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Article

Could Some Lost Fishing Gears Be Suitable Substrata for Benthic Invertebrates? The Case of Some Colonizer Sponge Assemblages in the Western Mediterranean Sea

by
Gabriele Costa
1,
Renata Manconi
2,*,
Gabriele Sanna
1,
Nicola Arrostuto
1,
Nicola Fois
1,
Claudio Sechi
3,
Paolo Tomassetti
3 and
Serena Lomiri
3
1
AGRIS-Sardegna, Agricultural Research Agency of Sardinia, Bonassai, 07100 Sassari, Italy
2
Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Via Vienna 2, 07100 Sassari, Italy
3
ISPRA-Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research, Via Vitaliano Brancati 48, 00144 Rome, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diversity 2024, 16(9), 575; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16090575
Submission received: 2 July 2024 / Revised: 2 September 2024 / Accepted: 7 September 2024 / Published: 13 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns Of Marine Benthic Biodiversity)
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Abstract

:
This study presents novel information on sponge (Porifera) colonization of artificial substrates in the framework of the LIFE EU Strong Sea Life Project, focusing on the northwestern Sardinian Sea (Western Mediterranean Sea). Five abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gears (ALDFGs) of the local artisanal fishery from circum-seas of the Asinara Island Marine Protected Area (MPA) were focused. The composition, taxonomic richness, relative abundance, and lifestyle of sponge assemblages are reported. Taxonomic richness is notably high with 2 classes and 13 orders comprising 26 families, 36 genera, and 47 species of Porifera displaying miniaturized body size and dominant encrusting to massive/erect growth forms. New records at species level are reported for the MPA, the Sardinian Sea, and the Western Mediterranean Sea. The successful colonization of the recovered ghost fishing gears by sponges highlights that adaptive strategies of these basal metazoans support their ability to settle and persist on synthetic materials. This dataset contributes to the inventory of (i) recovered ALDFGs in MPAs, (ii) exogenous substrata as suitable substrata for sponge settlement, and (iii) species richness of an MPA and (iv) promotes the biodiversity assessment of the plastisphere in a global context of ocean pollution.

1. Introduction

In recent decades, human impacts on the oceans, particularly those related to marine litter made of synthetic materials, have increased exponentially, resulting in adverse effects on the marine environment and its biodiversity [1]. Due to the intensification of fishing efforts and the predominant use of plastic materials, abandoned, lost or discarded fishing gears (ALDFGs) belong to the class of marine litter to such an extent they are considered a global issue [2]. This problem, born when Japan first started using synthetic fishing gears in 1949, was first reviewed by Fjelstad [3], and solutions were proposed [4]. Although [5] cast doubt on the estimates put forth by [2], these data persist as valid, indicating that ≈640,000 tons of lost gears enter the oceans annually, thus standing as significant contributors to marine litter.
ALDFGs exert profound ecological impacts on the marine environment, its biota and human wellbeing and the socio-economic landscape [2,6,7,8]. Ghost gears, propelled by ocean currents, may undergo long-range displacement, thereby increasing seabed dredging, leading to mechanical degradation of habitats; these deleterious influences undoubtedly pose a threat to the health and integrity of benthic marine ecosystems [6]. This includes damage to or completely broken bodies of invertebrates with high longevity, i.e., Paramuricea clavata (Risso, 1827) ([9] and references therein).
Moreover, ALDFGs induce ghost fishing, resulting in significant losses in commercial fish stocks, accounting for up to 30% of commercial species depletion from fishers’ catches [10], but also affecting a huge amount of non-target species, including endangered and/or protected ones [11,12,13,14].
To start a new trend, inspired by the artisanal tradition of a Japanese population, to develop synthetic biodegradable materials for fishing nets and at the same time balance lifespan and good fishing performance if properly maintained in seawater, experimental approaches were carried out by testing the strength of new materials, e.g., a new synthetic cotton gill net to catch the spiny lobster Panulirus japonicus (von Siebold, 1824) [15], resistant and biodegradable polymers [16], and innovative artificial fibers inspired by the remarkable properties of natural mussel byssus [17].
Although the Mediterranean Sea is one of the major biodiversity hotspots hosting ≈7.5% of marine biodiversity at the global level [18,19], the fishing industry has represented a key economic sector since ancient times in this area. Abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gears constitute a significant portion of marine litter in this region, accounting for as much as 98% of the total [20,21,22,23]. Frequently, the Mediterranean derelict fishing gears tend to become ensnared within protected habitats, such as the endemic Posidonia oceanica (Linnaeus) Delile, 1813 meadows and coralligenous assemblages [24,25], resulting in further detrimental effects.
Another consequence of plastic devices from fishing activities is their role as substrates for the colonization and transport of micro- and macro-organisms [26,27,28,29]. This process depends on the physicochemical characteristics of plastic materials, i.e., polymer composition, density, roughness, and 3D structure [30], and is collectively known as rafting, biofouling, plastisphere, or periphyton [28,31,32]. This phenomenon is presently an environmental concern since plastics may also act as carriers for harmful and toxic species, as well as nonindigenous species [29,33,34], which might move from native to new habitats. Moreover, while residing on the seabed, ALDFGs progress through various colonization stages influenced by depth and habitat type [34].
The present work is part of the project EU Life STRONG Sea (Survey and Treatment ON Ghost Nets) aimed at safeguarding from the effects of lost, abandoned or discarded fishing gears and therefore improving the state of conservation of the P. oceanica meadows and coralligenous assemblages of the northwestern Sardinian Sea.
In this context, the investigations are based on the hypothesis that ghost fishing gears can be suitable substrata for benthic invertebrates, displaying particularly plastic strategies from an evolutionary point of view. The aim was to investigate in detail for the first time the assemblages of sponges, as model of basal invertebrates colonizing various typologies of ghost fishing gears recovered from focused priority habitats off the coast of the Asinara Island MPA.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The surveyed area is in the Asinara Gulf and Mare di Fuori (local name) of the Asinara Island Marine Protected Area (MPA) and Asinara National Park (Site of Community Importance SCI/ITB010082, Italy) in the northern Sardinian Sea (Figure 1).
The Sardinian Sea sensu Bethoux [35] belongs to the eastern Algero-Provençal Basin mid area, Western Mediterranean Sea, and ranges between ~7° E at west and the western Sardinian coast at east, while northern and southern boundaries are located at 42° N and 38° N, respectively [36,37]. The Sardinian Sea extends from Punta Falcone (Bonifacio Strait) to the entire southwestern coast of Sardinia Island.
Asinara Island shows clear physical differences between its western and eastern coasts. The western coast, exposed to the open sea, has high rocky cliffs (up to 200 m) that drop steeply into the sea, reaching depths of −100 m within less than 2 km. The seabed here is mostly rocky and sandy, with widespread coralligenous assemblages [38,39,40]. In contrast, the eastern coast faces the Gulf of Asinara and features a lower, more varied shoreline with sandy beaches and promontories. The seabed that is not deeper than −50 m slopes gradually with dominant P. oceanica meadows [39,41].
Like all Italian MPAs, the Asinara Island MPA is divided into 3 zones, i.e., zone A, integral reserve, no-enter, no-take except for authorized research activities; zone B, general reserve where professional fishing with selective gears is permitted at a distance (≥150 m from the coastline) for fishermen residing in the Porto Torres and Stintino municipalities; zone C, partial reserve including the remaining stretch of sea within the perimeter of the MPA (Figure 1).

2.2. Sampling Stations and Recovered Gears

The ALDFG retrieval operations 3 by ROV-Remotely Operated Vehicles and 2 by SCUBA-Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus, in accordance with the EU Life STRONG Sea project guidelines, involved the fishing vessel Polaris II, equipped with a winch to haul the gears onboard. SCUBA diving and/or Pollux III ROV were employed to acquire data, depending on the depth or difficulty of retrieval.
The retrieved gears were recovered from 3 sites characterized by P. oceanica meadows or coralligenous assemblages at different depths. The gears were characterized along with the typical features of small-scale artisanal fishery in the northwestern Sardinian Sea vs. AGRIS Artisanal Fishing Gears database [42]. The gears were recovered during the project days dedicated to recovery only, different from the investigation days.
Site Punta Trabucattu (41°03.190 N 8°20.305 E)—MPA zone B, 22 m depth off the eastern coast of the Asinara Island, is characterized by a P. oceanica meadow (Figure 1). The retrieval of two gears was carried out by SCUBA diving during a dedicated retrieval day, 7 October 2022.
The Octopus trap with a cylindrical shape and measuring 50 × 30 cm (opening ≈ 5–15 cm in diameter) is dedicated to fishing Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797. It is one of the most used seasonal gears by small-scale artisanal fishery in northern Sardinia (March–August; avg setting ≈ 200 traps per vessel).
Trammel net (1) made up of 3 layers with different mesh sizes, capturing the target by bagging, was ≈700 m in length. It is the primary gear used in northern Sardinia by seasonal small-scale fishery (March–August; 1000–6000 m in length, avg 3000 m), sometime used all year round to diversify the catch (lobsters, red mullets, and various whitefish species).
Site Punta Pedra Bianca (41°00.383 N 8°12.584 E)—MPA zone B/A, 45–50 m depth off southwestern coast of the Asinara Island, is characterized by a coralligenous assemblage (Figure 1). Gear retrieval was carried out by ROV during a dedicated retrieval day, 10 October 2022. The single net/gill net was 100 m in length. A single net is mainly used locally for whitefish fishing (avg length: 2000 m), and it differs from the trammel net in that it is made up of a single panel of net to obtain fish by trapping in the gill cover body area.
Site Sinnarisca (41°00.913 N 8°24.681 E and 41°00.649 N 8°25.146 E), Asinara Gulf—out of MPA, 61 m depth off the eastern coast of the Asinara Island, is characterized by a coralligenous assemblage with a P. clavata dominated facies (Figure 1). The retrieval of wo gears was carried out by ROV during a dedicated retrieval day, 17 July 2023. Trammel net (2) was ≈150 m in length. The old large trap is like the Octopus trap but significantly larger (150 × 100 cm) than those currently in use. The large traps were historically baited with fish to increase the catch yield and diversify the catch.

2.3. Sampling of Sponges from Gears

The gross morphoanalysis and sampling of associated sponges was immediately carried out on board the boat, due to the large size of most fishing gears, except for the Octopus trap. This distinction is due to the wide range of Octopus trap sizes and the fact that they are the most frequently used gears by the northern Sardinian fleet.
Sponge assemblages were photographed on board or in a laboratory. The Octopus trap, in the lab, was divided into 20 × 20 cm sections and examined in detail under a binocular microscope (Leica M80). For all gears, representative fragments of each sponge specimen were preserved in 70% ethanol to allow further morphological and taxonomic studies.

2.4. Morphological and Taxonomic Investigations

Sponge body morphotraits analyses were based on photos and lLight Microscopy (LM, Leica M 80, Tokyo, Japan), i.e., growth form, color, surface, consistency, and skeletal architecture, together with spicules topographic distribution, micromorphology, and morphometries, plus architecture of collagenic skeletal network, fiber thickness and presence of exogenous materials in the fiber core for dictyoceratids. The skeletal architecture was examined by LM (Leica DM 1000 LED), and hand-cut sections of the ectosome and choanosome were made following Hooper [43]. Spicule complement was analyzed according to Rützler [44]. Taxonomic decisions, together with the geographic range, agree with the revision of the demosponge classification by Morrow and Cárdenas [45] and the World Porifera Database (WPD) [46]. Morphometries (min–max length × min–max thickness μm) of at least 30 spicules per type were measured for each specimen. The rest of the material of each specimen referring to each recovered species was deposited in the AGRIS laboratory. In most cases, the available material was only sufficient for the preparation of one slide due to the miniaturized body size of the sponge specimens.

2.5. Data Comparison

The biodiversity dataset on taxonomic composition, abundance, lifestyle, and geographic range of sponges from the retrieved ghost gears was compared across different types of gear and against data from the literature on coralligenous assemblages, P. oceanica meadows, and karstic caves from the Sardinian Sea and Mediterranean Sea.

3. Results

3.1. Biodiversity and Geographic Range

The diverse sessile and mobile benthic community inhabiting the ALDFGs is the subject of complementary studies to the present work; even with preliminary data, it can be stated that Porifera is the most diversified taxon at the species level and is therefore among the dominant sessile benthic organisms. The other studied organisms are represented by crustaceans, mollusks, bryozoans, and cnidarians as well as fish that undergo ghost fishing, plus algae and foraminiferans.
The taxonomic analyses of sponges from 5 fishing gears (Figure 2) recorded 47 species, 36 genera, 26 families, 13 orders, and 2 classes (Table 1) represented by 189 specimens (Table 2; Figure 3 and Figure 4).
Among the recorded orders (13), the most common were Poecilosclerida (14 species, 79 specimens) together with Axinellida (6 species, 18 specimens), Dictyoceratida (6 species, 46 specimens), and Suberitida (4 species, 23 specimens), and less frequently to rarely Clionaida (3 species, 3 specimens), Haplosclerida (3 species, 4 specimens), Leucosolenida (3 species, 7 specimens), Bubarida (2 species, 4 specimens), Tethyida (1 species, 2 specimens), Tetractinellida (1 species, 2 specimens), Desmacellida (1 species, 1 specimen), Agelasida (1 species, 1 specimen), and Chondrillida (1 species, 1 specimen) (Table 1). The most diverse genera were Axinella Schimdt, 1862 (n = 4 species); Haliclona Grant, 1841 (n = 3); and Phorbas Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864 (n = 3) (Table 1).
New records for Asinara Island include 28 species, i.e., Sycon raphanus Schmidt, 1862; Leucandra sp.; Axinella damicornis (Esper, 1794); Axinella spatula Sitjà & Maldonado, 2014; Axinella sp.; Eurypon cinctum Sarà, 1960; Eurypon gracile Bertolino, Calcinai & Pansini, 2013; Bubaris carcisis Vacelet, 1969; Spirastrella cunctatrix Schmidt, 1868; Desmacella annexa Schmidt, 1870; Haliclona (Gellius) angulata (Bowerbank, 1866); Haliclona sp., Acarnus levii (Vacelet, 1960); Batzella inops (Topsent, 1891); Crella (Crella) elegans (Schmidt, 1862); Hymedesmia (Hymedesmia) pansa Bowerbank, 1882; Phorbas fictitius (Bowerbank, 1866); Phorbas tenacior (Topsent, 1925); Clathria (Microciona) atrasanguinea (Bowerbank, 1862); Antho (Antho) involvens (Schimdt, 1864); Mycale (Aegogropila) contarenii (Lieberkühn, 1859); Hymeniacidon perlevis (Montagu, 1814); Protosuberites epiphytum (Lamarck, 1815); Prosuberites longispinus Topsent, 1893; Erylus discophorus (Schmidt, 1862); Dysidea avara (Schmidt, 1862); Pleraplysilla spinifera (Schulze, 1879); and Spongia (Spongia) officinalis Linnaeus, 1759 (Table 1).
New records for the Mediterranean coralligenous assemblage include D. annexa, H. (Gellius) angulata, A. levii, B. inops, C. (Crella) elegans, H. (Hymedesmia) pansa, M. (Aegogropila) contarenii, and Myxilla (Myxilla) incrustans (Johnston, 1842) (Table 1).
The rare, deep-sea Axinella spatula from the single net displayed a straw-yellow color and the typical erect growth form (≈3 cm) (Figure 4). The skeletal structure was characterized by a notably variable size and shape of oxeas (200–800 × 2.5–15 μm) and styles (150–1300 × 5–25 μm).
As for the geographic range, only six out of the total species recorded are exclusively Mediterranean according to the World Porifera Database [46], i.e., A. spatula; E. gracile; Haliclona (Gellius) cf. bioxeata (Boury-Esnault, Pansini & Uriz, 1994); A. levii; Hamigera hamigera (Schmidt, 1862); and Timea geministellata Pulitzer-Finali, 1978. All the others are Atlanto-Mediterranean species.

3.2. Sponges on Fishing Gears from Posidonia Oceanica Meadows

The Octopus trap was colonized by 146 specimens with growth forms mainly encrusting to massive/erect miniaturized bodies (1–5 cm in diameter) of Porifera belonging to 28 species, 25 genera, 17 families, 9 orders, and 2 classes (Table 1 and Table 2). This trap, which presented the highest species richness among the retrieved gears, shared (i) two species, A. damicornis and C. (C.) elegans, with trammel net (1); (ii) three species, A. damicornis, C. (C.) elegans, and M. (A.) contarenii, with the single net; (iii) one species, A. damicornis, with trammel net (2); and (iv) three species, H. (H.) pansa, Hemimycale columella (Bowerbank, 1874), and Phorbas dives (Topsent, 1891), with the old large trap (Table 2).
Trammel net (1) was characterized by the massive/erect growth form of 10 specimens of Porifera belonging to 7 species, 5 genera, 5 families, 3 orders, and 1 class (Table 1 and Table 2). This net shared (i) two species, A. damicornis and C. (C.) elegans, with the Octopus trap; (ii) three species, A. damicornis, C. (C.) elegans and M. (A.) contarenii, with the single net; (iii) three species, A. damicornis, A. verrucosa, and Axinella sp., with trammel net (2); and (iv) no species with the old large trap.

3.3. Sponges and Fishing Gears from Coralligenous Assemblages

The single net was colonized by six specimens of Porifera with encrusting to massive/erect growth forms belonging to five species, four genera, four families, two orders, and one class (Table 1). This net shared (i) three species, A. damicornis, Batzella inops, and C. (C.) elegans, with the Octopus trap; (ii) three species, A. damicornis, C. (C.) elegans, and M. (A.) contarenii, with trammel net (1); (iii) two species, A. damicornis and C. (C.) elegans, with trammel net (2); and (iv) no species with the old large trap (Table 2). Trammel net (2) harbored 10 specimens with massive/erect growth forms of Porifera belonging to 8 species, 5 genera, 5 families, 4 orders, and 2 classes (Table 1 and Table 2). This net shared (i) three species, A. damicornis, C. (C.) elegans, and H. columella, with the Octopus trap; (ii) four species, A. damicornis, A. verrucosa, Axinella sp., and C. (C.) elegans, with trammel net (1); (iii) two species, A. damicornis and C. (C.) elegans, with the single net; and (iv) one species, Fasciospongia cavernosa (Schmidt, 1862), with the old large trap (Table 2).
The old large trap was colonized by 17 specimens of sponges with encrusting to massive/erect growth forms, belonging to 11 species, 11 genera, 9 families, 6 orders, and 2 classes (Table 1 and Table 2). This trap shared (i) three species, H. (H.) pansa, H. columella, and P. dives, with the Octopus trap; and (ii) one species, F. cavernosa, with trammel net (2) (Table 2).

3.4. Morphotraits and Morphometries of Species Shared by the Gears

The sponge specimens were characterized, in most cases, by a miniaturized body size and a growth form that ranged from mainly encrusting (n = 25) and/or massive/erect (n = 17) to, less commonly, cavity-dwelling (n = 4) and boring (n = 1) forms (Table 2; Figure 3 and Figure 4).
Axinella verrucosa (Family Axinellidae Carter, 1875) was characterized by an erect growth form (5 cm in height), with a typical bush shape and bright yellow to light orange color. Spicular complement consisted of curved oxeas (430–750 × 7–20 μm) and styles (500–850 × 5–15 μm). This axinellid species inhabited trammel net (1) (n = 1) and trammel net (2) (n = 1).
Axinella sp. (Family Axinellidae Carter, 1875) was characterized by an erect growth form (10 cm in height), with digitations and a dark yellow to light orange color. Spicular complement consisted of curved oxeas (265–360 × 5–20 μm) and styles (65–550 × 5–15 μm). This axinellid species inhabited trammel net (1) (n = 1) and trammel net (2) (n = 1)
Batzella inops (Family Acarnidae Dendy, 1922) was characterized by an encrusting growth form (2–5 cm in diameter) and dark yellow color. Spicular complement consisted of strongyles (160–200 × 2–5 μm). This poecilosclerid species inhabited the Octopus trap (n = 1) and single net (n = 1).
Crella (Crella) elegans (Family Crellidae Dendy, 1922) was characterized by a white color and encrusting growth form (1–4 cm in diameter) (Figure 4). Spicular complement consisted of tornotes (240–400 × 5–10 μm), acanthostyles (100–400 × 10–15 μm), and acanthostrongyles (300–400 × 5–10 μm). This poecilosclerid species colonized the Octopus trap (n = 29), trammel net (1) (n = 1), the single net (n = 1), and trammel net (2) (n = 1).
Hemimycale columella (Family Hymedesmiidae Topsent, 1928) was characterized by an encrusting growth form (2–10 cm in diameter) with visible oscula and a red color. Spicular complement consisted of styles to strongyles (250–400 × 5–10 μm). This poecilosclerid species colonized the Octopus trap (n = 2) and trammel net (2) (n = 1).
Hymedesmia (Hymedesmia) pansa (Family Hymedesmiidae Topsent, 1928) was characterized by an encrusting growth form (2–4 cm in diameter) and light yellow or red color. Spicular complement consisted of subtylotornotes (200–250 × 2.5–5 μm), acanthostyles I (150–192.5 × 5 μm), acanthostyles II (85–100 × 2.5–5 μm), and arcuate isocheles (15–22.5 μm). This poecilosclerid species colonized the Octopus trap (n = 2) and old large trap (n = 1).
Phorbas dives (Family Hymedesmiidae Topsent, 1928) was characterized by an encrusting growth form (2–4 cm in diameter) and light yellow color. Spicular complement consisted of tornotes (150–200 × 2.5 μm), acanthostyles I (130–192.5 × 5 μm), acanthostyles II (75–90 × 2.5–5 μm), sigma I (2.5–15 μm), sigma II (15–25 μm), arcuate isocheles I (17.5–25 μm), and arcuate isocheles II (10–15 μm). This poecilosclerid species colonized the Octopus trap (n = 11) and old large trap (n = 1).
Mycale (Aegogropila) contarenii (Family Micalidae Lundbeck, 1905) was characterized by an encrusting growth form (2–4 cm in diameter) and light yellow color. Spicular complement consisted of tylostyles (220–360 × 5–10 μm), toxas (20–70 μm), anisochelas I (30–50 μm), anisochelas II (15–25 μm), sigma I (40–60 μm), and sigma II (15–20 μm). This poecilosclerid species colonized trammel net (1) (n = 1) and the single net (n = 1).
Fasciospongia cavernosa (Family Thorectidae Bergquist, 1978) was characterized by a massive to cavity-dwelling growth form (4–10 cm in diameter) and black color. The skeletal network of this species is made up of only anastomosed spongin fibers (horny sponge). This dictyoceratid species colonized the old large trap (n = 1) and trammel net (2) (n = 1).

4. Discussion and Conclusions

The high biodiversity of the Octopus trap, in an advanced colonization stage, is likely influenced by (i) the more thorough analysis of this trap compared to other gears, (ii) the potentially longer time spent as a ghost trap on the seabed compared to other gears, and (iii) the trap’s structure, made of very dense mesh, which can facilitate colonization.
The high number of specimens (n = 189) and species richness (n = 47) of colonizer sponges suggest that (i) they are able to settle and persist over time on focused ALDFGs; (ii) the dominant encrusting and massive/erect growth form of sponges can be related to the structure of ALDFGs, which do not offer suitable substrata for cavity-dwelling and boring lifestyles compared to natural substrata, e.g., rocky bottoms; and (iii) the 3D structure of ALDFGs contributes to habitat heterogeneity and biodiversity, albeit over a long period of time.
Although notably impoverished for both composition and species richness, the ALDFG sponge communities reflect, as expected, those of the sampling area [47]. However, the new records of Porifera species from ALDFGs are remarkable when compared to the latest checklist of (i) shallow-water P. oceanica meadows of the Asinara Island MPA [47], (ii) Posidonia meadows and marine caves of the Capo Caccia–Isola Piana MPA in the western Sardinian Sea [48,49], (iii) Mediterranean marine caves [49,50,51], and (iv) Mediterranean coralligenous assemblages (e.g., [52,53] and references therein). Unfortunately, the lack of data for the Sardinian Sea coralligenous assemblage creates a bias in the ALDFGs comparative analysis. This scenario suggests the need for further biodiversity assessment of the entire Sardinian Sea.
From a biogeographic point of view, the dominance of Atlanto-Mediterranean species of Porifera in the dataset, with only six exclusively Mediterranean species, could be related to the peculiar oceanographic condition of the Sardinian Sea belonging to a basin strongly influenced by the input of the Atlantic water masses [35,36,37]. As for the record of rare species, a data point of significant taxonomic and biogeographic value is the third Mediterranean report for the deep-sea Axinella spatula according to the World Porifera Database [46]. This record extends the species geographic range after its recent description for the Alboran Sea [54] and the second report [55] for the Balearic Islands.
Despite the notable biodiversity reported here, the physical damage observed by ROV through pulling and breaking, as well as smothering of sponges and other sessile fauna or completely break bodies of species with high longevity, as in the case of P. clavata [9], confirms detrimental effects of ALDFGs. Present results enrich the dataset on the relationship between sponges and ALDFGs, rarely reported until now, e.g., colonization, or broken/upturned erect-branched specimens, or entangled in nets [56,57,58].
Interestingly, the entanglement of sponges on ghost gears suggests a possible mechanism favoring their successful settlement and colonization of synthetic structures. Indeed, it is well known that sponges have the ability to regrow and/or resettle after natural fragmentation, or accidental detachment from the substratum, and following damage from smoothing or predation. In this scenario, it is notable that the only recorded endangered species (Barcelona Convention), Spongia (Spongia) officinalis together with other dictyoceratid species, i.e., S. (Spongia) nitens (Schmidt, 1862) and Cacospongia mollior Schmidt, 1862 were able to colonize the Octopus trap, possibly by entanglement. These data closely match the ability of fragmented horny sponges to grow on anthropic substrata in the framework of pioneering transplant and sponge culture experiments testing a wide array of ropes, plates, meshes, and cages made of synthetic materials [59,60,61,62,63].
In addition, another colonization pathway could be related to the settlement of sponges by planktonic larvae able to select the substratum [64]. Also, experimental culture of sponge swimming larvae in the lab is successful on polypropylene/polystyrene containers, i.e., larvae settle and grow on the bottoms of multiwell dishes or plates and metamorphose into juveniles after a few days [65]. In vitro experiments have confirmed the findings since the pioneering experiments in the 1980s on artificial substrate biofouling by Pansini and Pronzato [66] with larvae of 10 species spontaneously colonizing PVC and Perspex plates in the Ligurian Sea at 30 m depth. The intriguing aspects of the larval behavior and the high regenerative processes seem to be related to the affinity of Porifera for synthetic materials in the plastisphere sensu, as outlined by Zettler et al. [30].
Even though ALDFGs and relative environmental conditions would typically be considered unfavorable for benthic animal settlement, present data are consistent with the hypothesis that ghost fishing gears can be suitable substrata for sponges (and other invertebrates) displaying remarkable adaptive strategies. An emblematic case could be the habitat preference of endangered species of seahorse inhabiting artificial substrates, such as nets and ropes ([67] and references therein). This point should be carefully evaluated by the scientific community, once it has been established that ALDFGs no longer carry out passive fishing actions or release toxic substances [68].
Although we are far from fully understanding the biology of sponges in general, the methodological approach presented here appears to be a potentially interesting tool for studying the diversity of these basal metazoans while also evaluating the best ALDFG removal modalities in a scenario of biodiversity conservation and ocean sustainable management. Further large-scale studies combined with estimates of the time the recovered gear has spent on the seabed will provide a basis for a greater understanding of the adaptive strategies of sponges within the plastisphere, the first ecosystem at the origin of which stands human activity.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.C.; methodology, G.C., G.S. and N.F.; data curation, G.C. and R.M.; formal analysis, G.C.; investigation, G.C., G.S., C.S., N.A., P.T. and S.L.; writing—original draft, G.C. and R.M.; writing—review and editing, G.C. and R.M.; funding acquisition S.L. and N.F. and R.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was carried out in the framework of the STRONG SEA—Survey and TReatment ON Ghost nets Strong Sea Life, funded by the LIFE EU Program (LIFE20 NAT/IT/000067). SEA LIFE.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all the partners involved in the project, whose activities have enabled the continuation of the project. We are grateful to Francesco Venti (ISPRA—Rome) for providing a detailed map of the study area. The authors are grateful to the reviewers and the editor for their valuable advice and corrections.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Study area maps. (A) Western Mediterranean with Sardinian Sea belonging to the Algero-Provençal Basin mid area together with the Balearic Sea; (B) study area (bounded by the blue lines) with Asinara Gulf, Mare di Fuori and Asinara Island Marine Protected Area; (C) Asinara Island MPA with the zoning areas (A, B, and C) and the three recovery sites (symbols) of ghost fishing gears with relative coordinates in the legend.
Figure 1. Study area maps. (A) Western Mediterranean with Sardinian Sea belonging to the Algero-Provençal Basin mid area together with the Balearic Sea; (B) study area (bounded by the blue lines) with Asinara Gulf, Mare di Fuori and Asinara Island Marine Protected Area; (C) Asinara Island MPA with the zoning areas (A, B, and C) and the three recovery sites (symbols) of ghost fishing gears with relative coordinates in the legend.
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Figure 2. Recovered ghost fishing gears colonized by Porifera from the Sardinian Sea. (A) Trammel net (1); (B) single net; (C) old large trap; (D) trammel net (2).
Figure 2. Recovered ghost fishing gears colonized by Porifera from the Sardinian Sea. (A) Trammel net (1); (B) single net; (C) old large trap; (D) trammel net (2).
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Figure 3. Recovered Octopus trap from the Asinara Island Marine Protected Area (Sardinian Sea) colonized by sponges belonging to a diversified community of invertebrates (top view).
Figure 3. Recovered Octopus trap from the Asinara Island Marine Protected Area (Sardinian Sea) colonized by sponges belonging to a diversified community of invertebrates (top view).
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Figure 4. Growth forms of some Demospongiae (Porifera) settled on ghost fishing gears from the Sardinian Sea. (A) Encrusting habitus of Phorbas fictitius (Poecilosclerida: Hymedesmiidae); (B) encrusting habitus of Crella (Crella) elegans (Poecilosclerida: Crellidae); (C) erect habitus of Axinella spatula (Axinellida: Axinellidae); (D) massive, erect habitus of Dysidea avara (Dictyoceratida: Dysideidae).
Figure 4. Growth forms of some Demospongiae (Porifera) settled on ghost fishing gears from the Sardinian Sea. (A) Encrusting habitus of Phorbas fictitius (Poecilosclerida: Hymedesmiidae); (B) encrusting habitus of Crella (Crella) elegans (Poecilosclerida: Crellidae); (C) erect habitus of Axinella spatula (Axinellida: Axinellidae); (D) massive, erect habitus of Dysidea avara (Dictyoceratida: Dysideidae).
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Table 1. Checklist of Porifera inhabiting Abandoned Lost or Discarded Fishing Gears (ALDFGs) from the Asinara Island Marine Protected Area (NW Sardinian Sea, W Mediterranean). New records for Asinara Island (▼). Third report since the original description (♦). Geographic range, Atlanto-Mediterranean species (A/M), Mediterranean species (M). First records from coralligenous assemblages (▲). Growth forms, encrusting (ec), massive/erect (m/e), cavity-dwelling (cd), boring (br).
Table 1. Checklist of Porifera inhabiting Abandoned Lost or Discarded Fishing Gears (ALDFGs) from the Asinara Island Marine Protected Area (NW Sardinian Sea, W Mediterranean). New records for Asinara Island (▼). Third report since the original description (♦). Geographic range, Atlanto-Mediterranean species (A/M), Mediterranean species (M). First records from coralligenous assemblages (▲). Growth forms, encrusting (ec), massive/erect (m/e), cavity-dwelling (cd), boring (br).
CLASS Calcarea Bowerbank, 1862ORDER Clionaida Morrow & Cárdenas, 2015
ORDER Leucosolenida Hartman, 1958FAMILY Clionaidae d’Orbigny, 1851
FAMILY Syconidae Poléjaeff, 1883Genus Cliothosa Topsent, 1905
Genus Sycon Risso, 1827Cliothosa hancocki (Topsent, 1888) br A/M
Sycon raphanus Schmidt, 1862 ▼ m/e A/MFAMILY Spirastrellidae Ridley & Dendy, 1886
Sycon sp. m/eGenus Diplastrella Topsent, 1918
FAMILY Grantiidae Dendy, 1892Diplastrella bistellata (Schimdt, 1862) ec A/M
Genus Leucandra Haeckel, 1872Genus Spirastrella Schimdt, 1868
Leucandra sp. ▼ ecSpirastrella cunctatrix Schmidt, 1868 ▼ ec A/M
CLASS Demospongiae Sollas, 1885ORDER Desmacellida Morrow & Cárdenas, 2015
SUBCLASS Heteroscleromorpha Cárdenas, Pérez & Boury-Esnault, 2012FAMILY Desmacellidae Ridley & Dendy, 1886
ORDER Axinellida Lévi, 1953Genus Desmacella Schmidt, 1870
FAMILY Axinellidae Carter, 1875Desmacella annexa Schmidt, 1870 ▼ ▲ m/e A/M
Genus Axinella Schimdt, 1862ORDER Haplosclerida Topsent, 1928
Axinella damicornis (Esper, 1794) ▼ m/e A/MFAMILY Chalinidae Gray, 1867
Axinella spatula Sitjà & Maldonado, 2014 ▼ ♦ m/e MGenus Haliclona Grant, 1841
Axinella verrucosa (Esper, 1794) m/e A/MHaliclona (Gellius) angulata ▼ A/M
Axinella sp. ▼ m/eHaliclona (Gellius) cf. bioxeata m/e M
FAMILY Raspailiidae Nardo, 1833Haliclona sp. ▼ m/e
Genus Eurypon Gray, 1867ORDER Poecilosclerida Topsent, 1928
Eurypon cinctum Sarà, 1960 ▼ ec A/MFAMILY Acarnidae Dendy, 1922
Eurypon gracile Bertolino, Calcinai & Pansini, 2013 ▼ ec MGenus Acarnus Gray, 1867
ORDER Bubarida Morrow & Cárdenas, 2015Acarnus levii (Vacelet, 1960) ▼ ▲ ec M
FAMILY Bubaridae Topsent, 1894Genus Batzella Topsent, 1893
Genus Bubaris Gray, 1867Batzella inops (Topsent, 1891) ▼ ▲ ec A/M
Bubaris carcisis Vacelet, 1969 ▼ ec A/MFAMILY Crellidae Dendy, 1922
FAMILY Dictyonellidae van Soest, Diaz & Pomponi, 1990Genus Crella Gray, 1867
Genus Dictyonella Schmidt, 1868Subgenus Crella (Crella) Gray, 1867
Dictyonella pelligera (Schmidt, 1864) m/e A/MCrella (Crella) elegans (Schmidt, 1862) ▼ ▲ ec A/M
FAMILY Hymedesmiidae Topsent, 1928FAMILY Hymerhabdiidae Morrow et al. 2012
Genus Hamigera Gray, 1867Genus Prosuberites Topsent, 1893
Hamigera hamigera (Schmidt, 1862) ec MProsuberites longispinus Topsent, 1893 ▼ m/e A/M
Genus Hemimycale Burton, 1934ORDER Tetractinellida Marshall, 1876
Hemimycale columella (Bowerbank, 1874) ec A/MFAMILY Geodiidae Gray, 1867
Genus Hymedesmia Bowerbank, 1864Genus Erylus Gray, 1867
Subgenus Hymedesmia (Hymedesmia) Bowerbank, 1864Erylus discophorus (Schmidt, 1862) ▼ cd A/M
Hymedesmia (Hymedesmia) pansa Bowerbank, 1882 ▼▲ ec A/MGenus Penares Gray, 1867
Subgenus Hymedesmia (Stylopus) Fristedt, 1885Penares euastrum (Schmidt, 1868) cd A/M
Hymedesmia (Stylopus) coriacea (Fristedt, 1885) ec A/MORDER Tethyida Morrow & Cárdenas, 2015
Genus Phorbas Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864FAMILY Timeidae Topsent, 1928
Phorbas fictitius (Bowerbank, 1866) ▼ ec A/MGenus Timea Gray, 1867
Phorbas dives (Topsent, 1891) ec A/M Timea geministellata Pulitzer-Finali, 1978 ec M
Phorbas tenacior (Topsent, 1925) ▼ ec A/MSUBCLASS Keratosa Grant, 1861
FAMILY Microcionidae Carter, 1875ORDER Dictyoceratida Minchin, 1900
Genus Clathria Schmidt, 1862FAMILY Dysideidae Gray, 1867
Subgenus Clathria (Microciona) Schmidt, 1862Genus Dysidea Johnston, 1842
Clathria (Microciona) atrasanguinea (Bowerbank, 1862) ▼ ec A/MDysidea avara (Schmidt, 1862) ▼ m/e A/M
Genus Antho Gray, 1867Genus Pleraplysilla Topsent, 1905
Subgenus Antho (Antho) Gray, 1867Pleraplysilla spinifera (Schulze, 1879) ▼ m/e A/M
Antho (Antho) involvens (Schimdt, 1864) ▼ ec A/M FAMILY Spongiidae Gray, 1867
FAMILY Micalidae Lundbeck, 1905Genus Spongia Linnaeus, 1759
Genus Mycale Gray, 1867Subgenus Spongia (Spongia) Linnaeus, 1759
Subgenus Mycale (Aegogropila) Gray, 1867Spongia (Spongia) nitens (Schmidt, 1862) m/e A/M
Mycale (Aegogropila) contarenii (Lieberkühn, 1859) ▼ ▲ ec A/MSpongia (Spongia) officinalis Linnaeus, 1759 ▼ m/e A/M
FAMILY Myxillidae Dendy, 1922FAMILY Thorectidae Bergquist, 1978
Genus Myxilla Schmidt, 1862Genus Fasciospongia Burton, 1934
Subgenus Myxilla (Myxilla) Schmidt, 1862Fasciospongia cavernosa (Schmidt, 1862) cd A/M
Myxilla (Myxilla) incrustans (Johnston, 1842) ec ▲ A/MGenus Cacospongia Schmidt, 1862
ORDER Suberitida Chombard & Boury-Esnault, 1999Cacospongia mollior Schmidt,1862 m/e A/M
FAMILY Halichondriidae Gray, 1867SUBCLASS Verongimorpha Erpenbeck et al., 2012
Genus Hymeniacidon Bowerbank, 1858ORDER Chondrillida Redmond et al., 2013
Hymeniacidon perlevis (Montagu, 1814) ▼ ec A/MFAMILY Chondrillidae Gray, 1872
FAMILY Suberitidae Schmidt, 1870Genus Chondrilla Schmidt, 1862
Genus Protosuberites Swartschewsky, 1905Chondrilla nucula Schmidt, 1862 ec A/M
Protosuberites epiphytum (Lamarck, 1815) ▼ ec A/M
Genus Suberites Nardo, 1833
Suberites carnosus (Johnston, 1842) m/e A/M
Table 2. Porifera species (n = 47) abundance on five ghost fishing gears from northwestern Sardinian Sea (Asinara Island Marine Protected Area, Western Mediterranean).
Table 2. Porifera species (n = 47) abundance on five ghost fishing gears from northwestern Sardinian Sea (Asinara Island Marine Protected Area, Western Mediterranean).
Fishing Gears Recovered/Number of Sponge Specimens
SPECIES
PORIFERA		Octopus
Trap		Trammel
Net (1)		Single
Net		Old Large
Trap 		Trammel
Net (2)		Total
Specimens
Sycon raphanus5 5
Sycon sp. 1 1
Leucandra sp. 11
Axinella damicornis622 111
Axinella spatula 1 1
Axinella verrucosa 1 12
Axinella sp. 1 12
Eurypon cinctum1 1
Eurypon gracile1 1
Bubaris carcisis 1 1
Dictyonella pelligera 3 3
Cliothosa hancocki1 1
Diplastrella bistellata1 1
Spirastrella cunctatrix1 1
Desmacella annexa 1 1
Haliclona (Gellius) angulata 11
Haliclona (Gellius) cf. bioxeata 1 1
Haliclona sp. 22
Acarnus levii 1 1
Batzella inops1 1 2
Crella (Crella) elegans 2911 31
Hamigera hamigera1 1
Hemimycale columella2 1 3
Hymedesmia (Hymedesmia) pansa2 1 3
Hymedesmia (Stylopus) coriacea1 1
Phorbas fictitius5 5
Phorbas dives11 1 12
Phorbas tenacior6 6
Clathria (Microciona) atrasanguinea 7 7
Antho (Antho) involvens 4 4
Mycale (Aegogropila) contarenii 11 2
Myxilla (Myxilla) incrustans 1 1
Hymeniacidon perlevis7 7
Protosuberites epiphytum 1 1
Suberites carnosus4 4
Terpios gelatinosus9 9
Prosuberites longispinus1 1
Erylus discophorus1 1
Penares euastrum1 1
Timea geministellata2 2
Dysidea avara 7 7
Pleraplysilla spinifera 22
Spongia (Spongia) nitens20 20
Spongia (Spongia) officinalis 7 7
Fasciospongia cavernosa 112
Cacospongia mollior8 8
Chondrilla nucula1 1
Total1461061017189
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Costa, G.; Manconi, R.; Sanna, G.; Arrostuto, N.; Fois, N.; Sechi, C.; Tomassetti, P.; Lomiri, S. Could Some Lost Fishing Gears Be Suitable Substrata for Benthic Invertebrates? The Case of Some Colonizer Sponge Assemblages in the Western Mediterranean Sea. Diversity 2024, 16, 575. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16090575

AMA Style

Costa G, Manconi R, Sanna G, Arrostuto N, Fois N, Sechi C, Tomassetti P, Lomiri S. Could Some Lost Fishing Gears Be Suitable Substrata for Benthic Invertebrates? The Case of Some Colonizer Sponge Assemblages in the Western Mediterranean Sea. Diversity. 2024; 16(9):575. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16090575

Chicago/Turabian Style

Costa, Gabriele, Renata Manconi, Gabriele Sanna, Nicola Arrostuto, Nicola Fois, Claudio Sechi, Paolo Tomassetti, and Serena Lomiri. 2024. "Could Some Lost Fishing Gears Be Suitable Substrata for Benthic Invertebrates? The Case of Some Colonizer Sponge Assemblages in the Western Mediterranean Sea" Diversity 16, no. 9: 575. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16090575

APA Style

Costa, G., Manconi, R., Sanna, G., Arrostuto, N., Fois, N., Sechi, C., Tomassetti, P., & Lomiri, S. (2024). Could Some Lost Fishing Gears Be Suitable Substrata for Benthic Invertebrates? The Case of Some Colonizer Sponge Assemblages in the Western Mediterranean Sea. Diversity, 16(9), 575. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16090575

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