The Effect of Adding Degreased Flaxseeds on the Quality of Pork Sausages †
by
, , , and
Tomasz Florowski
,
Anna Florowska
*
,
Daria Wodzyńska
, 
Marta Chmiel
,
Lech Adamczak
and
Dorota Pietrzak
Department of Food Technology and Assessment, Institute of Food Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
Presented at the 5th International Electronic Conference on Foods, 28–30 October 2024; Available online: https://sciforum.net/event/Foods2024.
Biol. Life Sci. Forum 2024, 40(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/blsf2024040008
Published: 13 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Foods)
Abstract
:The aim of the study was to assess the effect of adding degreased flax seeds (DFS; 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%) on the quality of homogenized pork sausages. It was found that the 2% DFS addition to the batter had no effect on most of the analyzed quality parameters of sausages (i.e., cooking and reheating loss, water activity, pH, L* and a* color parameters, water, protein and fat content, shear and compression force, elasticity, and meat taste). However, a 2% DFS addition resulted in an increase b* color parameter, reduction in the intensity of the meat odor, and the appearance of the odor and taste of flax seeds in the product, as well as a slight deterioration in its overall desirability. The higher the DFS addition, the more pronounced its adverse effect on the product quality, especially its sensory quality. A large addition of DFS to the batter also caused a significant reduction in the shear force of sausages, a reduction in the L* and a* color parameters, and an increase in the pH value.
1. Introduction
Flax seeds are a nutritionally valuable and widely used raw material for oil production [1]. The residue after pressing the oil is degreased flax seeds (DFS). This by-product is a source of many nutritionally valuable ingredients [2], such as protein, fiber, mucous substances, and lignans, which makes it a potentially attractive raw material for use in the production of various types of functional food [3].
Degreased flax seeds can be incorporated into bakery products such as bread, muffins, and cookies. They enhance the nutritional profile by adding protein and fiber, and also improve the texture and shelf-life of these products [4,5]. The DFS, as they contain all essential amino acids, can also be used in protein blends with other plant-based proteins to create high-quality protein supplements and food products, particularly valuable for vegetarian and vegan diets [6]. Fractions of degreased flax seeds, rich in proteins and polysaccharides, can be used as natural emulsifiers in food formulations [7]. In addition, flax seed isolate protein has excellent solubility, foaming ability, and emulsification properties, which makes it suitable for various food applications [8]. Scientific studies conducted using DFS have also found that polysaccharide gums extracted from partially defatted flaxseed meal can be used as stabilizers in yogurt. Thanks to their addition, the texture, viscosity, and overall acceptability of the yogurt was improved without adversely affecting its flavor [9]. Also, the incorporation of DFS into pates improved their water-holding capacity and reduced mass loss during refrigerated storage, and also added health value to this product [10]. The possibilities of using these nutritionally valuable side streams are still being explored to take advantage of their nutritional and technological properties.
In the available literature on meat products, however, the use of flaxseed most often assumes its addition in the form of full fat flour [11], and there are very few publications involving DFS, which are a side stream of oil pressing. The incorporation of plant-derived ingredients used in proteins and polysaccharides, such as degreased flaxseed (DFS), into emulsion-like meat products has been studied primarily in systems where muscle proteins are already denatured [10]. However, there has been limited research focused on how DFS interacts with raw meat systems, where muscle proteins remain in their native state. That is why the aim of the study was to assess the effect of adding this nutritionally valuable raw material on the quality of homogenized pork sausages. Five variants of sausages were produced, which differed in the amount of degreased flax seeds added, i.e., 0, 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%. The quality of sausages was determined based on cooking and reheating losses, measurements of water activity, color parameters, texture parameters, basic chemical composition pH, and sensory evaluation.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
The raw materials for sausage production were as follows: lean tendinous processed pork, fatty processed pork (20% fat content), pork jowl, curing mixture, ascorbic acid, black pepper, sweet paprika, nutmeg, and mustard. In addition, defatted golden ground flax was added to the experimental sausages (Sante, Warsaw, Poland). The fat content of flax was 17.5 g/100 g and the fiber content was 31.0 g/100 g.
2.2. Experimental Design
The experiment was conducted using five independent batches of sausages (n = 5). Each of the five batches of sausages was produced independently under identical conditions and similar material was used.
2.3. Sausage Production
Meat and fat raw materials were ground in a laboratory grinder (Mesko AL. 2-4, ø 4.5 mm holes; Mesko-AGD Sp. z o.o., Skarżysko-Kamienna, Poland). Then, all the raw materials were homogenized in a heavy-duty bowl cutter with rapidly moving blades of 3000 rpm Stephan UM5 (Stephan Machinery GmbH, Hameln, Germany). Mincing time was 180 s and the final batter temperature was 12 °C. The basic batter recipe was as follows: lean tendinous processed pork 23%, fatty processed pork 31%, pork jowl 23%, water 23%, additives, and spices. The spice mix (percentage of the batter weight) was as follows: curing mixture 1.6%, black pepper 0.15%, sweet pepper 0.1%, nutmeg 0.05%, and mustard 0.05%. DFS was added to the experimental batter variants in the amounts of 2, 4, 6, or 8%. The batters were then stuffed into 21 mm diameter cellulose casings and the sausage bars were left to settle for 30 min. The smoking and steaming of sausages was carried out in a Jugema smoking and steaming chamber (Jugema, Środa Wielkopolska, Poland), smoking with warm smoke for 15 min and steaming in 75 °C until the temperature in the geometric center of the bars reached 72 °C. After heat treatment, the products were cooled under water spray for 15 min and placed in a cold store for 24 h at a temperature of 4–6 °C. After this time, the quality of the products was assessed. The sausage production was carried out in five independent repetitions (n = 5).
2.4. Methods
2.4.1. Cooking Losses
Cooking losses were determined based on the difference in the mass of sausage bars before and after heat treatment (smoking with warm smoke for 15 min and steaming at 75 °C until the geometric center of the bars reached 72 °C). The results were expressed as a percentage of the initial mass of the sausages.
2.4.2. Reheating Losses
Reheating losses were determined based on the difference in the mass of sausage bars before and after reheating (heating in water at 95 °C for 10 min). The results were expressed as a percentage of the initial mass of sausages.
2.4.3. Water Activity
Water activity was measured in the apparatus Aqua Lab (CX-2, Decagon Devices Inc., Pullman, WA, USA). The measurement was carried out at 24 °C.
2.4.4. Color Parameters
The color parameters of the sausages were measured using a reflectance colorimeter Minolta CR-200 (Konica Minolta, Warszawa, Poland; light source D65, observer 2°). Measurements were made on a cross-section of the sausage at six different points and the average value taken as the result. The color of sausages was expressed on the CIE L*a*b* scale. Based on the measurements of the color parameters of the control sausage (0% DFS) and sausages with DFS added, the total color difference parameter ΔE was also calculated [12].
2.4.5. Basic Chemical Composition
The basic chemical composition (moisture, protein, and fat content) of the sausages was determined by AOAC Official Method 2007.04 using the FOSS Food-Scan™ (FOSS Analytical, Warsaw, Poland) Near—Infrared (NIR) spectrophotometer.
2.4.6. pH
The pH measurement was performed using a CP-411 pH meter (Elmetron, Zabrze, Poland) and a glass-calomel electrode.
2.4.7. Texture Parameters
The texture analysis of the sausages included the measurement of the compression and shear forces. The compression force was measured by compressing a 20 mm high sausage sample between two parallel plates by 30% of its initial height. The maximum force required to compress a sausage sample was measured. The cutting force was measured using a Warner–Bratzler device with a V knife. The maximum force required to cut a sausage bar was measured. All sausage texture measurements were performed using a Zwick texturometer 1120 (Zwick GmbH & Co., Ulm, Germany). The speed of movement of the measuring head was 50 mm/min. The temperature of the samples during the measurements was 20 °C. The compression and shear force measurements were performed in six repetitions for each sausage variant, taking the average value as the result.
2.4.8. Sensory Evaluation
Sensory evaluation was assessed using the QDA method. The tested samples consisted of 10 mm thick sausage slices. Sensory quality parameters such as meat and flax seed odor and taste intensity, elasticity, juiciness, and overall desirability were assessed. The respondents marked the evaluation results on a 10 cm graphical scale. The analysis was conducted 24 h after production. The temperature of the samples during the test was 20 °C.
2.4.9. Statistical Analysis
To assess the effect of adding degreased flax seeds on the selected quality features of homogenized pork sausages, a one-way analysis of variance and detailed testing using the Tukey test were carried out using Statgraphics Plus 4.1 program. The assumed significance level was α = 0.05.
3. Results and Discussion
It was found that adding even the largest analyzed amount of DFS, i.e., 8%, to the sausage batter had no significant effect on the amount of mass loss occurring during the heat treatment (cooking loss) [Table 1]. There also was no significant effect of DFS addition (2–8%) on the amount of sausage mass loss during reheating (reheating loss). The effect of DSF addition to meat products on the indicated parameters may vary depending on the product to which it is added and the dose in which it is used. According to data in the literature, the incorporation of flaxseeds (10%) into meat products has been shown to increase reheating loss of restructured beef steaks [13]. On the other hand the addition of flaxseed flour (14%) into beef patties decreased the cooking loss [14]. Sausages containing DFS (2–8%) did not differ from sausages without its addition in terms of water activity. Also, no effect on the water activity of the pates with DFS was noticed in research conducted by Florowska et al. [10].
Analyzing the effect of the DFS addition on the color of sausages, it was found that incorporation of this ingredient into the batter, even in the smallest amount, i.e., 2%, caused a significant increase in the value of the b* color parameter of sausages (increased share of yellow color) [Table 2]. However, such DFS addition had no effect on the lightness of the sausage color (L* color parameter) and the share of red color (a* color parameter). As a result, the difference in the color of the sausage containing 2% DFS and the control sausage was minor and noticeable only to experienced observers (ΔE = 1.83). Research by other authors indicates that the addition of flaxseed powder (5%) into raw and cooked meat batter lowered the value of the color component a* [15]. In this study the higher DFS addition, i.e., ≥4%, resulted in a further increase in the b* color parameter value, and also in a significant decrease in the lightness of their color and a decrease in the share of red color. The difference in the color of sausages containing ≥4% DFS and the control sausage was clearly noticeable, even for unexperienced observers (ΔE > 2). Similar results regarding the influence of adding flax seeds on the color of homogenized and liver sausages were found by Zając et al. [16] and also by Augustyńska-Prejsnar et al. [17]. Despite the changes in color, products with added flaxseed were still acceptable to consumers [16] and, further, the color of products with the addition of flax seeds is stable during storage.
Analyzing the effect of DFS addition on the texture parameters of sausages, it was found that introducing even the largest analyzed amount of DFS, i.e., 8%, into the batter had no significant effect on the hardness (compression force values) [Figure 1a]. There was also no significant effect of the additive of the DFS to batter in the amount of up to 6% on the tenderness of sausages (shear force values) [Figure 1b]. However, it was shown that sausages containing the highest DFS addition (i.e., 8%) were characterized by significantly greater tenderness (lower shear force values) than the control sausages (0% DFS) and those containing 2 or 4% DFS addition. Similar results were obtained by Ghafouri-Oskuei et al. [18], who claimed that sausages with the addition of flaxseed powder, at level 3 and 6%, had decreased textural parameters. Whereas in the study by Yogesh et al. addition of cold milled flaxseed powder (full fat) at levels of 1–5% in meat batter decreased the hardness [15].
Analyzing the effect of DFS addition to sausages on the basic chemical composition, it was found that introducing 2% of this ingredient into the batter had no significant effect on the water and protein content. On the other hand, sausages containing the highest level of DFS additive (i.e., 8%) had significantly higher water content and lower fat content than the control sausages (0% DFS) [Table 3]. The inclusion of flaxseed flour generally decreased the moisture content in meat products due to the increased amount of dry matter in the formulations [19]. Our research, however, was conducted on defatted flaxseed, in which the concentration of polysaccharide substances is higher and, consequently, it has better water-binding capacity. It was also found that the addition of DFS to the sausage batter in the amount analyzed in the study, i.e., up to 8%, had no significant effect on the protein content in the product. The protein content in meat products generally increases with the addition of flaxseed. Studies have shown an increase in protein in beef patties with flaxseed [19]. Similarly, sausages with flaxseed powder showed increased protein levels [18].
The experiment also analyzed the effect of introducing DFS into the sausage batter on the pH of the finished product. It was found that adding up to 6% DFS to the sausage batter did not cause any significant changes in the pH [Table 3]. Sausages containing the highest amount of DFS were characterized by a significantly higher pH than the control sausages (0% DFS). The variability in the effect of flaxseed on pH could be attributed to differences in the type of meat product, the form of flaxseed used (e.g., whole seeds, flour, or oil), and the specific processing conditions. In the literature, differences can be found in the influence of flaxseeds on the pH of meat products. The incorporation of flaxseed powder into sausage formulations has been shown to decrease the pH of the product [18].
It was found that the addition of DFS to sausage batter, even in the smallest analyzed amount, i.e., 2% resulted in reduction in the intensity of the meat odor and the appearance of the odor and taste of flax seeds in the product [Table 4]. A significant reduction in the juiciness of the sausages was also observed. These changes resulted in a slight deterioration in its overall desirability [Figure 2]. The higher the DFS addition, the more pronounced its adverse effect on the sensory quality of sausages. With the increased addition of DFS to the batter of homogenized sausages, an increase in the intensity of the flax seed odor and taste was observed, while the perception of the meat odor and taste decreased. A decrease in the scores awarded for the elasticity and juiciness of the product, as well as its overall desirability, was also noted. According to data in the literature [18], the addition of flax seed powder to sausages in amounts up to 3% included no effects on sensory evaluation parameters. Other authors found that the addition of 5% flax seeds to homogenized and liver sausages was acceptable, and all assessed parameters were rated as better compared to the control sample [16].
4. Conclusions
The effect of adding degreased flax seeds (DFS) on the quality of pork sausages depends on the amount of seeds introduced to the batter. The greater the amount of DFS in the batter, the more pronounced the unfavorable effect on the quality of homogenized sausages, especially on sensory quality, color, and shear force. The obtained results indicate that the production of good quality homogenized pork sausage enriched with degreased flax seeds is possible, but the addition of this nutritionally valuable ingredient to the batter must be small and cannot exceed 2%.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, T.F.; methodology, T.F.; investigation, T.F., A.F., D.W., M.C. and D.P.; data curation, T.F., A.F. and L.A.; writing—original draft preparation, T.F. and A.F.; writing—review and editing, T.F. and A.F.; visualization, T.F. and A.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
At the time the researches were conducted no human ethic committee or formal documentation process was available, and ethical permission to conduct a human sensory study is not requirement in the institute if the assessment is performed by institute employees.
Informed Consent Statement
Appropriate protocol have been utilized to protect rights and privacy of all participants during the execution, e.g. there was no coercion to participate, full disclosure of study requirements and risks was provided, and informed consent of all participants was obtained before the sensory evaluation.
Data Availability Statement
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Figure 1.
The effect of DFS addition on the compression force (a) and shear force (b) of pork sausages. Means with different letter symbols differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Figure 1.
The effect of DFS addition on the compression force (a) and shear force (b) of pork sausages. Means with different letter symbols differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Figure 2.
The effect of DFS addition on the reduction in the overall desirability ratings of pork sausages.
Figure 2.
The effect of DFS addition on the reduction in the overall desirability ratings of pork sausages.
Table 1.
The effect of DFS addition on the cooking loss and mass loss during reheating and water activity of pork sausages.
Table 1.
The effect of DFS addition on the cooking loss and mass loss during reheating and water activity of pork sausages.
| Variant | Cooking Loss [%] | Reheating Loss [%] | Water Activity |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0% DFS | 9.0 a ± 2.0 | 1.60 a ± 0.65 | 0.958 a ± 0.004 |
| 2% DFS | 9.0 a ± 2.0 | 1.45 a ± 0.51 | 0.962 a ± 0.005 |
| 4% DFS | 8.0 a ± 1.0 | 1.91 a ± 0.62 | 0.962 a ± 0.002 |
| 6% DFS | 8.0 a ± 1.0 | 2.02 a ± 0.91 | 0.964 a ± 0.003 |
| 8% DFS | 8.0 a ± 1.0 | 2.27 a ± 0.64 | 0.963 a ± 0.005 |
The results in the table are given as an average ± standard deviation. Means in columns with different letter symbols differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Table 2.
The effect of DFS addition on the color parameters and the total color difference parameter ΔE of pork sausages.
Table 2.
The effect of DFS addition on the color parameters and the total color difference parameter ΔE of pork sausages.
| Variant | L* | a* | b* | ΔE |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0% DFS | 66.41 c ± 0.65 | 13.18 b ± 0.46 | 8.48 a ± 0.43 | - |
| 2% DFS | 65.41 bc ± 0.98 | 12.36 ab ± 0.53 | 9.58 b ± 0.40 | 1.83 |
| 4% DFS | 64.49 ab ± 0.66 | 11.93 a ± 0.59 | 10.96 c ± 0.79 | 3.42 |
| 6% DFS | 63.80 a ± 0.80 | 11.74 a ± 0.44 | 11.68 c ± 0.55 | 4.44 |
| 8% DFS | 63.30 a ± 0.84 | 11.67 a ± 0.58 | 11.98 c ± 0.54 | 4.97 |
The results in the table are given as an average ± standard deviation. Means in columns with different letter symbols differ significantly (p < 0.05); ΔE values: 0 < ΔE < 1—the color difference is determined as not noticeable for the observer; 1 < ΔE < 2—only experienced observers can notice the difference in colors; 2 < ΔE < 3.5—unexperienced observers also notice the difference in colors, 3.5 < ΔE < 5—clear color difference in colors is noticed, and observer notices two different colors (5 < ΔE) [12].
Table 3.
The effect of DFS addition on the water, protein, fat content, and pH of pork sausages.
| Variant | Water [g/100 g] | Protein [g/100 g] | Fat [g/100 g] | pH |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0% DFS | 58.17 a ± 1.45 | 15.44 a ± 1.15 | 23.21 c ± 0.79 | 6.05 a ± 0.05 |
| 2% DFS | 59.24 ab ± 1.55 | 15.00 a ± 0.72 | 22.49 c ± 0.57 | 6.09 ab ± 0.03 |
| 4% DFS | 60.71 bc ± 1.05 | 15.11 a ± 0.71 | 20.84 b ± 0.72 | 6.10 ab ± 0.01 |
| 6% DFS | 59.58 abc ± 1.44 | 14.86 a ± 0.94 | 22.33 c ± 0.45 | 6.11 ab ± 0.03 |
| 8% DFS | 62.00 c ± 0.92 | 15.94 a ± 0.56 | 18.16 a ± 0.53 | 6.12 b ± 0.02 |
The results in the table are given as an average ± standard deviation. Means in columns with different letter symbols differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Table 4.
The effect of DFS addition on the sensory quality characteristics of pork sausages.
| Variant | Meat Odor | Flax Seeds Odor | Meat Taste | Flax Seed Taste | Elasticity | Juiciness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0% DFS | 8.7 d ± 0.6 | 0.0 a ± 0.0 | 9.2 d ± 0.3 | 0.0 a ± 0.0 | 7.3 d ± 1.2 | 8.0 e ± 0.6 |
| 2% DFS | 6.9 c ± 0.5 | 2.4 b± 0.8 | 8.3 cd ± 0.3 | 2.6 b ± 0.4 | 6.3 cd ± 0.5 | 6.9 d ± 0.6 |
| 4% DFS | 5.1 b ± 0.7 | 3.9 c ± 0.4 | 7.0 bc ± 0.6 | 4.3 c ± 0.3 | 5.2 bc ± 0.2 | 5.5 c ± 0.5 |
| 6% DFS | 3.9 a ± 0.4 | 5.8 d ± 1.1 | 5.7 b ± 1.1 | 7.6 d ± 1.0 | 3.9 ab ± 0.5 | 3.7 a ± 0.3 |
| 8% DFS | 3.2 a ± 0.8 | 7.5 e ± 1.0 | 4.4 a ± 0.9 | 8.7 e ± 0.8 | 3.0 a ± 0.9 | 2.6 a ± 0.6 |
The results in the table are given as an average ± standard deviation. Means in columns with different letter symbols differ significantly (p < 0.05).
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MDPI and ACS Style
Florowski, T.; Florowska, A.; Wodzyńska, D.; Chmiel, M.; Adamczak, L.; Pietrzak, D. The Effect of Adding Degreased Flaxseeds on the Quality of Pork Sausages. Biol. Life Sci. Forum 2024, 40, 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/blsf2024040008
AMA Style
Florowski T, Florowska A, Wodzyńska D, Chmiel M, Adamczak L, Pietrzak D. The Effect of Adding Degreased Flaxseeds on the Quality of Pork Sausages. Biology and Life Sciences Forum. 2024; 40(1):8. https://doi.org/10.3390/blsf2024040008
Chicago/Turabian StyleFlorowski, Tomasz, Anna Florowska, Daria Wodzyńska, Marta Chmiel, Lech Adamczak, and Dorota Pietrzak. 2024. "The Effect of Adding Degreased Flaxseeds on the Quality of Pork Sausages" Biology and Life Sciences Forum 40, no. 1: 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/blsf2024040008
APA StyleFlorowski, T., Florowska, A., Wodzyńska, D., Chmiel, M., Adamczak, L., & Pietrzak, D. (2024). The Effect of Adding Degreased Flaxseeds on the Quality of Pork Sausages. Biology and Life Sciences Forum, 40(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/blsf2024040008
