Next Article in Journal
Bivalent Metal-Chelating Properties of Harzianic Acid Produced by Trichoderma pleuroticola Associated to the Gastropod Melarhaphe neritoides
Next Article in Special Issue
Review on the Biological Detoxification of Mycotoxins Using Lactic Acid Bacteria to Enhance the Sustainability of Foods Supply
Previous Article in Journal
Energetic Performance of Pure Silica Zeolites under High-Pressure Intrusion of LiCl Aqueous Solutions: An Overview
Previous Article in Special Issue
In Vitro Bioaccessibility and Antioxidant Activity of Coffee Silverskin Polyphenolic Extract and Characterization of Bioactive Compounds Using UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Molecules
Volume 25
Issue 9
10.3390/molecules25092146
molecules-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Comparative Analysis of Milk Fat Globular Membrane (MFGM) Proteome between Saudi Arabia Camelus dromedary Safra and Wadha Breeds

by
Bassam H. Sabha
1,
Afshan Masood
2,
Ibrahim O. Alanazi
3,
Assim A. Alfadda
2,
Hussein A. Almehdar
1,
Hicham Benabdelkamel
2,* and
Elrashdy M. Redwan
1,*
1
Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, P.O. Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
2
Proteomics Unit, Obesity Research Center, College of Medicine, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2925 (98), Riyadh 11461, Saudi Arabia
3
The National Center for Genomic Technology (NCGT), Life Science and Environment Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), PO Box 6086, Riyadh 11461, Saudi Arabia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2020, 25(9), 2146; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25092146
Submission received: 28 March 2020 / Revised: 29 April 2020 / Accepted: 1 May 2020 / Published: 4 May 2020
(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Food Chemistry)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Camel milk is traditionally known to have medicinal properties and many potential health benefits. Natural milk contains many soluble proteins and nanoparticles, such as a milk fat globule membrane (MFGM), a three-layered membrane covering of milk fat globule mainly composed of proteins and lipids, which plays an important role in human health. MFGM proteins account for 1%–4% of total milk proteins, and their nutritive value and distribution depends on the different breeds. The differential composition of these membrane proteins among different camel breeds has not been explored. The current study, therefore, aimed to quantitatively analyze and compare the MFGM proteome between the milk produced by the two most common Saudi camel breeds, Camelus dromedarius: Safra and Wadha. Two-dimensional difference in gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) and mass spectrometry analysis revealed a total of 44 MFGM proteins that were identified with a significant difference in abundance (p ≤ 0.05; fold change ≥ 1.5) between the two breeds. Thirty-one proteins were up-regulated and 13 proteins were down-regulated in the Safra breed compared to the Wadha breed. The proteins identified with an increased abundance included α-lactalbumin, lactadherin, and annexin a8, whereas the down-regulated proteins included butyrophilin subfamily 1 member a1, lactotransferrin, and vinculin. The differentially abundant proteins were analyzed by the UNIPROT system and gene ontology (GO) to reveal their associations with known biological functions and pathways. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) confirmed the 2D-DIGE findings of butyrophilin (BTN) and α-lactalbumin (α-LA) levels obtained from Safra and Wadha breeds.

1. Introduction

Camel milk has been consumed for thousands of years because of its immense nutritional value and health benefits. Several studies have revealed that camel milk has a high concentration of immunoglobulins, serum albumin, lactoferrin, the hormone insulin, and other important ingredients [1,2,3]. Recently, camel milk has been utilized as medication for treating many diseases including gastrointestinal disorders, diabetes mellitus, food allergy, cancer, and hepatitis C and B [1,4,5,6,7]. Moreover, camel milk has differential in vitro antimicrobial activities against many pathogens [6,7], based on its bioactive proteins and/or peptides [1,8,9,10,11,12].
The characteristics and composition of camel milk are known to differ due to various factors, including the breed of the camel, conditions of feeding, the health of the animal, calving number, stage of lactation, geographical location, and with seasons [13,14]. Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) is one of the key components of not only camel milk but in the milk of other primates as well. It is a three-layered membrane covering the milk fat globule membrane, accounting for 1%–4% of total milk proteins [15]. The origin of MFGM has been studied to be from different parts of cells including the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, the apical plasma membrane of secretory cells in the mammary gland and cytoplasm [16]. It encloses the lipid molecules in the milk, which mainly comprises triacylglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and various other integral, peripheral proteins, and other compositions derived from the original mammary cell [17]. MFGM derived proteins have been involved in beneficial bioactivities, such as antibacterial, antiviral [18], anticancer effects [19], and anti-inflammation [20].
Today, the benefits of MFGM have transferred it from the bedside into the market [21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30]. As MFGM is a reservoir of membrane proteins, these proteins were analyzed by research groups using proteomic techniques to identify potential signaling and secretory pathways utilized by the mammary gland [31]. One of the most abundant proteins studied among the MFGM proteins is butyrophilin. This protein has been studied and shown to be involved in modulating the encephalitogenic T-cell response to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein related to human multiple sclerosis [32]. There have been several studies that have utilized the proteomics platform to study and identify MFGM proteins in different milk species including bovine and yak milk [33], cattle [34], goat [35], and horse [36], or to compare protein composition of milk among different breeds in cattle [37] and goat [38].
To the best of our knowledge, we found only one study that has been conducted to characterize the MFGM proteome in camel milk [39]. As it is known that MFGM composition could differ among various breeds of the same animal, the present study targeted to analyze the differential protein composition of MFGM in camel milk produced by two of the Saudi camel breeds, Camelus dromedaries (C. dromedarius) Safra and Wadha, in order to find the differences in nutritional value depending on the differences in the level of the proteins between them.

2. Results

2.1. CyDye Fluorescence Labeling and Two-Dimensional Difference in Gel Electrophoresis (2D-DIGE)

Two-dimensional (2D)-DIGE was used to assess the differences in the pattern of protein level changes in the MFGM: five Biological Replicates for each breed (Safra and Wadha). Representative fluorescent protein profiles of a 2D-DIGE containing MFGM-Safra sample labeled with Cy3 are shown in Figure 1A; MFGM-Wadha sample labeled with Cy5 (Figure 1B), and a pooled internal control labeled with Cy2 (Figure 1C). Manual validation was performed to exclude false spots. A total of 820 spots were mapped on the gels, of which 60 were significantly different (ANOVA p ≤ 0.05 and fold change ≥ 1.5) between the MFGM samples from Safra and Wadha breeds (Figure 2). The gel images show the degree of differential expression of proteins in the merged image, between MFGM-Safra labeled with Cy3 (green) and MFGM-Wadha labeled with Cy5 (red), that are represented as yellow spots. The yellow fluorescent spots represent proteins with the same isoelectric point, molecular weight, and nearly equal fluorescent intensity. The spot patterns were reproducible across all five gels, leading to alignment and further analysis. Cy2-labeling (the internal standard) was included to permit normalization across the complete set of gels and quantitative differential analysis of the protein levels. A total of 60 spots showing a statistical significance between the groups were then manually excised from the preparative gel for protein identification by mass spectrometry.

2.2. Mass Spectrometry and Identification of Proteins

Peptide mass fingerprint (PMF) successfully identified 44 out of the 60 protein spots excised from the preparative gel. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry found 25 spots to be unique protein sequences that were matched to entries in the SWISS-PROT database by Mascot with high confidence scores (Table 1, Table S1, Supplementary materials). The sequence coverage of the identified proteins by PMF ranged from 4% to 85%. In a few cases, variants of the same protein were found at several locations on the gel (Table 1, Figure 2). Among the 44 proteins identified, 31 protein spots were up-regulated and 13 down-regulated in MFGM from Safra compared to Wadha breeds (Table 1, Figure 3). The significantly up-regulated proteins included α-lactalbumin lactadherin, annexin a8 hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-like protein 2 (up 1.6-fold), and GPI-anchor transamidase. The significantly down-regulated proteins included lactotransferrin, vinculin dual serine/threonine and tyrosine protein kinase butyrophilin subfamily 1 member a1 heat shock 70 kDa protein 1-like, acetyl serotonin O-methyl transferase, and ADP-ribosylation factor GTPase-activating protein 2 (a complete list of up-and down-regulated protein has been provided in Table 1, Table S1, Supplementary Materials). Among the identified proteins, lactotransferrin, vinculin, tetratricopeptide repeat protein 36, lactadherin, hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-like protein 2, GPI-anchor transamidase, keratin, and type II cytoskeletal 72 were found in more than one spot on the gels, which could be explained by post-translational modifications, cleavage by enzymes, or the presence of different protein species. Not all spots of interest could be identified because some proteins were low in abundance and did not yield a sufficiently intense mass of fingerprints; other spots were mixtures of multiple proteins.

2.3. PCA and Cluster Analysis

The unsupervised principal component analysis (PCA) bi-plot of gels and spots (Figure 3) showed distinct gel grouping that agreed with the experimental groups. The PCA was performed using Progenesis SameSpots software to determine and visualize the samples coming from the Safra and the Wadha camel breeds. The PCA was performed on all 60 spot features which exhibited statistically significant (ANOVA p < 0.05) changes in abundance, identified by MS. The analyses revealed that the two groups clustered distinctly from one another based on different proteins with a 75.15% score (Figure 3). The differentially abundant spots showed expression pattern clusters according to their abundance patterns based on the hierarchical clustering analysis (Figure 4A,B). The clustering pattern showed the change in the protein intensities for the selected spots between Safra and Wadha MFGM samples were significantly different.

2.4. Classification of Proteins Based on Function, Cellular Component, Pathway, and Biological Process

To gain a better understanding of the functional role of the different proteins identified in the data set, and to assess their degree of involvement in the Safra and Wadha MFGM samples, the PANTHER (protein analysis through evolutionary relationships) classification system (http://www.pantherdb.org) was used to classify these proteins based on their known molecular function (Figure 5A), cellular component (Figure 5B), protein class (Figure 5C), pathways (Figure 5D), and biological process (Figure 5E). The proteins identified were found to be involved in catalytic activity (40%) and binding (40%) concerning molecular function, metabolite interconversion enzyme (50%) for protein class, integrin signaling pathway (25%) with respect to pathways associated, and cellular process (27.7%) concerning the biological process. The majority were localized within the cellular component (34%).

2.5. Validation by ELISA Immunoassay

The ELISA test was used to validate the proteins in the 15 samples obtained from the Safra and Wadha MFGM samples. Two of the proteins identified in the 2D-DIGE experiments were validated by their respective antibodies (Btn and α-LA). All data were represented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) and p < 0.05 and fold change. The statistical results showed a significant difference in the levels of Btn proteins between Safra and Wadha breeds (0.6 ± 0.03 vs. 0.10 ± 0.22, p < 0.01) with a fold change of 2.1, up in Safra breed similar to the DIGE results. This was also seen in the levels of α-LA in Safra and Wadha (0.73 ± 0.01 vs. 0.61 ± 0.06, p ≤ 0.01) breeds with a fold change of 1.2, up in Safra breed, which was quite similar to the DIGE result (Figure 6).

3. Discussion and Conclusions

The MFGM is a complex membrane derived from the mammary epithelial cell which surrounds the fat droplets, mainly triglycerides, in the milk. The membrane is enriched with sphingolipids, cholesterol, glycerophospholipids, and proteins. Some of these proteins are glycosylated which play an important role in biological function during the lactation period [13,25,26] and are diverse in different species. Several reports suggested that the structure and bioactive components of the MFGM play a crucial role in infant gut maturation, neurological development, modulating cholesterol and lipid uptake, immunity [40], and metabolism [41]. Moreover, the MFGM proteins may have an essential role in shaping gut microbial populations, which in turn may provide various health benefits including immune defense [42] and inflammatory diseases early in life [43,44]. Furthermore, MFGM is known to possess anti-carcinogenic potential. For instance, MFGM is capable of inducing apoptosis in human colon cancer cells (HT-29) via the reduction of cell proliferation and increasing the caspase-3 activity, which known as one of the programmed cell death marker, cell cycle arrest in S phase, increasing the apoptotic protein Bax, downregulating the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, and decreasing mitochondrial membrane potential. The data suggested that some of the MFGMs could be used as potential agents for human colon cancer prevention [45,46].
The current study identified 44 proteins of MFGM differentially expressed in Safra and Wadha. Of these proteins, 31 were up-regulated and 13 down-regulated between Safra and Wadha breeds. Among these proteins, two proteins, butyrophilin subfamily 1 member A1 (BTN) and α-lactalbumin (alpha-LA), were validated by ELISA.
Butyrophilin is one of the most abundant MFGM proteins expressed in lactating mammary glands and is a major component of MFGM [47]. BTN is a member of the B7-like proteins family and is encoded by a single gene located telomeric to the HLA complex [48] consisting of two extracellular immunoglobulin domains constant IgC, and variable IgV and a transmembrane region [47]. It is considered as immune system regulator due to is present in immune cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages, monocytes and others [49] and is expressed by thymic stromal cells and inhibits proliferation and cytokine production of stimulated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells [32]. Several studies indicate that BTN influences the clinical outcome of autoimmune responses to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, an important antigenic target in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and in the etiology of multiple sclerosis [50,51].
We identified numerous spots relating to the protein α-lactalbumin. It is known to form peptides, some of which have biological activities during digestion. This protein has a specific binding site for calcium and other for essential trace elements including iron and zinc [52]. Peptides from α-lactalbumin can facilitate the uptake of essential micronutrients by the intestinal mucosal cell [53]. Several studies indicate that humans, as well as α-lactalbumin from many primate milks, are lethal to tumor cells, as they result in death to the cancer cells through apoptosis without affecting the healthy cells [54,55,56,57,58]. In humans, α-lactalbumin can reduce the occurrence of cancer in breastfeeding children by removing tumor cells from the gut of the neonate by inducing apoptosis in tumor cells but spares healthy cells [55,56]. Meanwhile, camel α-lactalbumin was shown to be more disordered and possessed stronger aggregation propensities [52,59]. The structural differences between the camel and bovine α-lactalbumin were preserved and in some cases increased in their oleic acid complexes, which mainly increased in its lethality against tumor cells [52]. Our data shows that α-lactalbumin is overexpressed in the Safra breed with a 2.8-fold change in contrast to the Wadha breed.
Other proteins identified in our study include tetratricopeptide repeat protein 36 (TTC36 also named HBP21) which is capable of inducing apoptosis via the translocation of Bax from cytoplasm-to-mitochondria which leads to increase the cleaved of caspase-3, caspase-9, and poly (ADP ribose) polymerase tumor cells including hepatocellular carcinoma [60]. Moreover, HBP21 might be involved in the inhibition of progression and metastasis of breast cancer cells [61].
MFGM in camel milk not only has nutrient value but also involves cancer cell elimination properties. The milk obtained from the Wadha breeds showed increased spots relating to lactoferrin, vinculin, dual serine/threonine and tyrosine protein kinase (DUSTY_BOVIN), heat shock 70-kDa protein-1-like (HSPA1L), and Tax1 (human T-cell leukemia virus type I)-binding protein 1 (TAX1BP1). Lactoferrin (Lf, also known as lactotransferrin) is an iron-binding glycoprotein that belongs to the transferrin protein family [62] and has several biological functions including anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor [8,10]. This protein is highly expressed in Wadha breeds compared to Safra breeds.
The protein vinculin has also been shown to be protective against different cancers and loss of vinculin has been shown to be involved in the development of various cancers including breast cancer [63], squamous carcinoma [64], and colorectal cancer (CRC) [65]. This implies that vinculin may have anti-tumor effects. Our data showed that vinculin is overexpressed in Wadha breeds in contrast to Safra breeds. DUSTY_BOVIN is known as RIP5 involves inactivation of p38, JNK, NF-κB, and induces both caspase-dependent apoptosis and caspase-independent cell death [66]. The current results reveal that RIP5 is overexpressed with a 2.5-fold change in Wadha compared to Safra milk. HSPA1L acts as a cellular prion protein stabilizer in CRC progression tumorigenicity in vivo. HSPA1L expression stabilized hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) protein and promoted the cellular prion protein (PrPC) accumulation through the HSPA1L/HIF-1α/GP78 axis [67]. The presented results showed that the HSPA1L is expressed with a 2.4-fold change in Wadha contrast to Safra milk. Heat shock binding protein 21 (HBP21), also known as Tetratricopeptide Repeat Domain 36 (TTC36), is known to inhibit tumor cell growth rate and tumor formation in nude mice when it was transfected into hepatocellular carcinoma. HBP21 can inhibit the interaction of HSP70 and Bax. As a result, Bax will be translocated cytoplasm-to-mitochondria and then induce apoptosis through the releasing cytochrome c and activating caspase-3 and caspase-9 [60]. Another study in breast cancer showed that the interaction of Hsp70 and HBP21 is might capable of the inhibition of progression and metastasis of this cancer [61]. In our data, the expression of HBP21 was overexpressed in Safra with a 2.6-fold change compared to Wadha milk.
Not only a complex of human α-lactalbumin and oleic acid (HAMLET), but bovine (BAMLET) and camel (CAMLET) acts as a potent and differential anticancer agent [57]. BAMLET and CAMELT are capable of activation of the caspase-independent lysosomal cell death pathway in highly apoptosis-resistant tumor cells [57,58,68]. Furthermore, HAMLET can trigger apoptosis of bladder cancer cells in vivo bladder [69], human glioblastoma [70], and not affecting health cells even when high concentrations of HAMLET is used. Besides, Li X. et al. demonstrated that α-lactalbumin promoters might be able to regulate the replication of adenovirus to target hormone-independent breast cancers. As a result, the α-lactalbumin promoter might be used to create a novel therapeutic target for hormone-independent breast cancer [71]. Our data indicated that α-lactalbumin is overexpressed with a 2.8-fold change in Safra in contrast with Wadha milk. Tax1 (human T-cell leukemia virus type I)-binding protein 1 (TAX1BP1) is collaborating with A20 binding inhibitor of NF-κB 1 (ABIN1). This leads to the negative regulator of antiviral signaling [72]. Additionally, TAX1BP1 plays a crucial role in protecting cells from virus-induced apoptosis [73]. Our data revealed that the expression of TAX1BP1 is 2.5-fold in Safra higher compared to Wadha milk. This may indicate that drinking Wadha milk might provide more immunity and protection against infections than drinking Safra milk. Identification of all of these proteins indicates that drinking Wadha milk may have more anti-tumor activity compared to Safra milk.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Camel Milk Samples Collection

Camel milk (250 mL) was collected from 10–15 healthy camels of the two breeds (Wadha and Safra) reared in the same area with similar conditions of nutrition and stage of lactation. Characteristics of the two Saudi Arabian camel breeds Safra and Wadha and the respective milk samples obtained from them are shown in Table S2. All samples were taken from the farms in the Jeddah city area, Saudi Arabia. The samples were collected in clean sterilized 0.5 L bottles and transferred immediately to the lab in the temperature-controlled icebox. On arrival to the lab, 0.1% sodium azide was added to each sample and gently mixed together to prevent microbial growth and contamination of samples. The samples were then aliquoted in 50 mL labeled falcon tubes and stored in −20 °C freezer until further analysis

4.2. Preparation of MFGM Samples

Five samples (50 mL) of camel milk from the two breeds (Safra and Wadha) were taken. The temperature of samples was controlled at 2–8 °C during the procedures according to Saadaoui et al. (2013) and Pisanu et al. (2012) [39,74] with minor modifications. Briefly, the samples were centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 35 min to separate the creamy layer which was transferred to a new 50 mL falcon. The milk fat quantity was measured to maintain and 1M PBS (4.3 mM Na2HPO4, 2.7 mM KCl, 1.8 mM KH2PO4, 137 mM NaCl and pH adjusted to 7.4) was added 5 times and kept in a 37 °C PBS water bath for 20 min with regular shaking to melt the milk fat and separate cluster of sample. The sample was further centrifuged at 4000× g rpm for 35 min twice with PBS and one time with MilliQ water to remove residual casein and whey proteins. After each washing step, the milk fat sample was transferred into a new falcon tube. At the end of the washing process, the sample was kept at 2–8 °C overnight. The next day the samples were mixed with sterile plastic beads using a vortex mixer at 60 hertz (Hz) for 3 min for homogenization. The samples were warmed up to 37 °C using a water bath for 10 min and centrifuged at 4000× g rpm for 30 min to separate the MFGM from the top oily yellow fat layer which was further discarded. The white pellets remaining in the tube were the MFGM component, they were weighed and stored at −20 °C freezer until further analysis [39,74].

4.3. Extraction of MFGM Proteins

The extraction of MFGM was done as described previously [75,76] with some modifications. Briefly, the MFGM pellets were incubated with lysis buffer (pH 8.8, 30 Mm Tris buffer containing 7 M urea, 2 M thiourea, 2% Chaps, 1× protease inhibitor mix), for 1 h with periodic vortexing. Samples were then incubated in a water bath for 5 min at 95 °C and centrifuged at 12,000× g for 15 min. Then, 50 Mm dithiothreitol (DTT) was next added and the lysates were centrifuged again (20,000× g, 40 min, 4 °C) to obtain the solubilized proteins. The solubilized proteins in the supernatant were collected and precipitated using a 2D clean-up kit according to the manufacturer’s protocol (GE Healthcare, USA) and the pH of the samples was adjusted to 8.5 using NaOH (100 mM) before 2D-DIGE analysis. The protein concentration of each sample was then determined in triplicate using the 2D-Quant Kit (GE Healthcare, Chicago, IL, USA).

4.4. D-DIGE and MALDI-TOF Analysis

4.4.1. Sample Labeling with Cyanine Dyes

Proteins were labeled according to the manufacturer (GE Healthcare, Chicago, IL, USA). Briefly, 50 µg of milk MFGM-Wadha (n = 5) and milk MFGM-safra (n = 5) protein extract samples were minimally labeled with CyDye™ DIGE Samples and incubated on ice for 30 min in the dark. The labeling reaction was terminated by adding 1 μL of 10 mM lysine. Each MFGM samples from Safra and Wadha were covalently labeled with a fluorophore, either Cy3 or Cy5. A mixture of an equal amount of all samples was pooled, labeled with Cy2, and used as an internal standard. A dye switching strategy was applied during labeling to avoid dye-specific bias (Table S3, Supplementary materials).

4.4.2. One- and Two-Dimensional Difference Electrophoresis (2D-DIGE)

One-dimensional analytical gel electrophoresis was performed using Immobiline Dry Strips (24 cm, pH 3-11; GE Healthcare, Sweden) and then the IPG strips were equilibrated, first with dithiothreitol (DTT) (15 min, RT, gentle stirring, 5 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.8, 6M urea, 30% glycerol, 2% SDS 65 mM). Strips were then equilibrated for 15 min in the same solution containing 250 mM iodoacetamide (IAA). followed by second-dimension sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) performed on 12.5% fixed gels using an Ettan Dalt Six device (GE Healthcare, Sweden) were carried out as previously described by Alfadda et al. [77]. Further, the 2D-DIGE gels were scanned on the Typhoon 9410 scanner using excitation/emission wavelengths specific for Cy2 (488/520 nm), Cy3 (532/580 nm), and Cy5 (633/670 nm).

4.4.3. Statistical Analysis

The 2D-DIGE gel images were uploaded into Progenesis “SameSpots” software (Nonlinear Dynamics UK) and were analyzed applying an automated spot detection method. The analysis compared the Safra and Wadha MFGM samples. Although the automatic analysis was performed to detect all the spots across all the 5 gels, each selected spot was verified and manually edited wherever necessary. Normalized volumes were used to identify spots that were differentially expressed. A cut-off ratio ≥ of 1.5-fold was considered. ANOVA was used to calculate statistically significant differences between groups. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

4.4.4. Protein Identification by MALDI-TOF MS

Coomassie-stained gel spots from the preparatory gel were washed and digested according to previously described methods [76,77,78]. The mixture of tryptic peptides (1 μL) derived from each protein was spotted onto a MALDI target (384 Anchorchip MTP 800 μm Anchorchip; Bruker Daltonik, Bremen, Germany). MALDI-MS(/MS) spectra were obtained using an ultrafleXtreme time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometer equipped with a LIFT-MS/MS device (Bruker Daltonics) instrument as described [75,79] at a reflector voltage of 21 kV and the detector voltage of 17 kV. Peptide mass fingerprints (PMF) were calibrated against a standard (peptide calibration standard II, Bruker Daltonics). The PMFs were assessed using Flex Analysis software (version 2.4, Bruker Daltonics). MS data were interpreted by using BioTools version 3.2 (Bruker Daltonics). The peptide masses were searched against the Mascot search algorithm (version 2.0.04 updated 09/05/2019; Matrix Science Ltd., London, UK). Identified proteins were screened for a Mascot score of higher than 56 and p < 0.05.

4.5. Gene Ontology Enrichment Analysis

The accession ID obtained from the UniProt gene ontology system for annotation was further uploaded in PANTHER (protein analysis through evolutionary relationships) classification system (http://www.pantherdb.org) to classify the identified proteins into different functional categories. The results for molecular function, cellular components, protein class, biological process, and pathways were exported and pie charts and bar graphs were designed using Microsoft Excel. The graphs generated depict different categories compared to percent of gene hit against total function hits (from data obtained from PANTHER).

4.6. ELISA Immunoassay Validation for Selected MFGM Proteins

The sandwich ELISA was carried out using the previously described method by El-Fakharany et al. (2017) with modification [1]. Briefly, high binding ELISA microplates were coated with 50 µL of coating solution in duplicate manner (coating buffer; 3.03 g of Na2CO3 mixed with 6.0 g of NaHCO3 to make 1 L, pH 9.6) and MFGM protein samples from Safra and Wadha were added at a concentration of 2.2 µg/mL. The plates were sealed and incubated for a period of 3 h at 37 °C in a controlled incubator followed by washing steps (3 times with 10 mMTris pH 8.8, 0.01% Tween 20 and 0.5% gelatin, using automated microplate washer (BIO-TEK, ELx50)). The plates were inverted and blotted on clean adsorbing paper to remove any residual washing solution. Afterwards, 50 µL blocking buffer (2% gelatin and 0.1% Tween 20 in 10 mMTris) was added to each well in the ELISA microplates, followed by second incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. The 2 primary monoclonal antibodies (Btn, and α-LA) obtained from DSHB (created by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and maintained at The University of Iowa, Department of Biology, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA) were used. Then, 50 µL of these monoclonal antibodies were added in duplicate manner to each sample in the ELISA microplates at a concentration of 0.5 µg/mL, and incubated at 37 °C for 2 h. The plates were washed 3 times and 50 µL of secondary antibodies (goat anti-mouse IgG H&L (HRP) ab97023, Abcam and goat anti-rabbit IgG H&L (HRP) 31460, Thermo Fisher Scientific, United States) were added at a concentration of 1:50,000 after diluting with wash buffer. The plates were incubated for 1 h at 37 °C and 50 µL of TMB substrate was added and incubated in dark ambient temperature for 20 min. Lastly, 50 µL of stop solution (1M H2SO4) was added and the plates were read within 5 min by a microplate reader (BioTek, ELx800) at 450 nm wavelength [1]. All data were calculated and represented as mean ± standard deviation (SD).

4.7. Hierarchical Clustering and Statistical Analysis

Proteins were grouped by their expression patterns using hierarchical clustering by a commercial Progenesis “SameSpots” software (Nonlinear Dynamics, UK). This unsupervised, multivariate analysis provides a true snapshot of protein activity across an experiment and shows the expression profiles for all the significant proteins, increased or decreased in abundance, across all the samples. The results are shown in an interactive dendrogram tree where similar expression profiles cluster together. Data can be explored at group level on the dendrogram, and the corresponding expression profiles (http://www.nonlinear.com/products/progenesis/stats/overview/).
Statistical analysis of experimental data was performed using SPSS (IBM Corp. Released 2012. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 21.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online, Table S1: Mass spectrometry list of significant differentially abundant proteins, Table S2: Experimental design.

Author Contributions

E.M.R. conceived the idea, H.B., A.M., I.O.A. and A.A.A. designed the study. B.H.S. and H.A.A. were involved in camel milk sampling. H.B., A.M., I.O.A. and B.H.S. performed the proteomics lab work. H.B., A.M., I.O.A., B.H.S., E.M.R. and A.A.A. did data analysis and wrote the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University for funding this research through the Research Group Project No. RGP-334.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. El-Fakharany, E.M.; El-Baky, N.A.; Linjawi, M.H.; Aljaddawi, A.A.; Saleem, T.H.; Nassar, A.Y.; Osman, A.; Redwan, E.M. Influence of camel milk on the hepatitis C virus burden of infected patients. Exp. Ther. Med. 2017, 13, 1313–1320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Cissé, H.; Muandze-Nzambe, J.U.; Somda, N.S.; Sawadogo, A.; Drabo, S.M.; Tapsoba, F.; Zongo, C.; Traoré, Y.; Savadogo, A. Assessment of safety and quality of fermented milk of camels, cows, and goats sold and consumed in five localities of Burkina Faso. Vet. World 2019, 12, 295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Cardoso, R.R.; Santos, R.; Cardoso, C.; Carvalho, M. Consumption of camel’s milk by patients intolerant to lactose. A preliminary study. Revista Alergia de Mexico 2010, 57, 26–32. [Google Scholar]
  4. El-Fakharany, E.M.; Tabll, A.; El-Wahab, A.A.; Haroun, B.M.; Redwan, E.R.M. Potential activity of camel milk-amylase and lactoferrin against hepatitis C virus infectivity in HepG2 and lymphocytes. Hepat. Mon. 2008, 8, 101–109. [Google Scholar]
  5. Faris, M.; Ghazzawi, H. Health-Improving and Disease-Preventing Potential of Camel Milk against Chronic Diseases and Autism: Camel Milk and Chronic Diseases; IGI Global: Hershey, PA, USA, 2020; pp. 155–184. [Google Scholar]
  6. Mirmiran, P.; Ejtahed, H.S.; Angoorani, P.; Eslami, F.; Azizi, F. Camel Milk Has Beneficial Effects on Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Endocrinol. Metab. 2017, 15, e42150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Mihic, T.; Rainkie, D.; Wilby, K.J.; Pawluk, S.A. The Therapeutic Effects of Camel Milk: A Systematic Review of Animal and Human Trials. J. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2016, 21, Np110–Np126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Albar, A.H.; Almehdar, H.A.; Uversky, V.N.; Redwan, E.M. Structural heterogeneity and multifunctionality of lactoferrin. Curr. Protein Pept. Sci. 2014, 15, 778–797. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Almehdar, H.A.; El-Baky, N.A.; Alhaider, A.A.; Almuhaideb, S.A.; Alhaider, A.A.; Albiheyri, R.S.; Uversky, V.N.; Redwan, E.M. Bacteriostatic and Bactericidal Activities of Camel Lactoferrins Against Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi. Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins 2019, 12, 18–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. El-Fakharany, E.M.; Uversky, V.N.; Redwan, E.M. Comparative Analysis of the Antiviral Activity of Camel, Bovine, and Human Lactoperoxidases against Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2017, 182, 294–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Redwan, E.M.; Uversky, V.N.; El-Fakharany, E.M.; Al-Mehdar, H. Potential lactoferrin activity against pathogenic viruses. Comptes Rendus Biol. 2014, 337, 581–595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Redwan, E.M.; El-Baky, N.A.; Al-Hejin, A.M.; Baeshen, M.N.; Almehdar, H.A.; Elsaway, A.; Gomaa, A.B.; Al-Masaudi, S.B.; Al-Fassi, F.A.; AbuZeid, I.E.; et al. Significant antibacterial activity and synergistic effects of camel lactoferrin with antibiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Res. Microbiol. 2016, 167, 480–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Lee, H.; Padhi, E.; Hasegawa, Y.; Larke, J.; Parenti, M.; Wang, A.; Hernell, O.; Lönnerdal, B.; Slupsky, C. Compositional dynamics of the milk fat globule and its role in infant development. Front. Pediatr. 2018, 6, 313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  14. Redwan, E.M.; Alkarim, S.A.; El-Hanafy, A.A.; Saad, Y.M.; Almehdar, H.A.; Uversky, V.N. Variability of Some Milk-Associated Genes and Proteins in Several Breeds of Saudi Arabian Camels. Protein J. 2018, 37, 333–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Reinhardt, T.A.; Lippolis, J.D. Bovine milk fat globule membrane proteome. J. Dairy Res. 2006, 73, 406–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. McManaman, J.L.; Neville, M.C. Mammary physiology and milk secretion. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2003, 55, 629–641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Keenan, T.W.; Patton, S. The structure of milk: Implications for sampling and storage: A. The milk lipid globule membrane. In Handbook of Milk Composition; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1995; pp. 5–50. [Google Scholar]
  18. Peterson, J.A.; Patton, S.; Hamosh, M. Glycoproteins of the human milk fat globule in the protection of the breast-fed infant against infections. Neonatology 1998, 74, 143–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Imam, A.; Drushella, M.M.; Taylor, C.R.; Tökés, Z.A. Preferential expression of a Mr 155,000 milk-fat-globule membrane glycoprotein on luminal epithelium of lobules in human breast. Cancer Res. 1986, 46 (12 Part 1), 6374–6379. [Google Scholar]
  20. Snow, D.R.; Jimenez-Flores, R.; Ward, R.E.; Cambell, J.; Young, M.J.; Nemere, I.; Hintze, K.J. Dietary milk fat globule membrane reduces the incidence of aberrant crypt foci in Fischer-344 rats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 2157–2163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Brink, L.R.; Herren, A.W.; McMillen, S.; Fraser, K.; Agnew, M.; Roy, N.; Lonnerdal, B. Omics analysis reveals variations among commercial sources of bovine milk fat globule membrane. J. Dairy Sci. 2020, 103, 3002–3016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. De Almagro Garcia, M.C.; Moreno Munoz, J.A.; Jimenez Lopez, J.; Rodriguez-Palmero Seuma, M. New ingredients in infant formula. Health Funct. Benefits Nutr. Hosp. 2017, 34 (Suppl. 4), 8–12. [Google Scholar]
  23. Demmelmair, H.; Prell, C.; Timby, N.; Lonnerdal, B. Benefits of Lactoferrin, Osteopontin and Milk Fat Globule Membranes for Infants. Nutrients 2017, 9, 817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  24. Fil, J.E.; Fleming, S.A.; Chichlowski, M.; Gross, G.; Berg, B.M.; Dilger, R.N. Evaluation of Dietary Bovine Milk Fat Globule Membrane Supplementation on Growth, Serum Cholesterol and Lipoproteins, and Neurodevelopment in the Young Pig. Front. Pediatr. 2019, 7, 417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  25. Hernell, O.; Timby, N.; Domellof, M.; Lonnerdal, B. Clinical Benefits of Milk Fat Globule Membranes for Infants and Children. J. Pediatr. 2016, 173, S60–S65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  26. Hernell, O.; Domellof, M.; Grip, T.; Lonnerdal, B.; Timby, N. Physiological Effects of Feeding Infants and Young Children Formula Supplemented with Milk Fat Globule Membranes. In Human Milk: Composition, Clinical Benefits and Future Opportunities; Nestle Nutrition Institute workshop series; Karger: Basel, Switzerland, 2019; Volume 90, pp. 35–42. [Google Scholar]
  27. Huang, S.; Wu, Z.; Liu, C.; Han, D.; Feng, C.; Wang, S.; Wang, J. Milk Fat Globule Membrane Supplementation Promotes Neonatal Growth and Alleviates Inflammation in Low-Birth-Weight Mice Treated with Lipopolysaccharide. Biomed Res. Int. 2019, 2019, 4876078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  28. Juvarajah, T.; Wan-Ibrahim, W.I.; Ashrafzadeh, A.; Othman, S.; Hashim, O.H.; Fung, S.Y.; Abdul-Rahman, P.S. Human Milk Fat Globule Membrane Contains Hundreds of Abundantly Expressed and Nutritionally Beneficial Proteins That Are Generally Lacking in Caprine Milk. Breastfeed. Med. 2018, 13, 631–637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Lucey, J.A.; Otter, D.; Horne, D.S. A 100-Year Review: Progress on the chemistry of milk and its components. J. Dairy Sci. 2017, 100, 9916–9932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. Norris, T.; Souza, R.; Xia, Y.; Zhang, T.; Rowan, A.; Gallier, S.; Zhang, H.; Qi, H.; Baker, P. Effect of supplementation of complex milk lipids in pregnancy on fetal growth: Results from the Complex Lipids in Mothers and Babies (CLIMB) randomized controlled trial. J. Matern.-Fetal Neonatal Med. 2019, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Davies, C.R.; Morris, J.S.; Griffiths, M.R.; Page, M.J.; Pitt, A.; Stein, T.; Gusterson, B.A. Proteomic analysis of the mouse mammary gland is a powerful tool to identify novel proteins that are differentially expressed during mammary development. Proteomics 2006, 6, 5694–5704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Yamazaki, T.; Goya, I.; Graf, D.; Craig, S.; Martin-Orozco, N.; Dong, C. A butyrophilin family member critically inhibits T cell activation. J. Immunol. 2010, 185, 5907–5914. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  33. Ji, X.; Li, X.; Ma, Y.; Li, D. Differences in proteomic profiles of milk fat globule membrane in yak and cow milk. Food Chem. 2017, 221, 1822–1827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Sui, S.; Zhao, J.; Wang, J.; Zhang, R.; Guo, C.; Yu, T.; Li, N. Comparative proteomics of milk fat globule membrane proteins from transgenic cloned cattle. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e105378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  35. Cebo, C.; Caillat, H.; Bouvier, F.; Martin, P. Major proteins of the goat milk fat globule membrane. J. Dairy Sci. 2010, 93, 868–876. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  36. Cebo, C.; Rebours, E.; Henry, C.; Makhzami, S.; Cosette, P.; Martin, P. Identification of major milk fat globule membrane proteins from pony mare milk highlights the molecular diversity of lactadherin across species. J. Dairy Sci. 2012, 95, 1085–1098. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  37. Murgiano, L.; Timperio, A.M.; Zolla, L.; Bongiorni, S.; Valentini, A.; Pariset, L. Comparison of milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) proteins of Chianina and Holstein cattle breed milk samples through proteomics methods. Nutrients 2009, 1, 302–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  38. da Costa, W.K.A.; de Souza, E.L.; Beltrao-Filho, E.M.; Vasconcelos, G.K.V.; Santi-Gadelha, T.; de Almeida Gadelha, C.A.; Franco, O.L.; do Egypto, R.d.C.R.; Magnani, M. Comparative protein composition analysis of goat milk produced by the Alpine and Saanen breeds in northeastern Brazil and related antibacterial activities. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e93361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  39. Saadaoui, B.; Henry, C.; Khorchani, T.; Mars, M.; Martin, P.; Cebo, C. Proteomics of the milk fat globule membrane from C amelus dromedarius. Proteomics 2013, 13, 1180–1184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Nilsson, Å. Role of sphingolipids in infant gut health and immunity. J. Pediatr. 2016, 173, S53–S59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Lee, H.; Zavaleta, N.; Chen, S.-Y.; Lönnerdal, B.; Slupsky, C. Effect of bovine milk fat globule membranes as a complementary food on the serum metabolome and immune markers of 6-11-month-old Peruvian infants. NPJ Sci. Food 2018, 2, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Liao, Y.; Alvarado, R.; Phinney, B.; Lönnerdal, B. Proteomic characterization of human milk fat globule membrane proteins during a 12 month lactation period. J. Proteome Res. 2011, 10, 3530–3541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Pacheco, A.R.; Barile, D.; Underwood, M.A.; Mills, D.A. The impact of the milk glycobiome on the neonate gut microbiota. Annu. Rev. Anim. Biosci. 2015, 3, 419–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  44. Georgi, G.; Bartke, N.; Wiens, F.; Stahl, B. Functional glycans and glycoconjugates in human milk. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 98, 578S–585S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  45. Ji, X.; Xu, W.; Cui, J.; Ma, Y.; Zhou, S. Goat and buffalo milk fat globule membranes exhibit better effects at inducing apoptosis and reduction the viability of HT-29 cells. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  46. Zanabria, R.; Tellez, A.M.; Griffiths, M.; Corredig, M. Milk fat globule membrane isolate induces apoptosis in HT-29 human colon cancer cells. Food Funct. 2013, 4, 222–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Redwan, E.M.; Al-Hejin, A.M.; Almehdar, H.A.; Elsaway, A.M.; Uversky, V.N. Prediction of Disordered Regions and Their Roles in the Anti-Pathogenic and Immunomodulatory Functions of Butyrophilins. Molecules 2018, 23, 328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Guggenmos, J.; Schubart, A.S.; Ogg, S.; Andersson, M.; Olsson, T.; Mather, I.H.; Linington, C. Antibody Cross-Reactivity between Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein and the Milk Protein Butyrophilin in Multiple Sclerosis. J. Immunol. 2004, 172, 661–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Malinowska, M.; Tokarz-Deptuła, B.; Deptuła, W. Butyrophilins: An important new element of resistance. Cent.-Eur. J. Immunol. 2017, 42, 399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Stefferl, A.; Schubart, A.; Storch, M.; Amini, A.; Mather, I.; Lassmann, H.; Linington, C. Butyrophilin, a milk protein, modulates the encephalitogenic T cell response to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Immunol. 2000, 165, 2859–2865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  51. Lu, J.; Wang, X.; Zhang, W.; Liu, L.; Pang, X.; Zhang, S.; Lv, J. Comparative proteomics of milk fat globule membrane in different species reveals variations in lactation and nutrition. Food Chem. 2016, 196, 665–672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Redington, J.M.; Breydo, L.; Almehdar, H.A.; Redwan, E.M.; Uversky, V.N. α-lactalbumin: Of Camels and Cows. Protein Pept. Lett. 2016, 23, 1072–1080. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Lönnerdal, B. Bioactive proteins in human milk: Health, nutrition, and implications for infant formulas. J. Pediatr. 2016, 173, S4–S9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  54. Håkansson, A.; Zhivotovsky, B.; Orrenius, S.; Sabharwal, H.; Svanborg, C. Apoptosis induced by a human milk protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92, 8064–8068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  55. Svensson, M.; Düringer, C.; Hallgren, O.; Mossberg, A.-K.; Håkansson, A.; Linse, S.; Svanborg, C. Hamlet—A complex from human milk that induces apoptosis in tumor cells but spares healthy cells. In Integrating Population Outcomes, Biological Mechanisms and Research Methods in the Study of Human Milk and Lactation; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2002; pp. 125–132. [Google Scholar]
  56. Svensson, M.; Håkansson, A.; Mossberg, A.-K.; Linse, S.; Svanborg, C. Conversion of α-lactalbumin to a protein inducing apoptosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97, 4221–4226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  57. El-Fakharany, E.M.; Redwan, E.M. Protein–lipid complexes: Molecular structure, current scenarios and mechanisms of cytotoxicity. RSC Adv. 2019, 9, 36890–36906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  58. Uversky, V.N.; El-Fakharany, E.M.; Abu-Serie, M.M.; Almehdar, H.A.; Redwan, E.M. Divergent Anticancer Activity of Free and Formulated Camel Milk α-lactalbumin. Cancer Investig. 2017, 35, 610–623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Breydo, L.; Almehdar, H.A.; El-Fakharany, E.M.; Redwan, E.M.; Uversky, V.N. Not all AMLETs are made equal: Complexes of cow and camel α-lactalbumin with oleic acid show different structure and stability. J. Biomol. Struct. Dyn. 2018, 36, 4405–4412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Jiang, L.; Kwong, D.L.-W.; Li, Y.; Liu, M.; Yuan, Y.-F.; Li, Y.; Fu, L.; Guan, X.-Y. HBP21, a chaperone of heat shock protein 70, functions as a tumor suppressor in hepatocellular carcinoma. Carcinogenesis 2015, 36, 1111–1120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  61. Liu, Q.; Gao, J.; Chen, X.; Chen, Y.; Chen, J.; Wang, S.; Liu, J.; Liu, X.; Li, J. HBP21: A novel member of TPR motif family, as a potential chaperone of heat shock protein 70 in proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) and breast cancer. Mol. Biotechnol. 2008, 40, 231–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Giansanti, F.; Panella, G.; Leboffe, L.; Antonini, G. Lactoferrin from milk: Nutraceutical and pharmacological properties. Pharmaceuticals 2016, 9, 61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  63. Somiari, R.I.; Sullivan, A.; Russell, S.; Somiari, S.; Hu, H.; Jordan, R.; George, A.; Katenhusen, R.; Buchowiecka, A.; Arciero, C. High-throughput proteomic analysis of human infiltrating ductal carcinoma of the breast. Proteomics 2003, 3, 1863–1873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Kawahara, E.; Tokuda, R.; Nakanishi, I. Migratory phenotypes of HSC-3 squamous carcinoma cell line induced by EGF and PMA: Relevance to migration of loosening of adhesion and vinculin-associated focal contacts with prominent filopodia. Cell Biol. Int. 1999, 23, 163–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  65. Li, T.; Guo, H.; Song, Y.; Zhao, X.; Shi, Y.; Lu, Y.; Hu, S.; Nie, Y.; Fan, D.; Wu, K. Loss of vinculin and membrane-bound β-catenin promotes metastasis and predicts poor prognosis in colorectal cancer. Mol. Cancer 2014, 13, 263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  66. Zha, J.; Zhou, Q.; Xu, L.-G.; Chen, D.; Li, L.; Zhai, Z.; Shu, H.-B. RIP5 is a RIP-homologous inducer of cell death. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2004, 319, 298–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Lee, J.; Han, Y.; Yoon, Y.; Yun, C.; Yun, S.; Kim, S.; Kwon, H.; Jeong, D.; Baek, M.; Lee, H. Role of HSPA1L as a cellular prion protein stabilizer in tumor progression via HIF-1α/GP78 axis. Oncogene 2017, 36, 6555–6567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Rammer, P.; Groth-Pedersen, L.; Kirkegaard, T.; Daugaard, M.; Rytter, A.; Szyniarowski, P.; Høyer-Hansen, M.; Povlsen, L.K.; Nylandsted, J.; Larsen, J.E. BAMLET activates a lysosomal cell death program in cancer cells. Mol. Cancer Ther. 2010, 9, 24–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  69. Mossberg, A.K.; Wullt, B.; Gustafsson, L.; Månsson, W.; Ljunggren, E.; Svanborg, C. Bladder cancers respond to intravesical instillation of (HAMLET human α-lactalbumin made lethal to tumor cells). Int. J. Cancer 2007, 121, 1352–1359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  70. Fischer, W.; Gustafsson, L.; Mossberg, A.-K.; Gronli, J.; Mork, S.; Bjerkvig, R.; Svanborg, C. Human α-lactalbumin made lethal to tumor cells (HAMLET) kills human glioblastoma cells in brain xenografts by an apoptosis-like mechanism and prolongs survival. Cancer Res. 2004, 64, 2105–2112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  71. Li, X.; Zhang, J.; Gao, H.; Vieth, E.; Bae, K.-H.; Zhang, Y.-P.; Lee, S.-J.; Raikwar, S.; Gardner, T.A.; Hutchins, G.D. Transcriptional targeting modalities in breast cancer gene therapy using adenovirus vectors controlled by α-lactalbumin promoter. Mol. Cancer Ther. 2005, 4, 1850–1859. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  72. Gao, L.; Coope, H.; Grant, S.; Ma, A.; Ley, S.C.; Harhaj, E.W. ABIN1 protein cooperates with TAX1BP1 and A20 proteins to inhibit antiviral signaling. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286, 36592–36602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  73. Choi, Y.B.; Shembade, N.; Parvatiyar, K.; Balachandran, S.; Harhaj, E.W. TAX1BP1 restrains virus-induced apoptosis by facilitating itch-mediated degradation of the mitochondrial adaptor MAVS. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2017, 37, e00422-16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  74. Pisanu, S.; Ghisaura, S.; Pagnozzi, D.; Falchi, G.; Biosa, G.; Tanca, A.; Roggio, T.; Uzzau, S.; Addis, M.F. Characterization of sheep milk fat globule proteins by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis/mass spectrometry and generation of a reference map. Int. Dairy J. 2012, 24, 78–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Alfadda, A.A.; Benabdelkamel, H.; Masood, A.; Moustafa, A.; Sallam, R.; Bassas, A.; Duncan, M. Proteomic analysis of mature adipo cytes from obese patients in relation to aging. Exp. Gerontol. 2013, 48, 1196–1203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Benabdelkamel, H.; Masood, A.; Alanazi, I.O.; Alzahrani, D.A.; Alrabiah, D.K.; AlYahya, S.A.; Alfadda, A.A. Proteomic profiling comparing the effects of different heat treatments on camel (Camelus dromedarius) milk whey proteins. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  77. Alfadda, A.A.; Benabdelkamel, H.; Masood, A.; Jammah, A.A.; Ekhzaimy, A.A. Differences in the plasma proteome of patients with hypothyroidism before and after thyroid hormone replacement: A proteomic analysis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19, 88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  78. Shevchenko, A.; Wilm, M.; Vorm, O.; Mann, M. Mass spectrometric sequencing of proteins from silver-stained polyacrylamide gels. Anal. Chem. 1996, 68, 850–858. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Benabdelkamel, H.; Masood, A.; Almidani, G.M.; Alsadhan, A.A.; Bassas, A.F.; Duncan, M.W.; Alfadda, A.A. Mature adipocyte proteome reveals differentially altered protein abundances between lean, overweight and morbidly obese human subjects. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2015, 401, 142–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sample Availability: Samples of the compounds are not available from the authors.
Molecules 25 02146 g001 550
Figure 1. Representative fluorescent protein profiles of a two-dimensional difference in gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) containing: milk fat globule membrane (MFGM)-Safra milk samples labeled with Cy3 (A), MFGM-Wadha milk samples labeled with Cy5 (B), and pooled internal control labeled with Cy2 (C).
Figure 1. Representative fluorescent protein profiles of a two-dimensional difference in gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) containing: milk fat globule membrane (MFGM)-Safra milk samples labeled with Cy3 (A), MFGM-Wadha milk samples labeled with Cy5 (B), and pooled internal control labeled with Cy2 (C).
Molecules 25 02146 g001
Molecules 25 02146 g002 550
Figure 2. Representative image of the protein spots from milk samples showing the statistically significant differentially expressed spots (ANOVA p ≤ 0.05 and fold change ≥1.5, 44 proteins) successfully identified with MALDI-TOF/TOF and labeled with MASCOT IDs.
Figure 2. Representative image of the protein spots from milk samples showing the statistically significant differentially expressed spots (ANOVA p ≤ 0.05 and fold change ≥1.5, 44 proteins) successfully identified with MALDI-TOF/TOF and labeled with MASCOT IDs.
Molecules 25 02146 g002
Molecules 25 02146 g003 550
Figure 3. PCA plot of the two first principal components. Both together explained 75.15% of the selected spot’s variability. Colored dots (n = 10) and numbers indicate the representation of gels (n = 5 of Wadha and n = 5 of Safra) and spot proteins number (n = 60), respectively.
Figure 3. PCA plot of the two first principal components. Both together explained 75.15% of the selected spot’s variability. Colored dots (n = 10) and numbers indicate the representation of gels (n = 5 of Wadha and n = 5 of Safra) and spot proteins number (n = 60), respectively.
Molecules 25 02146 g003
Molecules 25 02146 g004 550
Figure 4. Expression profiles, separated into clusters of expression patterns, indicating the number of spots for each cluster. Each line represents the standardized abundance of a spot across all gels and belongs to one of the clusters generated by hierarchical cluster analysis. (A) The spots with increased abundance indicate the 31 proteins up (B). The spots with decreased abundance indicate the 13 proteins down in MFGM from Safra breeds compared to Wadha breeds (Progenesis SameSpots).
Figure 4. Expression profiles, separated into clusters of expression patterns, indicating the number of spots for each cluster. Each line represents the standardized abundance of a spot across all gels and belongs to one of the clusters generated by hierarchical cluster analysis. (A) The spots with increased abundance indicate the 31 proteins up (B). The spots with decreased abundance indicate the 13 proteins down in MFGM from Safra breeds compared to Wadha breeds (Progenesis SameSpots).
Molecules 25 02146 g004
Molecules 25 02146 g005 550
Figure 5. A comparative depiction (%) of identified proteins in MFGM fraction of camel milk in Safra in comparison to the Wadha categorized into groups according to their molecular function (A), cellular component (B), protein class (C), pathways (D), and biological process (E) using the PANTHER (protein analysis through evolutionary relationships) classification system (http://www.pantherdb.org).
Figure 5. A comparative depiction (%) of identified proteins in MFGM fraction of camel milk in Safra in comparison to the Wadha categorized into groups according to their molecular function (A), cellular component (B), protein class (C), pathways (D), and biological process (E) using the PANTHER (protein analysis through evolutionary relationships) classification system (http://www.pantherdb.org).
Molecules 25 02146 g005
Molecules 25 02146 g006 550
Figure 6. ELISA immunoassay results showed significant differences in the levels of Btn proteins between Safra and Wadha breeds (0.6 ± 0.03 vs. 0.10 ± 0.22, p ≤ 0.01) with a fold change of 2.1, up in Safra similar to the DIGE results. This was also seen in the levels of α-LA in Safra and Wadha (0.73 ± 0.01 vs. 0.61 ± 0.06, p < 0.01) breeds with a fold change of 1.2 up in Safra breed which was quite similar to the DIGE result. * p ≤ 0.01.
Figure 6. ELISA immunoassay results showed significant differences in the levels of Btn proteins between Safra and Wadha breeds (0.6 ± 0.03 vs. 0.10 ± 0.22, p ≤ 0.01) with a fold change of 2.1, up in Safra similar to the DIGE results. This was also seen in the levels of α-LA in Safra and Wadha (0.73 ± 0.01 vs. 0.61 ± 0.06, p < 0.01) breeds with a fold change of 1.2 up in Safra breed which was quite similar to the DIGE result. * p ≤ 0.01.
Molecules 25 02146 g006
Table
Table 1. Identified proteins with changes in abundance between MFGM-Safra and Wadha breed samples. The average ratio values along with their corresponding levels of fold changes and one-way ANOVA (p < 0.05) using 2D-DIGE. (Analysis type: MALDI-TOF; database: SwissProt; taxonomy: Other Mammalian).
Table 1. Identified proteins with changes in abundance between MFGM-Safra and Wadha breed samples. The average ratio values along with their corresponding levels of fold changes and one-way ANOVA (p < 0.05) using 2D-DIGE. (Analysis type: MALDI-TOF; database: SwissProt; taxonomy: Other Mammalian).
Spot NumberAccession NumberMascot IDProtein NameFunctionFold Change S/W
1346P00710LALBA_CAMDRA-lactalbumin-2.8
1583Q3SZV0TTC36_BOVINTetratricopeptide repeat protein 36-2.6
1662Q2KJE0TAXB1_BOVINTax1-binding protein 1 homologBinding Protein2.5
1613P79385MFGE8_PIGLactadherinCell adhesion2.3
1004A4FUZ6HSDL2_BOVINHydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-like protein 2Enzyme2
1001Q95114MFGE8_BOVINLactadherinCell adhesion2
1648P48818ACADV_BOVINVery long-chain specific acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, mitochondrialEnzyme1.6
1407Q95L54ANXA8_BOVINAnnexin A8Cell membrane1.6
1155A4FUZ6HSDL2_BOVINHydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-like protein 2Enzyme1.6
1078P79385MFGE8_PIGLactadherinCell adhesion1.6
1676Q3SZN0SEPT6_BOVINSeptin-6Cell membrane1.5
1460Q9TT91MKRN1_MACEUE3 ubiquitin-protein ligase makorin-1Enzyme1.5
1429P10173FUMH_PIGFumarate hydratase, mitochondrialEnzyme1.5
1416Q3SZV0TTC36_BOVINTetratricopeptide repeat protein 36-1.5
1384P79385MFGM_PIGLactadherinCell adhesion1.5
1373P17290TPH1_RABITTryptophan 5-hydroxylase 1Enzyme1.5
1235P79385MFGE8_PIGLactadherinCell adhesion1.5
1181P79385MFGE8_PIGLactadherinCell adhesion1.5
1072P33545DSC2_BOVINDesmocollin-2Cell membrane1.5
1066Q3MHZ7GPI8_BOVINGPI-anchor transamidaseEnzyme1.5
1063P79385MFGE8_PIGLactadherinCell membrane1.5
1056Q148H8K2C72_BOVINKeratin, type II cytoskeletal 72Cell membrane1.5
1054P26234VINC_PIGVinculinCell membrane1.5
1040Q3MHR7ARPC2_BOVINActin-related protein 2/3 complex subunit 2Cell membrane1.5
1039Q9MYY3VKGC_DELLEVitamin K-dependent gamma-carboxylaseEnzyme1.5
1026Q148H8K2C72_BOVINKeratin, type II cytoskeletal 72Cell membrane1.5
1011Q3MHZ7GPI8_BOVINGPI-anchor transamidaseEnzyme1.5
1009Q3MHZ7GPI8_BOVINGPI-anchor transamidaseEnzyme1.5
1005P79385MFGE8_PIGLactadherinCell adhesion1.5
396P79385MFGE8_PIGLactadherinCell adhesion1.5
1639P79385MFGE8_PIGLactadherinCell adhesion1.4
898P20414TIMPI_BOVINMetalloproteinase inhibitor 1Enzyme−1.4
1423Q3SZV0TTC36_BOVINTetratricopeptide repeat protein 36Binding Protein−1.5
1210Q0IIF2EI2BA_BOVINTranslation initiation factor eIF-2B subunit alphaBinding Protein−1.5
1225Q9TUM0TRFL_CAMDRLactotransferrinEnzyme−1.6
699A1L520ARFG2_BOVINADP-ribosylation factor GTPase-activating protein 2Binding Protein−1.9
358Q9TUM0TRFL_CAMDRLactotransferrinEnzyme−1.9
858P10950HIOM_BOVINAcetyls erotonin O-methyl transferaseEnzyme−2.2
1103P0CB32HS71L_BOVINHeat shock 70 kDa protein 1-likeImmune system−2.4
871P18892BT1A1_BOVINButyrophilin subfamily 1 member A1Enzyme−2.5
821Q4TVR5DUSTY_BOVINDual serine/threonine and tyrosine protein kinaseEnzyme−2.5
916P26234VINC_PIGVinculinCell membrane−4.8
917Q9TUM0TRFL_CAMDRLactotransferrinEnzyme−5.8
864Q9TUM0TRFL_CAMDRLactotransferrinEnzyme−15.8

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Sabha, B.H.; Masood, A.; Alanazi, I.O.; Alfadda, A.A.; Almehdar, H.A.; Benabdelkamel, H.; Redwan, E.M. Comparative Analysis of Milk Fat Globular Membrane (MFGM) Proteome between Saudi Arabia Camelus dromedary Safra and Wadha Breeds. Molecules 2020, 25, 2146. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25092146

AMA Style

Sabha BH, Masood A, Alanazi IO, Alfadda AA, Almehdar HA, Benabdelkamel H, Redwan EM. Comparative Analysis of Milk Fat Globular Membrane (MFGM) Proteome between Saudi Arabia Camelus dromedary Safra and Wadha Breeds. Molecules. 2020; 25(9):2146. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25092146

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sabha, Bassam H., Afshan Masood, Ibrahim O. Alanazi, Assim A. Alfadda, Hussein A. Almehdar, Hicham Benabdelkamel, and Elrashdy M. Redwan. 2020. "Comparative Analysis of Milk Fat Globular Membrane (MFGM) Proteome between Saudi Arabia Camelus dromedary Safra and Wadha Breeds" Molecules 25, no. 9: 2146. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25092146

APA Style

Sabha, B. H., Masood, A., Alanazi, I. O., Alfadda, A. A., Almehdar, H. A., Benabdelkamel, H., & Redwan, E. M. (2020). Comparative Analysis of Milk Fat Globular Membrane (MFGM) Proteome between Saudi Arabia Camelus dromedary Safra and Wadha Breeds. Molecules, 25(9), 2146. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25092146

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop