, 2013; Sakaguchi, 2011), such as selling officially licensed merchandise, organizing stamp rallies, managing a themed café, installing props featured in the anime, exhibiting fan-donated items and figurines, and hosting cleaning events for the modeled school buildings. A distinctive feature of Toyosato’s DM was the development of projects led by fans themselves (Okamoto, 2012), such as character birthday celebrations and fan-created book sale events (Toyosato Tea Time, 2024; Toyosato Town Government, n.d.). Since K-On! is a music-themed anime, live music events were jointly held by fan groups and the local community (Sakaguchi, 2011).

According to Nakayama (2010), TBS led the production of K-On! series. TBS did not acknowledge Toyosato as the model for the anime’s setting in official publications about the series (e.g., Kyoto Animation, 2012; Manga Time Kirara, 2010). In other words, the copyright holder did not officially recognize Toyosato as a model for the setting of K-On! (Sakaguchi, 2011). However, TBS cooperated by permitting the sale of anime-themed goods in Toyosato (Okamoto, 2012). This suggests that the K-On! production team did not recognize joint dependence with the destination, which limited Toyosato’s ability to develop its DM efforts (Okamoto, 2012). These constraints persisted even years after the anime’s broadcast and the movie’s release (Yamamura, 2014). Despite these limitations, Toyosato independently created several of the aforementioned initiatives, demonstrating significant autonomy. Notably, fan involvement enhanced DM efforts. The local council supported these fan-led standalone projects by providing discounts on the usage fees for the modeled buildings (Toyosato Town Council, 2020).

4.2. Oarai

Girls und Panzer (GP) is a TV anime series that was broadcast from 2012 to 2013. The show centers on a fictional school activity called “tankery”, a martial art in which high school girls participate. GP depicted many landmarks in Oarai as scenes in its episodes. The anime’s production team officially recognized Oarai as the setting for the anime (Yukawa et al., 2016).

Producer Kiyoshi Sugiyama from the leading company in the production team, BANDAI VISUAL1 (Yukawa, 2014) sought locations suitable for GP’s storyline. Believing that realism was essential to the show, Sugiyama concluded that relying on real-world locations was necessary. Given the convenient geographical conditions enabling intensive location scouting, Oarai offered an optimal setting (Sugiyama, 2014). The production team approached Oarai stakeholders and secured their consent to perform location scouting. Sugiyama prioritized this agreement to avoid upsetting the local community, as the anime featured scenes in which tanks destroyed local facilities (Sugiyama, 2016). Considering the nature of the story, the production team viewed Oarai’s resources and community cooperation as indispensable in the anime’s creation.

Oarai stakeholders organized the Koso-Koso Strategy Headquarters as an association for DM (Mori, 2017a), with Sugiyama becoming a member (Otani et al., 2018). The headquarters successfully coordinated various projects across Oarai (Mori, 2017a). With the production team officially recognizing Oarai as the model for anime scenes, the town’s DM efforts encompassed large-scale events featuring GP, public projects such as character-wrapped trains, and numerous anime-related product developments by local businesses (Mori, 2017a; Oarai Town Government, n.d.). Moreover, the town government issued special commemorative certificates featuring the series (Girls und Panzer Official Account [@garupan], 2013).

Although the production team did not grant special treatment to Oarai in the copyright licensing process, it initially did not strictly regulate the town’s shopkeepers’ use of GP copyrights. This was because the shopkeepers provided generous support for GP and were not aggressively pursuing substantial profits from product development (Sugiyama, 2016). Over time, the local chamber of commerce regulated Oarai’s copyright management and gradually formalized licensing procedures (Mori, 2017a; Sugiyama, 2016). Meanwhile, the production team also adopted flexible approaches to DM programs, such as relaxing copyright fee regulations (Mori, 2017a).

Notably, while the production team recognized its resource dependence on Oarai, it initially did not conceive of a domain centered on tourism development induced by the anime. Sugiyama was uncertain about the potential for GP to generate positive regional development effects, as he was not fully convinced of its success from the outset (Sugiyama, 2014). Tokiwa, who led Oarai’s DM efforts, shared this view (Oarai Imaya Anime no Seichi, 2013). Nevertheless, Sugiyama continued participating in destination development as a member of the Koso-Koso Strategy Headquarters (Sugiyama, 2016). His involvement in the coalition strengthened relationships between the production team and the destination (Otani et al., 2018). While domain consensus between the two parties was at least latent, the production team did not emphasize the “logic of embeddedness” (Gulati & Sytch, 2007, p. 27) from the beginning (Tokiwa & Sugiyama, 2015).

4.3. Numazu

Numazu served as the scenic model for the 2016 and 2017 TV anime series Love Live! Sunshine!! (LLS). A significant number of local sites were featured in the anime. From the project’s outset, the production team publicly acknowledged Numazu as the setting model (Kimino, 2015). The LLS production team included SUNRISE, BANDAI VISUAL, Lantis, Bushiroad, and KADOKAWA ASCII MEDIA WORKS (Bandai Namco Filmworks, 2024). SUNRISE2 was responsible for negotiations with the destination regarding copyrights (Yasumoto, 2024).

The production team conducted location scouting with the local authority’s consent (Numazu City Council, 2024). To avoid disappointing viewers with overt advertising, the team requested that the local authority refrain from disclosing information about the anime production in its early stages (Numazu City Council, 2024). Notably, the production team recognized the potential for DM from the beginning of the project. According to Matsuyama (2022), a staff member from the anime production team actively participated in Numazu’s regional revitalization team, advising stakeholders on methods of capitalizing on pilgrimage tourism. This proactive involvement by the production team in DM is particularly noteworthy. The official LLS guidebook featured not only detailed information about the settings but also voice actors’ messages, locally developed products, and events (Dengeki G’s Magazine Editorial Team, 2017).

The production team’s cooperative stance toward DM was evident. A railway company that provided scenic locations for the anime noted that the team was highly mindful of mutual benefits, driven by a strong commitment to regional revitalization. Similarly, an aquarium that hosted location scouting reported successful collaborative projects achieved through effective information exchange with the copyright holder (Igarashi, 2017; Love Live!, 2016). Additionally, the production team permitted fan-created content. It tacitly approved fans to voluntarily create location maps related to LLS (Matsuyama, 2022). Furthermore, the LLS director decided to feature the artwork of the characters displayed by a local photo shop in the anime itself (Yamauchi, 2023). These examples imply that the production team prioritized maintaining long-term relationships with the destination, emphasizing joint dependence as part of their management ideology over short-term profits.

As a result, Numazu successfully organized extensive DM initiatives. Local businesses implemented various projects, including anime-themed food and beverage products, wrapping buses and taxis, and events such as stamp rallies. The Love Live! Sunshine!! Support Association, which was established by local entities, negotiated these projects with the copyright holder (Yasumoto, 2024). The production team’s emphasis on joint dependence also led to multiple official events featuring voice actors being held in the destination. Additionally, the city government leveraged LLS for various initiatives, such as certifying Aqours, the protagonist group in LLS, as tourism ambassadors (Matsuyama, 2022; Numazu City Council, 2022; Yasumoto, 2024).

5. Discussions and Conclusion

5.1. Discussion

This study examined the impact of copyright holders’ attitudes on DM through three case studies of anime tourism.

Table 1. Findings from the cases.

	Domain Consensus	Joint Dependence	Performance
Toyosato	No	No	A limited range of DM
Oarai	Gradually manifested	Yes (implicitly)	A broad range of DM
Numazu	Built from the beginning	Yes (explicitly)	A broad range of DM

Source: the author.

summarizes the findings. The cases demonstrated significant explanatory power for the evolving phases of anime tourism. For instance, Toyosato represented a period when norms of joint dependence between copyright holders and anime locations were not yet established. Gradually, after the mid-2010s, the benefits of joint dependence became more commonly understood.

While the reasons why the K-On! production team did not officially recognize Toyosato as a model location remain unclear; it can be inferred from an interesting explanation that production companies generally feared the negative effects of forming relationships with unfamiliar partners (Okano & Kakizaki, 2015). Production companies often hesitated to disclose anime locations in the earlier phases of anime-induced tourism development. This suggests that production companies found it difficult to acknowledge joint dependence with anime locations. One cause could be attributed to the destinations themselves. In the early 2000s, local communities often lacked an understanding of the significance of location scouting for anime production. The producer of Lucky Star explained that based on a previous experience in which a location scouting request for a 2003 TV anime was denied, the location scouting for Lucky Star was conducted unofficially (Ito, 2023). In other words, both parties failed to recognize joint dependence regarding the benefits of tourism development. After fan visits became established, the anime industry began to view the mediatization of anime locations as a promotional strategy for their works (Hirayama, 2024; Seaton & Yamamura, 2014), and destinations, in turn, recognized its positive effects. In line with the findings shown above, Figure 2 elucidates the details of organizational joint dependency and DM performance. Anime production teams depended on destinations that offered resources for anime creation and promotion. On the other hand, destination marketers relied on a legal resource regarding copyright use. A recognition of the significant mutual links contributed to empowerment in DM development. Recently, anime production teams have actively disclosed information about anime-related locations. For example, the 2024 TV anime Too Many Losing Heroines featured detailed introductions of its locations on its official website and released videos of voice actors visiting pilgrimage sites (Too Many Losing Heroines, 2024). The shared ideology between production teams and destinations about community development through anime-induced tourism has become more common (Tolbert & Hall, 2009).

Since copyright holders retain decision-making authority over their works, there is always a power imbalance between them and destinations. However, recognizing joint dependence through domain consensus contributes to forming cooperative relationships despite these power imbalances. While the timing of joint dependence recognition differed between Oarai and Numazu, both demonstrated that acknowledging joint dependence enabled multifaceted DM performance. Although the methods varied, both locations benefited from the production teams’ willingness to forego immediate profits related to copyrights. A critical factor was whether copyright holders allowed fan or destination actor-driven creations. Allowing such creative freedom emphasized long-term collaboration and characterized joint dependence (Gulati & Sytch, 2007). Additionally, with both Oarai and Numazu, production team members actively participated in destination coalitions, fostering high-quality information exchanges between the two parties.

This study argues that by the 2000s, the environmental conditions that motivated collaboration between anime production teams and destinations via anime-induced tourism had already been established and that they continue to influence the present situation. Following Hall (2002, pp. 204–211), several influential environmental conditions can be identified. The most notable is the Japanese National Government’s promotion of media-induced tourism as a tool for community development (MLIT et al., 2005). This context is particularly evident in the cases of Toyosato and Washimiya, where anime tourism behavior has become deeply embedded in otaku culture. Underpinning this phenomenon was the rapid growth in adult-oriented anime production characterized by elaborate and picturesque backgrounds and narrative-driven content (The Association of Japanese Animation, 2018). This production trend has been partly driven by market structure changes, resulting from Japan’s aging population and declining birthrate (Masuda, 2018; The Association of Japanese Animation, 2024). Despite the ongoing complex interplay of these conditions, copyright holders may still fail to recognize joint dependence, a challenge that remains relevant today.

5.2. Theoretical Implications

This study contributes significantly to theories of interorganizational relations and DM research. First, the findings support the revised RDT (Gulati & Sytch, 2007; Sytch & Gulati, 2008) by demonstrating that joint dependence between organizations with power imbalances leads to high performance in production team–destination collaborations. Long-term orientation and information sharing were observed as key dimensions of joint action (Hofer, 2015). This suggests that the revised RDT can extend beyond previously studied fields. Second, the study introduced innovations to the theoretical framework for tourism research. While prior research using RDT in DM emphasized power imbalance issues (Ford et al., 2012; Mwesiumo & Halpern, 2016; Sheehan & Brent Ritchie, 2005), this study highlighted the importance of joint dependence in analyzing interorganizational relationships in tourism development. Third, the current research advanced anime tourism research by introducing a deeper analytical approach rooted in theoretical frameworks. Previous studies used descriptive or ethnological approaches (Yamamura, 2020b). For instance, from single-case data, Yamamura (2014) observed “mutual understanding and consideration” between the copyright holder and destination in Lucky Star. This study generalized such findings through theoretical interpretations and successfully integrated fragmented descriptive information into a unified theoretical framework.

5.3. Practical Implications

This study offers several practical implications for DM professionals. Production teams increasingly disclose information about modeled locations before anime broadcasts. As seen in the cases of GP and LLS, production teams often secure links with destinations in advance. This allows destination marketers to obtain location information early and organize stakeholders to plan marketing strategies proactively. Additionally, DM professionals must focus on managing relationships with copyright holders. Establishing trust between destinations and copyright holders is crucial (Hanaoka & Kakizaki, 2016; Okano & Kakizaki, 2015). Effective governance systems capable of responding accurately to copyright holders’ requests, including confidentiality, are essential in building trust. On the other hand, anime production companies should clearly recognize the catalytic effect of anime tourism on anime marketing. Production teams should be willing to sacrifice short-term gains to establish long-term partnerships with destinations. In particular, it is crucial that they understand the potential of fan-created content and anime-related spin-off markets at destinations (Yamamura, 2014). Moreover, effective information exchange with destination stakeholders is essential in successfully promoting outstanding DM and ensuring efficient copyright clearance.

5.4. Limitations and Future Research

This study has several limitations, suggesting possible directions for future research. First, it lacks sufficient data from the perspective of copyright holders, a common challenge in anime tourism research. While investigating production teams poses significant hurdles (Matsuyama, 2022), collecting information from both dyadic parties is critical in understanding interorganizational relationships (Van de Ven & Walker, 1984; Villanueva et al., 2012). As Yamamura (2014) highlights, data collection from anime production companies remains significant. Second, while the three cases analyzed are prominent in the history of anime tourism, more recent cases have not been examined. As noted, production teams have become more proactive in disclosing information about modeled sites. The latest interorganizational relationships in anime-induced tourism may reflect new characteristics stemming from changes in copyright holders’ attitudes. Therefore, more qualitative analyses focusing on newly emerging cases should be conducted. Third, this study relied on qualitative methods. Quantitative research, such as questionnaire surveys using revised RDT, has yielded novel findings in other fields (e.g., Hofer, 2015; Villanueva et al., 2012). Given the substantial accumulation of data on DM in anime-induced tourism over the past two decades, a quantitative approach will be crucial in identifying causal relationships between domain consensus, joint dependence, and DM performance.