Comparison of Orchid Conservation Between China and Other Countries

Abstract

Global attention is highly focused on biodiversity conservation. Various countries are actively implementing relevant conservation measures. To advance these efforts in China, it is essential to understand global conservation actions. The orchid family, one of the most diverse groups of flowering plants, has become a “flagship” group for plant conservation. In this study, we summarized 3418 policies and regulations related to orchid conservation in 45 countries. We found that orchid conservation actions in various countries have focused on in situ conservation, with 1469 policies and regulations issued for nature reserves, while ex situ conservation has been seriously neglected, with only seven relevant regulations. Most developing countries have experienced an increase in orchid conservation actions, while developed countries have plateaued. We amassed 370 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) for orchid conservation. At present, the total number of policies and regulations for orchid protection in China is approximately 84, with 67 issued since 2000. Two non-governmental organizations have been established for orchid conservation. Although the benefit of orchid conservation in China is significant, it still requires continuous improvement compared to many other countries. We recommend that the Chinese government draws on the experiences of the United States, Canada, and Australia in areas such as policy and regulation formulation, optimization of non-governmental organizations, and implementation of related conservation projects. Through learning and collaboration, challenges can be transformed into opportunities for development.

1. Introduction

Biodiversity conservation is a global responsibility, and countries are actively implementing relevant protective measures [1,2]. The conservation of endangered plants is crucial for maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity [3,4]. Taking Orchidaceae as an example, studying the conservation actions of various countries and advancing China’s conservation efforts is of great value.

The orchid family is renowned for being one of the most diverse groups of flowering plants, with a wide distribution and comprising at least 28,000 species [5,6]. Owing to their unique biological characteristics and complex growth processes, most orchids rely on specific pollinators to produce fruit, resulting in a generally low fruiting rate [7,8]. Furthermore, the growth history of orchids requires specific mycorrhizal fungi to support their life cycle, and different mycorrhizal associations potentially correspond to various growth stages [9,10]. These factors restrict the distribution of most orchids, making them more vulnerable to habitat disturbances than other plant species [11,12,13]. Land use changes, such as urbanization and exploitation of natural resources, have a significant detrimental impact on orchid survival. Furthermore, orchids are at risk of overcollection and trafficking, as they are appealing flowers with medicinal value and, thus, are highly sought after in the market [12]. These threats, combined with climate change, biological invasions, and natural disasters [14], make orchids increasingly vulnerable and pose significant challenges to conservation efforts.

Legislation provides the foundation for biodiversity conservation projects and initiatives, with government agencies playing a crucial role as the primary entities in formulating policies and regulations [15]. Changes in the global ecological environment have increased the focus on biodiversity conservation among nations, consequently bringing attention to orchid conservation [9,16,17,18]. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) serves as the primary legislation body for orchid conservation worldwide. It encompasses all orchid species, representing more than 90% of the plant species protected by the Convention. Given their significance, many countries have incorporated native orchids into their legal protection frameworks. In situ and ex situ techniques are the primary methods used for orchid conservation [12]. Established policies and regulations relevant to these conservation approaches have a direct or indirect impact on plant conservation.

In addition to government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are the primary entities involved in orchid conservation [19]. They engage in the research, cultivation, and promotion of orchids and advocate for the sustained conservation of orchids and their ecosystems. Non-governmental organizations such as the Orchid Conservation Alliance (OCA), the American Orchid Society (AOS), Orchid Conservation International (OCI), and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), which are influential on the international stage, have achieved numerous accomplishments through collaboration with various organizations, governments, and conservation agencies. Owing to the vast diversity and wide distribution of orchids, other conservation organizations with distinct local characteristics exist in various regions and countries. However, no clear data are available regarding the exact number of orchid conservation NGOs in each country.

China is one of the countries with the richest diversity of wild orchids. Currently, it hosts approximately 189 genera and 1725 species of orchids, approximately 600 of which are endemic [20,21,22]. The genera with the most species are Bulbophyllum (135), Dendrobium (98), Liparis (66), Platanthera (65), Calanthe (65), Habenaria (62), and Cymbidium (58), totaling 549 species and accounting for 32% of the total number of orchids in China [21]. With increasing demand to achieve ecological civilization, the Chinese government is intensifying its efforts toward wild plant conservation, with orchids receiving increasing attention. Understanding the status of orchid conservation in various countries is necessary for advancing orchid conservation in China. Nations that have achieved notable success in this field serve as valuable reference models.

The research, depth, and experience in orchid conservation vary significantly across countries, leading to diverse conservation approaches. This study aimed to comprehensively summarize and compare the policies and regulations regarding orchid conservation by both governmental and non-governmental organizations in 45 countries. By analyzing the conservation actions, experiences, and lessons from different countries, we hope to provide valuable insights for improving orchid conservation measures in China and offer a scientific basis and practical reference for formulating feasible conservation strategies.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. National Choices

Google (https://google.com), Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com), and CNKI (www.cnki.net), among others, were searched using the following keywords: “** national orchid conservation actions”, “** national orchid conservation associations”, and “** national policies and regulations related to the protection of wild plants”. We initially compiled relevant data from 73 countries, comprising 1994 data entries related to orchid conservation. Countries with active orchid conservation efforts were of interest in this study. To ensure data richness and representativeness, we excluded countries with insufficient orchid conservation policies based on the following criteria: (1) lack of specific regulations or policies on orchid conservation; (2) absence of dedicated orchid conservation actions or programs; and (3) scarce information on orchid conservation efforts available in the literature and databases. We retained 45 countries that met these criteria, including China.

For a more robust statistical analysis, the 45 countries comprised 14 developed and 31 developing nations. A country that met all of the following criteria was considered developed: a “very high” level of human development (0.800 or higher) according to the United Nations Development Program; recognition of “developed” economies by the International Monetary Fund; recognition of “high-income” economies by the World Bank; and a per capita income (purchasing power parity) above USD 25,000, as defined by the International Monetary Fund.

2.2. Policies and Regulations

The policies and regulations amassed in this study have direct or indirect effects on wild orchid conservation at the national, provincial, regional, and local levels. All levels of legislation were included in the initial data collection and statistical analysis to provide a comprehensive overview. Policies or regulations promulgated by a government or legislature were included and labeled using only document titles to avoid any misunderstanding caused by document numbering. To ensure the comprehensiveness of the data, most of the compiled data were obtained from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (https://www.fao.org/) and were manually screened. The key search terms used in the screening were “wild plants”, “nature reserves”, “national parks”, “forest conservation”, “ecological protection”, “environmental protection”, “biodiversity conservation”, and “botanical gardens”, among others. If the title was unclear, the content was reviewed to avoid missing relevant documents. These key terms were used as labels to categorize the conservation actions of various countries. Policies and regulations related to wetlands, grasslands, management, and sustainable development were tagged as “Other”. Some policies and regulations are diverse, containing multiple key terms.

2.3. Non-Governmental Organizations

The data on non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were derived from the OrchidWire website (www.orchidwire.com), China Social Organization (chinanpo.mca.gov.cn/index), China Development Brief (www.cdb.org.cn), and online resources. These websites are officially certified and provide comprehensive information on NGOs; hence, they are considered highly reputable sources. Based on a well-established definition [23], the selected NGOs were characterized by their independence from national governments, non-profit status, non-commercial nature, legality, initiative, and voluntary nature. These characteristics allowed us to determine the number of NGOs involved in orchid conservation in various countries.

2.4. Data Analysis and Visualization

The collected data were systematically organized in Microsoft Excel 2021 for preliminary descriptive statistical analysis. Subsequently, Origin 2021 was utilized to generate detailed visualizations, effectively illustrating trends and patterns across the 45 countries. This method provided a clear and robust visualization of key findings.

3. Results

3.1. Comparison of the Number and Dates of Enactment of Policies and Regulations in Various Countries and Their Trends of Change

Figure 1 compares the number of policies and regulations implemented in each country. Among the developing countries, Russia and Brazil had the highest number of policies and regulations, with 660 and 269, respectively, followed by three developed countries, namely France (185), Canada (163), and Italy (156). Overall, developed countries ranked at the top, with eight countries, accounting for 57.1%, having more than 76 policies and regulations, which was the average of the total number of policies and regulations in all forty-five countries. By contrast, among the developing countries, only six nations had more than 76 policies and regulations, constituting only 19.4%. China, the primary subject of this study, has 84 policies and regulations, ranking fifth among developing countries and twelfth among all 45 countries. Detailed data are provided in the Supplementary Materials.

The findings reveal that the number of policies and regulations in countries has increased annually, indicating a gradual emphasis on biodiversity conservation (Figure 2a,b). However, the number of regulations implemented varied widely among the 45 countries, with significant fluctuations at different stages in most countries.

Over the past two decades, developing countries, such as Russia, Mexico, Brazil, China, and Costa Rica, have experienced a rapid increase in the number of policies and regulations (Figure 2b). After 1990, Russia began progressively implementing natural resource conservation measures with extremely rapid development. Within 30 years, Russia was able to surpass other countries in the number of policies implemented, particularly since 2000, with 561 related regulations introduced, accounting for 85.0% of the country’s total (Figure 2a). Additionally, Argentina is the only developing country where the number of policies and regulations has shown a phased increase from 1960 to the present. Although the country has exhibited a downward trend in recent years, the total number still ranks among the top (Figure 2b). Orchid conservation in most developed countries began earlier. By the 1980s, countries such as Canada, Italy, the United States, and Germany established several regulations. In the 21st century, France introduced 163 policies and regulations and witnessed the fastest growth rate among the 13 countries (Figure 2b). By contrast, the number of regulations in Italy, Canada, Belgium, and Australia is on a downward trend (Figure 2b). Although the number of regulations has significantly increased, this does not necessarily correspond to implementation effectiveness; thus, the actual impact of these measures requires further assessment.

The difference between developing and developed countries is evident, especially between 1960 and 1990. During this period, all ten developed countries introduced relevant conservation regulations, with Singapore, Germany, Latvia, and the United Kingdom issuing no more than two regulations each, accounting for 28.6% of the developed countries. Conversely, among the 31 developing countries, 14 did not introduce any policies or regulations during this period, and 11 introduced no more than two policies or regulations, accounting for 80.6% of the total number of developing countries. Not surprisingly, China initiated almost no policy for orchid conservation during this period.

3.2. Conservation Actions of Various Countries

A total of 3418 policies and regulations from 45 countries were compiled. By categorizing each policy using keywords, it was possible to gain a general understanding of the tendencies in the conservation actions of various countries. Among the nine keywords, “nature reserve” had the highest repetition rate, with 1469 related policies and regulations. The remaining keyword repetition rates, in descending order, were “wild plant” (592), “national park” (430), “environment” (369), “other” (255), “forest” (242), “biodiversity conservation” (217), “ecology” (179), and “botanical garden” (7). Protecting habitats and ecosystems is the most effective measure for orchid conservation. Hence, most policies and regulations have been directed toward these measures. The country with the most policies and regulations regarding “nature reserve” was Russia (521), followed by France (120), Canada (91), Brazil (85), and Italy (77). “Wild plant” regulations, which specifically involve the protection of wild plants, play a direct role in orchid conservation, with the highest numbers in Russia (54), Germany (54), the United Kingdom (33), Australia (31), and Italy (29). Russia still has the most laws related to “national parks”, with Brazil and Australia constituting the top three. Notably, only two countries have policies related to in situ conservation, with Brazil having one and Australia having six. China’s conservation efforts were not prominent, ranking only fifth in the list for the “ecology” category. Excluding the “other” category from the eight keywords, the country that ranked in the top five most frequently was Brazil, appearing six times, followed by Russia (five times), then Italy, Mexico, and Australia (three times each). The ranking of conservation actions in various countries generally corresponds to the number of policies and regulations they have enacted. Therefore, developed countries still have a greater number of conservation actions in various aspects than developing countries (the areas falling under the “other” category were numerous and therefore not further analyzed; for relevant data, see the Supplementary Materials).

3.3. Comparison of the Number of Non-Governmental Organizations in Various Countries

At the national level, the United States is the most active country in orchid conservation, with 167 NGOs, followed by Australia (60), Canada (20), the United Kingdom (20), and Brazil (15) (Figure 3a and Supplementary Materials). At the global economic level, a clear difference was observed in the number of NGOs in developed and developing countries, with eight of the top ten being developed countries. Moreover, every developed country surveyed in this study has identifiable orchid conservation NGOs, with 11 countries having more than two, comprising 78.6% of the developed countries. By contrast, among the developing countries, no NGOs were identified in seven nations, and countries with more than two conservation organizations accounted for only 29.0% of the total number of developing countries (Figure 3b and Supplementary Materials). Two orchid conservation NGOs are located in China: the Shan Shui Conservation Center (SSCC) and the Snowland Great Rivers Environmental Protection Association (SGREPA).

4. Discussion

4.1. Comparative Analysis of Policies and Regulations in China and Other Countries: Number, Date of Enactment, and Impact

The introduction of biodiversity policies and regulations has provided strong support for orchid conservation. While the data collection included all legislative levels (national, provincial, regional, and local), in this section, we primarily focus on national-level policies due to their broader impact and greater availability of data on implementation. For example, influenced by the Species at Risk Act (SARA) of 2007, the habitat of the Eastern Prairie Fringed Orchid (Platanthera leucophaea (Nutt.) Lindl) in Canada has improved, covering an area of 177 hectares [24,25]. Additionally, as a result of the enactment of Australia’s Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act in 1999 (EPBC), the Australian government has reintroduced at least 78 endangered orchids, achieving a survival rate of 61.63%, a flowering rate of 81%, a fruit set rate of 63%, and a recruitment rate of 18% [26]. In another case, owing to the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats in 1982 and the Habitats Directive enacted in 1992, Italy has significantly increased the survival rate of Limodorum trabutianum (Batt.), from 18–20% to 86% [27,28]. Driven by the Wildlife and Countryside Act in 1981, Cypripedium calceolus (L.) has been reintroduced in the UK, with a total of 700 shoots and 200 flowers cultivated by 2018 [29,30]. Through these conservation regulations, countries have made significant progress in the protection and restoration of endangered orchids.

This study revealed a substantial gap in the number and date of enactment of policies and regulations between developed and developing countries. Most developed countries developed early initiatives for natural resource conservation, with their policies far surpassing those of developing countries. However, among developing countries, Russia and Brazil have a particularly large number of policies and regulations. To a certain extent, this outcome indicates that both countries emphasize ecosystems [31,32,33]. This finding may also be related to their land area and biodiversity richness. Russia, the largest country in the world, has nearly 15,000 different levels of special nature reserves that preserve natural ecosystems and biodiversity, covering more than 10% of its area [34]. Brazil has the richest plant diversity, with established protected areas covering over 90% of its plant species [33]. Therefore, many policies and regulations in these countries are aimed at in situ conservation. Nevertheless, the actual conservation effectiveness of these policies is still less than that of some developed countries. This suggests that while the number of policies and regulations is important, the effectiveness of conservation efforts in practice relies more on the quality of the legislation and the strength of its enforcement.

Some countries have demonstrated commitment to orchid conservation through policies and regulations; however, the real outcomes face significant challenges. For example, while the European Union has prioritized orchid conservation in its plant protection agenda, practical implementation has been limited by insufficient funding, complex policy enforcement, and difficulties in habitat management, resulting in conservation outcomes that fall short of expectations [35,36,37]. In certain countries, although legislation includes measures for endangered species protection, orchid habitats are still threatened by fragmentation and degradation. Additionally, inconsistencies in how threat levels are defined across countries lead to a lack of coordinated conservation measures, thereby reducing the overall effectiveness of conservation efforts [36]. Therefore, orchid conservation requires not only effective policy and regulatory support but also integrated ecological research to address the practical demands of habitat protection and biodiversity management.

In contrast, the number of policies and regulations in China is not prominent, with the nation ranking twelfth among all countries and fifth among developing countries. Furthermore, China established its legal framework late; the first Regulations on Nature Reserves were enacted in 1994, and Regulations on the Protection of Wild Plants, the most crucial act for the conservation of wild plants, did not come into effect until 1997. Moreover, it was not until 2021 that orchids were included in the List of National Key Protected Wild Plants for the first time. The slow pace of regulatory revisions has caused the development of China’s natural resource protection laws to lag behind those of many developed countries by several decades. This finding is consistent with a report on the development of protected areas released by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China in 2006 [38]. The primary reasons for this delay include the country’s early focus on economic growth and poverty alleviation [39], which to some extent affected resource allocation for biodiversity conservation, including that of orchids and other species.

Although the number of policies and regulations to some extent reflects a country’s efforts toward orchid conservation, the quantity alone is not the sole determinant of conservation effectiveness. Some countries, despite having fewer regulations, achieve significant conservation outcomes through focused and efficient implementation. For example, Canada’s SARA and Australia’s EPBC play crucial roles in conserving endangered orchids and their habitats, supported by rigorous scientific assessment mechanisms and specific recovery plans [40,41]. Similarly, although China has fewer wildlife protection regulations and established them later, the Wild Plant Protection Regulation has effectively safeguarded numerous endangered plant species since its implementation [42].

In biodiversity conservation, legislation is not fixed [43]. Plant species and ecosystems are constantly changing due to environmental, climatic, and human influences, necessitating the continual adjustment of conservation laws to ensure their sustained effectiveness in achieving conservation goals [44,45]. For example, since its implementation in 1997, China’s Regulations on the Protection of Wild Plants has undergone multiple revisions, most notably in 2021, with the inclusion of orchids in the List of National Key Protected Wild Plants for the first time, reflecting the law’s continuous adaptation in practice [46]. Similarly, Canada’s SARA continues to be updated and refined to address emerging conservation needs. These laws not only serve as primary frameworks for protection but also have substantial impacts on species conservation and habitat restoration through increasingly detailed implementation systems [47]. The gradual refinement and tiered structure of these regulations ensure the in-depth implementation and progression of conservation efforts, gradually proceeding from legal initiatives to specific actions [45]. Thus, their continuous development and updating are essential for adapting to ever-evolving ecological needs and enhancing conservation effectiveness.

In addition, whether the passage of a single law can independently lead to effective species protection or merely serves as a foundation within a larger protection system often depends on the hierarchical structure and implementation support of the legislation [48,49]. For instance, Canada’s SARA not only involves species protection through statutory provisions but also includes a comprehensive set of scientific assessments and recovery plans [47,50]. These accompanying measures ensure the effectiveness of conservation efforts in practice. Similarly, Australia’s EPBC Act not only provides a protective framework but also strengthens the implementation of the legislation through a series of specific action plans and mechanisms for public engagement [51]. This demonstrates that, in terms of biodiversity conservation, the passage of a single law typically needs to be integrated into a broader legislative system that includes specific action plans, policy support, and evaluation mechanisms to truly achieve conservation goals [52].

4.2. Drivers of the Changes in the Number of Policies and Regulations in Various Countries

In the past 30 years, the number of policies and regulations globally has generally increased at a rapid rate. This growth is likely driven by the signing of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The CBD is the core legal framework for international cooperation on biodiversity conservation, with 196 contracting parties bound by its provisions. In response to the goals of the Convention, there has been a rapid increase in policies and regulations for the conservation of endangered flora, fauna, and habitats worldwide. However, the effectiveness of biodiversity conservation in developing countries still lags far behind that in developed countries, with insufficient funding considered a major barrier to biodiversity conservation [53]. Over the past two decades, economic growth and contributions from European Union countries, such as Germany, toward global biodiversity conservation funding have prompted a swift rise in the implementation of natural resource conservation laws in developing countries [54,55,56,57]. Based on this increasing trend, it is speculated that developing countries will continue to intensify their efforts toward natural resource conservation and restoration in the coming decades. By contrast, the number of regulations enacted by many developed countries has decreased, exhibiting a downward trend, particularly in European countries such as Italy, Germany, and Austria. This phenomenon may be attributed to the establishment of the “Natura 2000” Habitat Protection Network. This system promoted the construction of nature reserves and the establishment of national parks in Europe, leading to a relatively comprehensive legal framework for natural conservation. Significant progress has been made in protecting endangered plants and habitats [57,58,59,60]. In 2024, the European Union adopted the Nature Restoration Law, which aims to protect at least 20% of the EU’s land and marine areas by 2030 and ultimately restore all ecosystems in need of restoration by 2050. This law will further advance nature conservation efforts and promote the continuous updating of policies and regulations [61]. However, the effectiveness of endangered plant and habitat conservation has been delayed, and there is still a long way to go to achieve strategic objectives [27]. It is predicted that the rate of policy development in developed countries will become stable to address new challenges.

Natural resource development was initially slow in China. However, with the rise of the economy and the impetus for international goals, there has been a surge in the formulation of relevant policies and regulations, and actions for the conservation of orchids have become more established [13]. In 2001, the “National Wildlife Protection and Nature Reserve Construction Overall Planning” was initiated, designating orchids as one of the fifteen major species conservation projects [21]. As of 2023, a nationwide special survey on wild orchid resources revealed that approximately 65% of these species are distributed within national or provincial nature reserves [62]. Species populations such as Bulbophyllum tianguii (K. Y. Lang & D. Luo), Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum (Rchb.f.) Stein, and P. purpuratum (Lindl.) Stein are continuously expanding. Considering the 37 orchid species included in the “The National Rescue and Conservation Plan on Plants with Extremely Small Populations (2011–2015)”, research and protection efforts have been made to varying extent, with 15 species found in nature reserves, leading to the establishment of in situ protection site for Dendrobium officinale (Kimura & Migo). Ex situ conservation trials have been implemented for nineteen species, including population enhancement, and reintroduction trials have been performed for three species, namely Paphiopedilum armeniacum (S. C. Chen & F. Y. Liu), P. helenae (Aver.), and P. spicerianum (Rehb. f.) Pfitzer, yielding positive ecological benefits [63,64,65,66]. In 2024, the National Forestry and Grassland Administration issued the “National Wildlife Protection Project Construction Plan (2023–2030)”, aiming to scientifically advance the protection and management of wild fauna and flora. This plan, aligned with the 14th Five-Year Plan, aims to rescue fifty endangered plant species through in situ or ex situ measures, including about five orchid species [13,67].

Currently, the gap between China’s orchid conservation efforts and that of other countries is narrowing. China will continue to increase its relevant legal regulations to achieve the goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Aichi Targets and the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation by improving the biodiversity conservation framework and enhancing the protection and restoration of endangered orchids.

4.3. Trends in Conservation Actions

Policies and regulations can reflect trends in the actions taken in various countries aimed at natural resource conservation. The results showed that the majority of the regulations involved in situ conservation, with the number of regulations and directives for nature reserves accounting for nearly half of the total number of regulations. Thus, the primary task of orchid conservation actions in various countries involves in situ methods. The “Natura 2000” network of natural habitats established by the European Union, with over 25,000 protected areas covering more than 18% of Europe’s land area, has had a positive impact on orchid conservation [68,69,70]. This is likely the major reason for the enactment of regulations for in situ conservation. Data indicate that Chinese regulations are also more oriented toward in situ conservation and the specific protection of wild plants. Among these, the promulgation of the Regulations on the Protection of Wild Plants and the List of National Key Protected Wild Plants has provided a legal and policy framework for plant protection in China and a network of in situ and ex situ conservation [17,46].

It is noteworthy that, in this survey, only seven policies and regulations regarding ex situ conservation were identified (six in Australia and one in Brazil). For instance, the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney and Melbourne focus on conservation, with particularly remarkable efforts toward orchid conservation [26,71]. Botanical gardens play a key role in orchid conservation and are important venues for research and display [72]. In China, approximately 790 endemic orchids are preserved in botanical gardens [73], and surveys have shown that, together with the relevant research institutions, they are collection sites for approximately 802 species of living orchids [8]. However, this survey did not screen for the policies and regulations related to ex situ conservation in China. The absence of these policies may result in considerable disparities in the preservation capacities of botanical gardens and related institutions involved in orchid conservation [12,74], with benefits far less than those achieved in Australia. In fact, many countries have carried out multiple ex situ projects for orchid preservation, but limitations in data accessibility increase the likelihood of information biases. To improve the effectiveness of orchid conservation, future frameworks should prioritize standardized data-sharing mechanisms. This approach would support more scientific research and policy-making and strengthen the overall impact of ex situ conservation on orchid populations.

In this collection of policies and regulations, most content primarily focuses on the protection of animal habitats, while the conservation of wild plants, including orchids, is considered a secondary or “ancillary” concern. For example, Bhutan’s Protection of Wildlife and Protected Areas Law; Japan’s Wildlife Protection, Control, and Hunting Management Act; and Canada’s Québec: Regulation with respect to wildlife habitats prioritize the conservation of animal habitats. For the sake of regional or national economic gain, government officials and media overlook the continuous loss of plant diversity, with funding also biased toward animal protection [75,76,77]. For instance, Kenya prohibits all forms of animal hunting but supports the utilization of plant resources [78]; the Cambodian government’s granting of Economic Land Concessions (ELC) has allowed the clearance of large forests for agro-industrial crops, posing a threat to protected areas [79]; and Argentina’s large-scale agricultural expansion has led to one of the world’s highest rates of deforestation [80]. The destruction of forests has severely affected orchids. Plants are the primary producers of ecosystems and are closely linked to biodiversity. Therefore, countries need to balance wildlife and plant conservation actions to truly maintain ecosystem stability.

The fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP15) was successfully held and resulted in the elaboration of the post-2020 global framework for the conservation of biodiversity [81]. This framework is a guiding document for the conservation actions of the parties. The recent trend of conservation actions in countries will continue to focus on in situ conservation. This includes habitat and ecological restoration to enhance ecosystem connectivity and strengthen the protection of wild flora and fauna to increase the genetic diversity among populations. Other ecological conservation actions involve the eradication or control of invasive species, reduction in chemical pollution, and sustainable development and utilization of natural resources. In the long term, increasing the ecosystem area will be a critical strategy, and raising public awareness about biodiversity conservation remains a major challenge. Additionally, climate change is increasingly recognized as a factor affecting biodiversity loss [82], making the mitigation of climate change an objective of conservation actions.

Therefore, China’s orchid conservation efforts continue to prioritize in situ preservation, actively advancing the implementation of the “Integrative Plan for Key Programs on National Important Ecosystems Conservation and Rehabilitation (2021–2035)”. This includes establishing more nature reserves, protection sites, and national parks while continually enhancing ecological protection and restoration. Simultaneously, gradual advances have been made in ex situ conservation efforts, with the drafting of relevant management regulations and standards currently underway, leading to ongoing improvements in conservation practices.

4.4. Involvement of Non-Governmental Organizations in Orchid Conservation

NGOs excel in key areas such as public information dissemination, legislative advocacy, policy promotion, government information release, relief efforts, and media collaboration, effectively facilitating multifaceted social development [83]. In the context of global initiatives for biodiversity conservation, orchids have been prioritized for protection due to their endangered status [84]. As a result, the number of NGOs dedicated to orchid conservation has been increasing year by year, thus becoming a key force in promoting the protection of this species.

Although NGOs have a broad influence worldwide, their performance varies significantly across different countries and regions. Surveys indicate that the number of orchid conservation NGOs is generally higher in developed countries than in developing ones, a finding that aligns with the results of Zhang’s research [85] on national conservation capabilities. Countries such as the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom not only have strong conservation capacities but have also established a larger number of orchid conservation NGOs, with the United States considered prominent in this area. The American Orchid Society is not only the largest NGO in North and South America for orchid conservation but is also a leading organization among over 600 orchid societies globally, with significant achievements resulting from collaborations with these institutions (The American Orchid Society, https://www.aos.org/). Furthermore, the number of research institutions and researchers involved in orchid conservation serves as an important indicator of each country’s efforts in this area. Relevant data further confirm that the key players in orchid research include the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in the UK (6% of publications); the Chinese Academy of Sciences (5.5%); the University of Western Australia (3%); the University of Florida (2%); and Kings Park and Botanic Garden in Western Australia (2%) [14]. Over 150 authors have published four or more publications, with these researchers concentrated in the United States, Brazil, China, the United Kingdom, and Australia [14].

Globally, China has significantly contributed to orchid research [10,69]. However, compared to many countries, the number of NGOs in China is relatively low, primarily due to limitations in relevant regulations and management models, which make it challenging to establish NGOs. According to government policies, the formation of NGOs must rely on a government institution or a government-operated NGO (GONGO) in the same field as a “supervisory agency”, which exercises day-to-day oversight over the NGO [86]. Therefore, unlike the international definition of NGOs, Chinese scholars categorize them into “officially organized NGOs” and “popular NGOs” [87]. The former are initiated by the government and led by government officials, while the latter are initiated by individual citizens without any officials holding top management positions [87].

Although many organizations in China have made significant contributions to the research, breeding, and conservation of endangered orchids, including the Chinese Flowers Association, the China National Orchid Conservation Center (CNOCC), and the China Wild Plant Conservation Association, these organizations are classified as GONGOs and are not independent of the government, which means they are not adequately considered in relevant statistics. At the same time, “popular organizations” that meet the definition of this study have been insufficiently recognized due to their small number, limited scale, and marginalization [87,88]. Therefore, orchid conservation research in China is primarily led by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, botanical gardens, and research institutes, which have made significant progress in this field [14]. For example, the team led by Zhang Shibao has successfully established a cultivation technology system for the medicinal Pleione bulbocodioides (Franch.) Rolfe through over a decade of research to promote its large-scale propagation and reduce reliance on wild resources [89]. Additionally, since 2005, the CNOCC team has achieved success in the conservation and breeding of Paphiopedilum purpuratum; nearly 10,000 seedlings have been distributed to the wild, with a survival rate of 60–80%, thus significantly enhancing the population’s competitiveness [90]. Currently, CNOCC is also actively promoting the return of orchids such as Vanilla shenzhenica (Z. J. Liu & S. C. Chen) and Dendrobium shixingense (Z. L. Chen, S. J. Zeng & J. Duan). Meanwhile, the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden of the Chinese Academy of Sciences is collaborating with nature reserves to advance the reintroduction projects of nine orchids, including Cymbidium iridioides (D. Don) and Dendrobium lituiflorum (Lindl.) [91].

NGOs play a key role in mobilizing public support for environmental protection and the conservation of endangered species, thus significantly enhancing citizens’ biodiversity awareness and conservation consciousness [92,93]. In other countries, measures such as classroom orchid (OIC) projects [94] and “community education” initiatives [95,96] have effectively disseminated information on orchid conservation through innovative approaches, achieving positive results. These programs provide valuable references for orchid conservation efforts in China. Many scholars emphasize that future orchid conservation and research should focus on enhancing public education and conservation awareness [14,97], which is also one of the core goals of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets [98,99]. Therefore, by learning from successful cases of orchid conservation NGOs in other countries, Chinese GONGOs can more effectively promote the conservation and development of orchids. By leveraging the unique characteristics of NGOs in China, the government and NGOs should work together to enhance knowledge dissemination and the promotion of conservation actions; recruit volunteers; and encourage public participation in the rescue, cultivation, and reintroduction of orchids to the wild, thereby maximizing the impact of educational outreach.

5. Conclusions

This study provides a comparative analysis of orchid conservation policies and regulations in China and other countries, revealing significant differences in policy quantity, implementation timing, and effectiveness. Based on discussions from existing research, conservation outcomes depend not only on the number of regulations but also on enforcement strength and quality. Additionally, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play an active role in advancing orchid conservation. Although China has relatively few NGOs, certain organizations have achieved important results within the GONGO framework. Over the past two decades, China has steadily intensified its biodiversity conservation efforts, with orchids benefiting significantly from policy implementation. Despite their later initiation, policies have gradually increased in influence. The species-specific recovery plan for orchid conservation, particularly for those orchids classified as Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations (PSESPs), has laid a foundation for the conservation of other orchid species. However, compared to countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia, China’s conservation outcomes still have room for improvement. Thus, China should continue to learn from international experience in policy formulation, NGO development, and conservation project implementation to foster collaboration and turn challenges into opportunities. On a global scale, effective orchid conservation requires a combination of regulatory support and scientific evidence, alongside multi-level conservation measures and public education, leading to the realization of biodiversity management and habitat preservation objectives.