Next Article in Journal
Numerical Investigation on the Flame Characteristics of Lean Premixed Methane Flame Piloted with Rich Premixed Flame
Next Article in Special Issue
Transforming Abandoned Hydrocarbon Fields into Heat Storage Solutions: A Hungarian Case Study Using Enhanced Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis–Analytic Hierarchy Process and Geostatistical Methods
Previous Article in Journal
Numerical Investigation of Flow Field Distributions and Water and Thermal Management for a Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis Cell
Previous Article in Special Issue
Research on Gas Injection Limits and Development Methods of CH4/CO2 Synergistic Displacement in Offshore Fractured Condensate Gas Reservoirs
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Energies
Volume 17
Issue 14
10.3390/en17143429
energies-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

A Review on Surface Functionalization and Characterization of Silicon Oxide Nanoparticle: Implications for Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery

by
Yuhang Zhou
1,
Yiran Jiang
2,
Junzhang Lin
2,
Saule Aidarova
3,
Maratbek Gabdullin
3,
Miras Issakhov
3 and
Huifang Fan
1,*
1
School of Civil and Resource Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, No. 30, Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China
2
Research Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Shengli Oilfield Company, SINOPEC, No. 306 West Road 3, Dongying 257000, China
3
Kazakh-British Technical University, Tole Bi Street 59, Almaty 050000, Kazakhstan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2024, 17(14), 3429; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143429
Submission received: 28 May 2024 / Revised: 6 July 2024 / Accepted: 10 July 2024 / Published: 12 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Subsurface Energy and Environmental Protection)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Silicon Oxide nanoparticle (SiO2-NP) with appropriate surface functionalization has tremendous potential in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) via wettability alternation, interfacial tension reduction, disjoining pressure enhancement, electric charge modification, etc. Prior to the application of SiO2 to EOR, an effective functionalization and an accurate characterization of the surface properties are indispensable. Though many experimental works have been performed in this area, a systematic review is still lacking. Therefore, a review of the above content is presented. Current research gaps are identified, and future outlooks are indicated. This review provides guidance for SiO2-NP surface functionalization, characterization, and evaluation.

1. Introduction

Due to the rapid development of the world economy in recent years, the demand for crude oil has increased rapidly. However, the average recovery efficiency of existing oil extraction technologies is generally not high enough to meet demands [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11]. To address this dilemma, silicon oxide nanoparticle (SiO2-NP) has been attempted to be used to enhance oil recovery (EOR) [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,12,13,14,15,16]. Prior to the EOR application, the surface properties of the SiO2-NP are required to be functionalized appropriately and characterized systematically [1,7,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29]. Many modifiers of SiO2-NP surface functionalization such as surfactants [1,20,21] and/or polymers [22,26] have been used for modification. Methods of SiO2-NP surface properties characterization such as morphology [1,12,27,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37], size distribution [34,35,38], wettability [35,39], surface electrical properties [1,20,32,36,38], and surface functional groups [1,20,34,35,36,40] are also reported. However, a systematic review of the SiO2-NP functionalization and characterization is still lacking.
Therefore, herein, a comprehensive review of current research status on SiO2-NP functionalization and characterization is provided. Current research gaps are identified, and future outlooks are indicated. This review thus provides basic guidance in the functionalization of SiO2-NP and its characterization and offers a starting point for fresh learners who are entering this area.

2. Functionalization and Characterization of SiO2-NP

2.1. Functionalization

Functionalization is generally used to alter the surface properties of SiO2-NP [24]. Surfactants [1,20,21] and/or polymers [22,26] are generally used for functionalization of SiO2-NP. The SiO2-NP surface properties, such as morphology [1,12,27,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37], size distribution [34,35,38], wettability [35,39], surface electrical properties [1,20,32,36,38], and surface functional groups [1,20,34,35,36,40] are mainly functionalized by the above-mentioned modifiers. The underlying mechanisms are mainly attributed to physical adsorption [21] and chemical bonding [20], as shown in Figure 1. Although the physical adsorption process generally occurs between SiO2-NP and surfactants, chemical bonding might happen between SiO2-NP with any modifier, either surfactant or polymer [24].
As shown in Figure 1A, physical adsorption is achieved by mixing SiO2-NPs with TX-100, nonionic surfactant, in water to obtain 0.1 wt% dispersion. Subsequently, 1 mol/L NaOH solution is added to modulate the pH to 10. Afterward, mechanical stirring and ultrasonic dispersion are performed to uniformly disperse the functionalized SiO2-NPs. The functionalized SiO2-NPs are used to prepare a nanofluid. The prepared silica nanofluid has excellent performance for EOR in low permeable cores [21].
Chemical bonding takes place through either atom sharing or electron exchange. Compared to the physical adsorption method, chemical bonding involves an additional procedure of coating. As shown in Figure 1B, triethoxyvinylsilane (VTES) is first used to coat the surface of SiO2-NP. Afterward, 2-mercaptobenzimidazole and 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone (DMPA) are added to chemically bond with the coated SiO2-NP to obtain the final functionalized SiO2-NP [20]. The specific chemical reaction involved in the functionalization process is: VTES acting as a silane coupling agent. The hydrolyzable silanol groups in VTES first hydrolyze to form silanols in aqueous media. Silanol groups react with hydroxyl groups on the surface of SiO2-NPs to form covalent bonds, resulting in VTES being grafted onto the surface of SiO2-NPs. Afterwards, DMPA (a compound containing acrylic functional groups) that reacts with silane coupling agents on the surface of SiO2-NPs under ultraviolet light. Finally, the product is dried in a vacuum oven at 70 °C for 24 h and ground to obtain functionalized SiO2-NPs [20,41]. Functions of different modifiers are shown in Table 1.
Additionally, the experimental design of the SiO2-NP functionalization process and its application in EOR are shown in Figure 2. As shown in Figure 2, using SiO2-NP as carriers, the surface of SiO2-NP is modified with amino groups through synchronous hydrolysis of Tetraethyl orthosilicate and 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane. Then, Soloterra 964 surfactant is used to further form surfactant-augmented functional silica nanocomposite. Finally, the nanofluid is prepared using this particle in saline solution for EOR in Berea core samples [1]. Furthermore, as a comparison, approximately 16% of oil is recovered from sandstone cores after 10 days using 0.1 wt% physically adsorbed TX-100 nanofluid [21], and approximately 38% of oil is recovered from sandstone cores after about 10 days using 0.1 wt% chemically bonded BMNP nanofluid [20]. It can be seen that there are differences in the enhancement effect of EOR by SiO2-NP functionalized with different modifiers.

2.2. Characterization

To examine the functionalization performances, the surface properties, e.g., morphology [1,12,27,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37], size distribution [34,35,38], wettability [35,39], surface electrical properties [1,20,32,36,38], and surface functional groups [1,20,34,35,36,40] of the functionalized SiO2-NPs need to be characterized systematically [7]. The five characteristics of the original and functionalized SiO2-NP are analyzed as the following.

2.2.1. The Morphology

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) [12,27,33,34,35] and transmission electron microscope (TEM) [1,30,31,32,36,37] are often used to characterize the morphology of SiO2-NP before and after functionalization, as shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. Additionally, statistically analyze the size distribution of SiO2-NPs before and after functionalization, as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 indicates the particle size distribution after functionalization with different modifiers remains partially unchanged in SEM/TEM images, while in some cases, the size distribution either increased from 20 to 30~40 nm [31] (TEM) or decreased from 102 to 45 nm [32] (TEM).
Depending on the specific functionalization techniques, the SiO2-NP morphology can be changed either slightly or significantly [27,31,32,34,35,36,37]. For example, the initial shape and average size of the amorphous SiO2-NPs are spherical and range from 22 to 400 nm. After chemical bonding with a mixture of 3-(Dimethyl (3-(Trimethoxysilyl)Propyl)-Ammonio)Propane-1-Sulfonate (SBS) and (3-glycidyloxypropyl) trimethoxysilane (GLYMO), the functionalized SiO2-NP still remain the similar shape and size [27]. Figure 3 shows two other similar cases with different modifiers, 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APTMS) for the case in (a, b) [34] and amino-functionalized for the case in (e, f) [36]. Additionally, as shown in Figure 3c,d, the particle shape after functionalization by 0.1 wt% modifier lauramidopropyl hydroxy sulfobetaine remained spherical, and the size remained below 20 nm. However, the functionalized SiO2-NPs had better dispersibility than the initial particles. This indicates that the modifier effectively improved their dispersibility without causing significant changes in particle size [42].
In contrast, the shape and average size of the SiO2-NPs changed obviously after physical adsorption-based functionalization via TX-100, with the average size of the SiO2-NP increased from 8 to 14 nm [21]. Figure 4 shows three other similar cases with different modifiers. Figure 4a,b indicates the case of SiO2-NP chemical bonding with coupling agent (3-glycidoxypropyl)-trimethoxysilane (GPTMS). After GPTMS is coated on the surface of SiO2-NPs, a shell is formed on the surface, and the functionalized SiO2-NPs become slightly smoother, with average size uniformly increased from 20 to 30~40 nm [31]. In addition, the hydrated shell formed around the functionalized SiO2-NP can provide steric stability [43], thus improving dispersion stability [31]. Figure 4c,d shows the case where mercaptoterminated SiO2-NPs are chemically bonding with sodium oleate through the thiol-ene “click” reaction. Due to the combined effect of the adsorption layer formed by alkanes and the negative charge of –COONa group after ionization in the solution, the functionalized SiO2-NP aggregation is prevented [32]. As a result, the particle shape changed from an amorphous irregular network structure [37] to an approximately spherical shape. The average particle size is therefore decreased from 102 to 45 nm [32]. As shown in Figure 4e,f, the initial SiO2-NPs show an amorphous network structure. After chemical bonding functionalization with polymer amphiphilic block copolymer (PTFEMA-co-PSBMA), the functionalized SiO2-NPs remain amorphous, while the network structure gradually disappears. The functionalized SiO2-NPs become larger because the polymer is coated onto the surface of the particles. Thus, a strong attraction force is generated between the particles of SiO2-NPs, eventually leading to SiO2-NP aggregation and the formation of approximate clusters [37].

2.2.2. Particle Size Distribution

The particle size distribution (PSD) of the initial and functionalized SiO2-NP can be determined using a Zeta potential analyzer [35,38], as shown in Figure 6.
Depending on different modifiers, the PSD of initial and functionalized SiO2-NP may vary slightly or significantly. The initial and functionalized SiO2-NPs’ average particle size is 8~1200 nm [1,12,21,27,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38]. Figure 6A shows that PSD of SiO2-NP is not significantly affected by the functionalization of DCDMS. The functionalized SiO2-NP mean particle size is basically maintained at ~30 nm [35]. Similarly, the PSD of SiO2-NP is barely affected by the functionalization of SBS + GLYMO [27], APTMS [34], and amino-functionalized [36]. The functionalized SiO2-NP mean particle sizes are at 22 nm [27], 41–183 nm [34], and ~400 nm [36], respectively.
Compared to other nanomaterials, surface functionalization of SiO2-NP can achieve different functions (generally, it is hydrophobic modification [35]) through surface functionalization, which can enable the particles to adapt to different reservoir conditions and increase EOR. In addition, the dispersion stability of SiO2-NP in aqueous solutions can be improved by surface functionalization, thus enhancing the stability and persistence of SiO2-NP in oil reservoirs [1,42,44,45,46,47,48,49,50]. After functionalization, the size distribution of some SiO2-NPs will be changed, resulting in better dispersion stability. The better dispersion stability of functionalized SiO2-NPs provides a basis for particles to enter rock pores, and the functionalized SiO2-NPs form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, promoting the adsorption of water molecules onto the rock surface. Additionally, the SiO2-NPs adsorbed on the surface of the rock form a thin film, and the wettability of the rock surface is changed by this film. The interface energy between the rock surfaces is reduced, and thus, the interfacial tension between oil and water is reduced, ultimately improving EOR [38].
Figure 6B shows the PSD variation of three functionalized SiO2-NP by a modifier with three different mole ratios. The modifier is a mixture of 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) and octyltriethoxysilane (OTES). Compared to the initial SiO2-NPs’ size of 277 nm, the PSD of three functionalized SiO2-NPs samples has decreased to 194 nm, 156 nm, and 150 nm, respectively. The particle size of the functionalized samples is smaller than that of initial SiO2-NPs, and the dispersion is better than that of initial SiO2-NPs. The underlying for this size reduction is that the hydration layer of the SiO2-NP is thinned due to the influence of the added OTES [38]. Additionally, the mean PSD is reduced from 102 to 45 nm because of the functionalization of mercaptoterminated SiO2-NPs using sodium oleate through the thiol-ene “click” reaction [32]. Unlike the reduction of the mean PSD after SiO2-NPs are functionalized, as mentioned above, the mean PSD of functionalized SiO2-NPs is increased by modifiers GPTMS [31] and internal olefins sulfonates [33]. After the functionalization, the mean PSD of the SiO2-NP is increased from 20 to 30 ~ 40 nm [31] and 40 to 90 nm [33], respectively, due to changes in the surface coating and electrical properties of the functionalized SiO2-NPs [31,32,37].

2.2.3. Wettability

Surface wettability alternation [51,52,53] of bare and functionalized SiO2-NPs can be quantified by contact angle measurements directly on the bare and functionalized SiO2-NP surface or SiO2-NP coated substrate surface [35]. Additionally, due to the correlation between the immersion heat of SiO2-NP and the contact angle [54], the change in wettability can be reflected by measuring the immersion heat of SiO2-NP before and after functionalization [39]. This technique employs the enthalpy of immersion, a consequence of altering the Gibbs free energy derived from substituting a solid-gas interface with a solid-liquid one. The solid-liquid contact angle’s relationship with enthalpy of immersion is related by the Young–Laplace equation [39], as Equation (1).
cos θ = − K T − h i − π e γ l v
where θ is the solid–liquid contact angle, K is the difference between the temperature dependence of solid surface tension and solid-liquid interfacial tension, T is the absolute temperature, h i is the immersion enthalpy, π e is the difference between the solid surface tension and the solid–vapor surface tension, and γ l v is the liquid–vapor surface tension.
The trends and images of contact angle changes for bare and functionalized SiO2-NPs with DCDMS are shown in Figure 7A. After the functionalization of SiO2-NP via removing the –OH group from the SiO2-NP surface with various amounts of DCDMS, the surface wettability of the functionalized SiO2-NP changed from hydrophilic to hydrophobic. As shown in Figure 7A, as the molar ratio (MR) between DCDMS and SiO2-NPs increased from 0 to 5.17, the water contact angle increased from 34.7° to 155°. With the further increase in the MR, the contact angle would slightly decrease and stabilize at 135°. The surface grafting rate is an important index for evaluating the reaction progress of surface functionalization. The grafting rate is defined as the ratio of the removal number of OH in modified silica to the OH number in unmodified silica. The trend in the contact angle change before and after functionalization is consistent with the trend in the grafting rate of DCDMS on the SiO2-NP surface, as shown in Figure 7, further pointing out that the change in the SiO2-NPs surface wettability is related to the amount of modifier used [35].

2.2.4. Functional Groups

Fourier transform infrared reflection (FTIR) is generally used to characterize the functional group’s changes of SiO2-NP before and after functionalization [1,20,34,35,36,40], as shown in Figure 8. Using FTIR to detect specific functional groups, attention should be paid to potential interferences during sample preparation, as well as the limitations of information loss between the 2800 cm−1 and 3700 cm−1 region caused by the absorption characteristics of water [55]. In FTIR spectrum, the absorption peak of different vibration can be used as a basis to indicate the existence of functional groups [56]. The transmittance represents the absorption intensity of the absorption peak. The initial surface functional group of SiO2-NPs only has Si–O–Si groups. It can be indicated by Figure 8A at stretching vibration peak near 1100 cm−1 and bending vibration peak near 470 cm−1. After the interaction between VTES and SiO2-NPs, vinyl groups are generated on the surface of SiO2-NP, resulting in the stretching vibration peak of C–H at 2960 cm−1. In addition, the C=C groups skeleton vibration peak between 1600 and 1450 cm−1 is confirmed the existence of benzene. The emergence of new absorption peaks of vinyl and benzene confirms that the benzimidazole group has been successfully grafted onto the surface of SiO2-NPs [20].
Similarly, as shown in Figure 8B, after the 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane (APTS) functionalization of SiO2-NP, due to the asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations of the CH2 groups [57], the new peaks at 2870 and 2824 cm−1 are significantly different from the bare SiO2-NP peaks [40]. Moreover, the N–H bending vibration introduced by the amino group generated a new spectral band at 1564 cm−1. Additionally, another peak at 3501 cm−1 indicated the N–H stretching vibration [58]. The successful preparation of APTS functionalized SiO2-NP can be verified by the above spectral changes [40]. Additionally, as shown in Figure 8C, different amounts of modifier can affect the transmittance of FTIR spectra of SiO2-NP. As the amount of modifier is increased, the absorbance of surface structural water, at 3200–3600 cm−1, and surface hydroxyl groups, at 1636 cm−1, is gradually weakened. The grafting of DCDMS onto the surface of SiO2-NPs causes polar -OH groups to be replaced by nonpolar -CH3 groups, resulting in strong stretching vibration at 1091 and 803 cm−1 of the functionalized SiO2-NPs. As a result, the particle’s surface changes from hydrophilic to hydrophobic. Therefore, the degree of hydrophobic functionalization of SiO2-NPs can be adjusted at the molecular level by changing the amount of modifier DCDMS [35].

2.2.5. Surface Electrical Properties

Surface electrical properties of the SiO2-NPs can be characterized by Zeta potential measurements [1,20,32,36,38]. As shown by curve A1 in Figure 9, initial SiO2-NPs exhibit a negative Zeta potential. By comparison, after -NH2 functionalization, the Zeta potential became positive, illustrated by curve A2 in Figure 9. It indicates that a positively charged -NH2 has been functionalized onto the surface of the SiO2-NP [1]. Additionally, in the solution, the grafted -COONa group is ionized, causing a negative charge on the surface of the mercaptoterminated SiO2-NPs functionalized through the thiol-ene “click” reaction with sodium oleate [32]. Therefore, SiO2-NPs with the desired electrical properties can be obtained by modifying the particles with modifiers of different electrical properties [1,32]. Furthermore, the surface electrical properties of the SiO2-NPs before and after functionalization can be characterized by quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). QCM is a highly sensitive analytical technique. It can monitor the charge changes during the adsorption process of modifiers. Thus, the characterization of the surface electrical changes of SiO2-NPs before and after functionalization is achieved [59].
Additionally, the high stability of the SiO2-NP solution is beneficial for EOR [1]. The higher the absolute Zeta potential value of the SiO2-NPs, the higher the stability of the solution [60]. After functionalizing with amino, the amino group related boarded electric double layer surrounds the functionalized SiO2-NP. The Zeta potential of the SiO2-NP is decreased from −37.7 to −45.5 mV. A decrease in Zeta potential intensity was observed around −50 mV [36], as shown by curves B1 and B2 in Figure 9. Additionally, the Zeta potential of functionalized SiO2-NP could be affected by pH [20,36,38], as shown in Figure 10. At pH 3–9, the Zeta potential of the SiO2-NP is negative. This is due to the presence of a large amount of silicon hydroxyl groups, mainly including isolated silanol groups (19%, pKa = 4.9) and bissilanol groups [19,61] (81%, pKa = 8.5) on the surface of the particles [38]. As the pH value increases, the absolute value of the Zeta potential of the SiO2-NPs solution increases due to the continuous dissociation of silanol groups as the pH increases. For APTES + OTES functionalized SiO2-NP, the Zeta potential of the functionalized SiO2-NP solution decreases with the increase in pH value. This phenomenon might be attributed to the gradual decrease in the degree of cationization of amino groups on the surface of the SiO2-NPs [38].

3. Current Research Gaps and Future Outlooks

Functionalized SiO2-NP maintains the excellent characteristics of nanoparticles, such as ultra-small size, a high surface-to-volume ratio, low costs, and environmental friendliness [23]. The surface functionalization also changes its wettability [35,39], surface electrical properties [1,20,32,36,38], and surface functional groups [1,20,34,35,36,40], making functionalized SiO2-NPs more effective in EOR [1,7,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,35]. Thus, functionalized SiO2-NPs are enabled to play a huge role in EOR and attract the attention of many researchers [1,20,21,22,23,31,32,33,38,40,62,63,64]. Although researchers have conducted detailed research on related fields, there are still research gaps. Therefore, current research gaps have been identified, and future outlooks are listed below.
(1)
Surface functionalization of SiO2-NPs occasionally has low grafting rates or coating failures [35]. To circumvent these issues, it is recommended to introduce innovative coating agents such as catalysts or ionic liquids and modulate environmental conditions such as temperature and pressure. Another possibility is to alter the surface properties of SiO2-NP during synthesis to augment functionalization efficiency [24].
(2)
The effect of functionalization on SiO2-NP surface roughness remains underexplored despite the potential influence of roughness on particle wettability [65]. Hence, it becomes essential to extensively characterize the state of particle surface roughness both before and after modification.
(3)
The wettability of the SiO2-NP surface plays an important role in the EOR mechanism [66]. The current method for the characterization of SiO2-NP surface wettability needs further improvement. It is recommended that SiO2-NP surface wettability be characterized using microfluidics [67] combined with immersion thermal measurements [39].
(4)
In the process of improving crude oil recovery, some specific chemicals such as biodiesel-based flow improvers (Biodiesel based on soybean oil) and a non-ionic surfactant (Alkyl glucoside derivative) are used in the process to improve crude oil recovery [68,69]. Attempting EOR of specific chemicals mixed functionalized SiO2-NP. Similar to the evaluation of functionalized SiO2-NP in EOR, the performance of EOR of these two chemical products and the mixtures can be evaluated through core flooding experiments or microfluidic experiments [44,46,47,50].
(5)
The addition of functionalized SiO2-NPs during the geological storage of CO2 in natural gas hydrate reservoirs reduces the fluidity of CO2 and improves its geological storage efficiency. Furthermore, the potential impact of functionalized SiO2-NPs on hydrogen geological storage and farming, such as the wettability of geological rock surfaces, solid–fluid interface tension, capillary pressure, relative permeability, and flowability ratio, may be affected by using functionalized SiO2-NPs [70,71,72,73].

4. Conclusions

Functionalized SiO2-NPs have great potential for application in EOR. Initial SiO2-NPs need to be functionalized to be better applied in EOR. Functionalization of SiO2-NP is mainly achieved through surface coating. Current research has conducted detailed studies on surface functionalization of SiO2-NPs, characterization before and after functionalization, and evaluation of EOR application. However, a review comparing and summarizing relevant content is still needed. Therefore, relevant research content has been reviewed, and some conclusions have been reached, as outlined below.
(1)
Physical adsorption [21] and chemical bonding [20] are the main methods for SiO2-NP surface functionalization, where physical adsorption functionalization typically occurs between SiO2-NP and surfactants, while chemical bonding happens between SiO2-NP and any modifier, both surfactants and polymers [24].
(2)
Whether the modifier is grafted onto the surface of SiO2-NP is an important factor affecting the surface wettability, functional groups, and electrical properties of functionalized SiO2-NP [20,32,35].
(3)
The types of modifiers have a significant impact on the surface properties of SiO2-NPs [31,32,37]. Current characterization techniques mainly focus on analyzing the surface properties of SiO2-NPs before and after functionalization, such as morphology, size distribution, wettability, functional groups and electrical properties [24].
In summary, this review paper is provided to improve the fundamental understanding of the functionalization of SiO2-NP and its characterization.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft preparation, Y.Z.; Methodology, Y.J. and J.L.; Investigation, S.A., M.G. and M.I.; Writing—review and editing, H.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Committee of Science, Ministry SHERK, grant number AR 14869372. The APC was funded by Huifang Fan.

Acknowledgments

Saule Aidarova thanks the funding support from AR 14869372 Committee of Science, Ministry SHERK.

Conflicts of Interest

Authors Yiran Jiang and Junzhang Lin was employed by the company Shengli Oilfield Company. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

  1. Zhou, Y.; Wu, X.; Zhong, X.; Sun, W.; Pu, H.; Zhao, J.X. Surfactant-augmented functional silica nanoparticle based nanofluid for enhanced oil recovery at high temperature and salinity. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 45763–45775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Cao, W.; Xie, K.; Lu, X.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, Y. Effect of profile-control oil-displacement agent on increasing oil recovery and its mechanism. Fuel 2019, 237, 1151–1160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Bai, Y.; Wang, Z.; Shang, X.; Dong, C.; Zhao, X.; Liu, P. Experimental evaluation of a surfactant/compound organic alkalis flooding system for enhanced oil recovery. Energy Fuels 2017, 31, 5860–5869. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Xie, K.; Lu, X.; Li, Q.; Jiang, W.; Yu, Q. Analysis of reservoir applicability of hydrophobically associating polymer. Spe J. 2016, 21, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Chen, C.; Wang, S.; Kadhum, M.J.; Harwell, J.H.; Shiau, B.-J. Using carbonaceous nanoparticles as surfactant carrier in enhanced oil recovery: A laboratory study. Fuel 2018, 222, 561–568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Guo, C.; Xu, J.; Wei, M.; Jiang, R. Experimental study and numerical simulation of hydraulic fracturing tight sandstone reservoirs. Fuel 2015, 159, 334–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Alvarado, V.; Manrique, E. Enhanced oil recovery: An update review. Energies 2010, 3, 1529–1575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Kim, I.; Taghavy, A.; DiCarlo, D.; Huh, C. Aggregation of silica nanoparticles and its impact on particle mobility under high-salinity conditions. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2015, 133, 376–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Gong, X.; Lin, B. Time-varying effects of oil supply and demand shocks on China’s macro-economy. Energy 2018, 149, 424–437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Askari, H.; Krichene, N. An oil demand and supply model incorporating monetary policy. Energy 2010, 35, 2013–2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Ghosh, S. Import demand of crude oil and economic growth: Evidence from India. Energy Policy 2009, 37, 699–702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Hendraningrat, L.; Li, S.; Torsæter, O. Effect of some parameters influencing enhanced oil recovery process using silica nanoparticles: An experimental investigation. In Proceedings of the SPE Reservoir Characterisation and Simulation Conference and Exhibition, Abu Dhabi, UAE, 16–18 September 2013; p. SPE-165955-MS. [Google Scholar]
  13. Rezvani, H.; Panahpoori, D.; Riazi, M.; Parsaei, R.; Tabaei, M.; Cortés, F.B. A novel foam formulation by Al2O3/SiO2 nanoparticles for EOR applications: A mechanistic study. J. Mol. Liq. 2020, 304, 112730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Mohajeri, M.; Rasaei, M.R.; Hekmatzadeh, M. Experimental study on using SiO2 nanoparticles along with surfactant in an EOR process in micromodel. Pet. Res. 2019, 4, 59–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Ahmadi, M.-A.; Ahmad, Z.; Phung, L.T.K.; Kashiwao, T.; Bahadori, A. Evaluation of the ability of the hydrophobic nanoparticles of SiO2 in the EOR process through carbonate rock samples. Pet. Sci. Technol. 2016, 34, 1048–1054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Kazemzadeh, Y.; Sharifi, M.; Riazi, M.; Rezvani, H.; Tabaei, M. Potential effects of metal oxide/SiO2 nanocomposites in EOR processes at different pressures. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2018, 559, 372–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Corredor, L.M.; Aliabadian, E.; Husein, M.; Chen, Z.; Maini, B.; Sundararaj, U. Heavy oil recovery by surface modified silica nanoparticle/HPAM nanofluids. Fuel 2019, 252, 622–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Bila, A.; Stensen, J.Å.; Torsæter, O. Experimental evaluation of oil recovery mechanisms using a variety of surface-modified silica nanoparticles in the injection water. In Proceedings of the SPE Norway Subsurface Conference, Bergen, Norway, 17 April 2019; p. D011S003R003. [Google Scholar]
  19. Jia, H.; Dai, J.; Miao, L.; Wei, X.; Tang, H.; Huang, P.; Jia, H.; He, J.; Lv, K.; Liu, D. Potential application of novel amphiphilic Janus-SiO2 nanoparticles stabilized O/W/O emulsion for enhanced oil recovery. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2021, 622, 126658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Dai, C.; Wang, X.; Li, Y.; Lv, W.; Zou, C.; Gao, M.; Zhao, M. Spontaneous imbibition investigation of self-dispersing silica nanofluids for enhanced oil recovery in low-permeability cores. Energy Fuels 2017, 31, 2663–2668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Zhao, M.; Lv, W.; Li, Y.; Dai, C.; Wang, X.; Zhou, H.; Zou, C.; Gao, M.; Zhang, Y.; Wu, Y. Study on the synergy between silica nanoparticles and surfactants for enhanced oil recovery during spontaneous imbibition. J. Mol. Liq. 2018, 261, 373–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Omran, M.; Akarri, S.; Torsaeter, O. The effect of wettability and flow rate on oil displacement using polymer-coated silica nanoparticles: A microfluidic study. Processes 2020, 8, 991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Sun, X.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, G.; Gai, Z. Application of nanoparticles in enhanced oil recovery: A critical review of recent progress. Energies 2017, 10, 345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Sun, W.; Pu, H.; Pierce, D.; Zhao, J.X. Silica-Based Nanoparticles: Outlook in the Enhanced Oil Recovery. Energy Fuels 2023, 37, 16267–16281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Afekare, D.; Garno, J.; Rao, D. Enhancing oil recovery using silica nanoparticles: Nanoscale wettability alteration effects and implications for shale oil recovery. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2021, 203, 108897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. ShamsiJazeyi, H.; Miller, C.A.; Wong, M.S.; Tour, J.M.; Verduzco, R. Polymer-coated nanoparticles for enhanced oil recovery. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014, 131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Hadia, N.J.; Ng, Y.H.; Stubbs, L.P.; Torsæter, O. High salinity and high temperature stable colloidal silica nanoparticles with wettability alteration ability for eor applications. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Zhang, T.; Davidson, A.; Bryant, S.L.; Huh, C. Nanoparticle-stabilized emulsions for applications in enhanced oil recovery. In Proceedings of the SPE Improved Oil Recovery Conference, Tulsa, OK, USA, 24–28 April 2010; p. SPE-129885-MS. [Google Scholar]
  29. Zhang, T.; Murphy, M.; Yu, H.; Bagaria, H.G.; Yoon, K.Y.; Nielson, B.M.; Bielawski, C.W.; Johnston, K.P.; Huh, C.; Bryant, S.L. Investigation of nanoparticle adsorption during transport in porous media. In Proceedings of the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, LA, USA, 30 September–2 October 2013; p. D021S020R005. [Google Scholar]
  30. Cheraghian, G.; Kiani, S.; Nassar, N.N.; Alexander, S.; Barron, A.R. Silica nanoparticle enhancement in the efficiency of surfactant flooding of heavy oil in a glass micromodel. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2017, 56, 8528–8534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Jang, H.; Lee, W.S.; Lee, J. Performance evaluation of surface-modified silica nanoparticles for enhanced oil recovery in carbonate reservoirs. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2024, 681, 132784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Bai, Y.; Pu, C.; Li, X.; Huang, F.; Liu, S.; Liang, L.; Liu, J. Performance evaluation and mechanism study of a functionalized silica nanofluid for enhanced oil recovery in carbonate reservoirs. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2022, 652, 129939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Ahmed, A.; Saaid, I.M.; Ahmed, A.A.; Pilus, R.M.; Baig, M.K. Evaluating the potential of surface-modified silica nanoparticles using internal olefin sulfonate for enhanced oil recovery. Pet. Sci. 2020, 17, 722–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Lu, H.-T. Synthesis and characterization of amino-functionalized silica nanoparticles. Colloids J. 2013, 75, 311–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Yan, Y.-l.; Cai, Y.-x.; Liu, X.-c.; Ma, G.-w.; Lv, W.; Wang, M.-x. Hydrophobic modification on the surface of SiO2 nanoparticle: Wettability control. Langmuir 2020, 36, 14924–14932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Sun, D.; Kang, S.; Liu, C.; Lu, Q.; Cui, L.; Hu, B. Effect of zeta potential and particle size on the stability of SiO2 nanospheres as carrier for ultrasound imaging contrast agents. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 2016, 11, 8520–8529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Wen, S.; Wang, P.; Wang, L. Preparation and antifouling performance evaluation of fluorine-containing amphiphilic silica nanoparticles. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2021, 611, 125823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Cao, J.; Wang, J.; Wang, X.; Zhang, J.; Liu, K.; Wang, Y.; Zhen, W.; Chen, Y. Preparation and characterization of modified amphiphilic nano-silica for enhanced oil recovery. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2022, 633, 127864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Weston, J.; Jentoft, R.; Grady, B.; Resasco, D.; Harwell, J. Silica nanoparticle wettability: Characterization and effects on the emulsion properties. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2015, 54, 4274–4284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Azarshin, S.; Moghadasi, J.; Aboosadi, Z.A. Surface functionalization of silica nanoparticles to improve the performance of water flooding in oil wet reservoirs. Energy Explor. Exploit. 2017, 35, 685–697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Provost, M.; Raulin, K.; Maindron, T.; Gaud, V. Influence of silane coupling agent on the properties of UV curable SiO2-PMMA hybrid nanocomposite. J. Sol-Gel Sci. Technol. 2019, 89, 796–806. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Zhao, M.; Ma, Z.; Song, X.; Wu, W.; Sun, Y.; Cheng, Y.; Wang, X.; Yan, X.; Dai, C. Study on the main factors and mechanism of functional silica nanofluid spontaneous imbibition for enhanced oil recovery. J. Mol. Liq. 2024, 394, 123699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Sharma, I.; Pattanayek, S.K.; Aggarwal, V.; Ghosh, S. Morphology of self assembled monolayers using liquid phase reaction on silica and their effect on the morphology of adsorbed insulin. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2017, 405, 503–513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Jiang, K.; Xiong, C.; Ding, B.; Geng, X.; Liu, W.; Chen, W.; Huang, T.; Xu, H.; Xu, Q.; Liang, B. Nanomaterials in EOR: A Review and Future Perspectives in Unconventional Reservoirs. Energy Fuels 2023, 37, 10045–10060. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Zhou, W.; Tang, X.; Liu, X.; Yan, Y.; Chen, C. Interfacial Behaviors and Oil Detachment Mechanisms by Modified Silica Nanoparticles: Insights from Molecular Simulations. J. Phys. Chem. B 2024, 128, 2985–2994. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Khajeh Kulaki, A.; Hosseini-Nasab, S.M.; Hormozi, F. Low-salinity water flooding by a novel hybrid of nano γ-Al2O3/SiO2 modified with a green surfactant for enhanced oil recovery. Sci. Rep. 2024, 14, 14033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Xu, G.; Chang, J.; Wu, H.; Shao, W.; Li, G.; Hou, J.; Kang, N.; Yang, J. Enhanced oil recovery performance of surfactant-enhanced janus SiO2 nanofluid for high temperature and salinity reservoir. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2023, 657, 130545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Wenlong, Q.; Guoqing, L.; Lu, L.; Hanxi, L.; Ruixuan, L.; Guowei, Q.; Jiang, Y. Investigation of silica nanoparticles grafted with sulphonated polymer for enhanced oil recovery at high temperature and high salt. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 2023, 101, 5794–5801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Zhang, L.; Zhang, C.; Yao, Z.; Shen, J.; Han, C.; Zhao, X.; Pan, Y. Copolymer Grafted Nano Silica Particles for Enhanced Oil Recovery from Low-Permeability Reservoirs. Chem. Technol. Fuels Oils 2024, 60, 59–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Kumar, R.S.; Arif, M.; Das, K.; Sharma, T. Recent Trends in EOR: Nanofluid Flooding. In Advancements in Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery; Apple Academic Press: Palm Bay, FL, USA, 2024; pp. 155–172. [Google Scholar]
  51. Jang, H.; Lee, W.; Lee, J. Nanoparticle dispersion with surface-modified silica nanoparticles and its effect on the wettability alteration of carbonate rocks. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2018, 554, 261–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Wang, D.; Sun, S.; Cui, K.; Li, H.; Gong, Y.; Hou, J.; Zhang, Z. Wettability alteration in low-permeability sandstone reservoirs by “SiO2–Rhamnolipid” nanofluid. Energy Fuels 2019, 33, 12170–12181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Behzadi, A.; Mohammadi, A. Environmentally responsive surface-modified silica nanoparticles for enhanced oil recovery. J. Nanopart. Res. 2016, 18, 266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Yan, N.; Maham, Y.; Masliyah, J.H.; Gray, M.R.; Mather, A.E. Measurement of contact angles for fumed silica nanospheres using enthalpy of immersion data. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2000, 228, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Grdadolnik, J. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy: Its advantage and limitations. Acta Chim. Slov. 2002, 49, 631–642. [Google Scholar]
  56. Berthomieu, C.; Hienerwadel, R. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Photosynth. Res. 2009, 101, 157–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Naghizadeh, M.; Taher, M.A.; Behzadi, M.; Moghaddam, F.H. Simultaneous preconcentration of bismuth and lead ions on modified magnetic core–shell nanoparticles and their determination by ETAAS. Chem. Eng. J. 2015, 281, 444–452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Fan, H.-T.; Sun, T.; Xu, H.-B.; Yang, Y.-J.; Tang, Q.; Sun, Y. Removal of arsenic (V) from aqueous solutions using 3-[2-(2-aminoethylamino) ethylamino] propyl-trimethoxysilane functionalized silica gel adsorbent. Desalination 2011, 278, 238–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Roshani, M.M.; Rostaminikoo, E.; Joonaki, E.; Dastjerdi, A.M.; Najafi, B.; Taghikhani, V.; Hassanpouryouzband, A. Applications of the quartz crystal microbalance in energy and environmental sciences: From flow assurance to nanotechnology. Fuel 2022, 313, 122998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Jacobs, C.; Kayser, O.; Müller, R. Nanosuspensions as a new approach for the formulation for the poorly soluble drug tarazepide. Int. J. Pharm. 2000, 196, 161–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  61. Yin, T.; Yang, Z.; Dong, Z.; Lin, M.; Zhang, J. Physicochemical properties and potential applications of silica-based amphiphilic Janus nanosheets for enhanced oil recovery. Fuel 2019, 237, 344–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Lashari, N.; Ganat, T.; Ayoub, M.A.; Kalam, S.; Ali, I. Coreflood investigation of HPAM/GO-SiO2 composite through wettability alteration. J. Mol. Liq. 2023, 371, 121130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Llanos, S.; Giraldo, L.J.; Santamaria, O.; Franco, C.A.; Cortés, F.B. Effect of sodium oleate surfactant concentration grafted onto SiO2 nanoparticles in polymer flooding processes. ACS Omega 2018, 3, 18673–18684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Kumar, G.; Mani, E.; Sangwai, J.S. Microfluidic Investigation of Surfactant-Assisted Functional Silica Nanofluids in Low-Salinity Seawater for Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Reservoir-on-a-Chip. Energy Fuels 2023, 37, 10329–10343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Kiyomura, I.S.; Nascimento, F.; Cunha, A.; Cardoso, E.M. Analysis of the influence of surface roughness and nanoparticle concentration on the contact angle. In Proceedings of the 23rd ABCM International Congress of Mechanical Engineering, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 6–11 December 2015. [Google Scholar]
  66. Wasan, D.T.; Nikolov, A.D. Spreading of nanofluids on solids. Nature 2003, 423, 156–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Li, S.; Dan, D.; Lau, H.C.; Hadia, N.J.; Torsæter, O.; Stubbs, L.P. Investigation of wettability alteration by silica nanoparticles through advanced surface-wetting visualization techniques. In Proceedings of the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Calgary, AB, Canada, 30 September–2 October 2019; p. D031S040R002. [Google Scholar]
  68. Perez-Sanchez, J.F.; Palacio-Perez, A.; Suarez-Dominguez, E.J.; Diaz-Zavala, N.P.; Izquierdo-Kulich, E. Evaluation of surface tension modifiers for crude oil transport through porous media. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2020, 192, 107319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Cortes-Cano, J.M.; Suarez-Dominguez, E.J.; Perez-Sanchez, J.F.; Lozano-Navarro, J.I.; Palacio-Perez, A. Clay-Sand Wettability Evaluation for Heavy Crude Oil Mobility. Chem. Chem. Technol. 2022, 16, 448–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Hassanpouryouzband, A.; Yang, J.; Tohidi, B.; Chuvilin, E.; Istomin, V.; Bukhanov, B.; Cheremisin, A. CO2 capture by injection of flue gas or CO2–N2 mixtures into hydrate reservoirs: Dependence of CO2 capture efficiency on gas hydrate reservoir conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52, 4324–4330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  71. Rognmo, A.; Horjen, H.; Fernø, M. Nanotechnology for improved CO2 utilization in CCS: Laboratory study of CO2-foam flow and silica nanoparticle retention in porous media. Int. J. Greenh. Gas. Control 2017, 64, 113–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Pan, B.; Yin, X.; Ju, Y.; Iglauer, S. Underground hydrogen storage: Influencing parameters and future outlook. Adv. Colloids Interface Sci. 2021, 294, 102473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Tan, Y.; Li, Q.; Xu, L.; Onyekwena, C.C.; Yu, T.; Xu, L. Effects of SiO2 Nanoparticles on Wettability and CO2–Brine–Rock Interactions in Carbonate Reservoirs: Implications for CO2 Storage. Energy Fuels 2024, 38, 1258–1270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Energies 17 03429 g001
Figure 1. Schematic of (A) physical adsorption process [21] and (B) chemical bonding process [20]. (Modified from Mingwei Zhao et al. [21] and Caili Dai et al. [20]).
Figure 1. Schematic of (A) physical adsorption process [21] and (B) chemical bonding process [20]. (Modified from Mingwei Zhao et al. [21] and Caili Dai et al. [20]).
Energies 17 03429 g001
Energies 17 03429 g002
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of SiO2-NP functionalization and its application in EOR [1].
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of SiO2-NP functionalization and its application in EOR [1].
Energies 17 03429 g002
Energies 17 03429 g003
Figure 3. SEM and TEM images with unchanged particle shape and average size before and after functionalization [34,36,42]. (a,c,e), initial SiO2-NPs; (b,d,f), functionalized SiO2-NPs. SEM images: (a,b); TEM images: (c–f) (Scale bars: 100 nm, 100 and 200 nm for (a,b), (c,d) and (e,f), respectively) (Modified from Lu, HT et al. [34], Zhao, M et al. [42] and Sun, D et al. [36]).
Figure 3. SEM and TEM images with unchanged particle shape and average size before and after functionalization [34,36,42]. (a,c,e), initial SiO2-NPs; (b,d,f), functionalized SiO2-NPs. SEM images: (a,b); TEM images: (c–f) (Scale bars: 100 nm, 100 and 200 nm for (a,b), (c,d) and (e,f), respectively) (Modified from Lu, HT et al. [34], Zhao, M et al. [42] and Sun, D et al. [36]).
Energies 17 03429 g003
Energies 17 03429 g004
Figure 4. TEM images of changes in particle shape and average size before and after functionalization [31,32,37]. (a,c,e), initial SiO2-NPs; (b,d,f), functionalized SiO2-NPs. (Scale bars: 200 nm, 50 and 10 nm for (a,b), (c,d) and (e,f), respectively.) (Modified from Hochang Jang et al. [31], Yun Bai et al. [32] and Shifeng Wen et al. [37]).
Figure 4. TEM images of changes in particle shape and average size before and after functionalization [31,32,37]. (a,c,e), initial SiO2-NPs; (b,d,f), functionalized SiO2-NPs. (Scale bars: 200 nm, 50 and 10 nm for (a,b), (c,d) and (e,f), respectively.) (Modified from Hochang Jang et al. [31], Yun Bai et al. [32] and Shifeng Wen et al. [37]).
Energies 17 03429 g004
Energies 17 03429 g005
Figure 5. Statistical analysis of the size distribution of SiO2-NPs before and after functionalization [31,32,34,35,36,37].
Figure 5. Statistical analysis of the size distribution of SiO2-NPs before and after functionalization [31,32,34,35,36,37].
Energies 17 03429 g005
Energies 17 03429 g006
Figure 6. Size distribution of initial and functionalized SiO2-NPs [35,38]. (A): DCDMS functionalization; (B): APTES + OTES functionalization. SiO2-NPs-1: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 1:3, SiO2-NPs-2: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 1:1, SiO2-NPs-3: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 3:1 (Modified from Yong-li Yan et al. [35] and Jie Cao et al. [38]).
Figure 6. Size distribution of initial and functionalized SiO2-NPs [35,38]. (A): DCDMS functionalization; (B): APTES + OTES functionalization. SiO2-NPs-1: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 1:3, SiO2-NPs-2: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 1:1, SiO2-NPs-3: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 3:1 (Modified from Yong-li Yan et al. [35] and Jie Cao et al. [38]).
Energies 17 03429 g006
Energies 17 03429 g007
Figure 7. (A): Contact angle changes in the preparation of SiO2-NPs due to different dosages of DCDMS [35]; (B): Surface grafting rate of SiO2-NPs functionalized with varying amounts of DCDMS [35]. (Modified from Yong-li Yan et al. [35]).
Figure 7. (A): Contact angle changes in the preparation of SiO2-NPs due to different dosages of DCDMS [35]; (B): Surface grafting rate of SiO2-NPs functionalized with varying amounts of DCDMS [35]. (Modified from Yong-li Yan et al. [35]).
Energies 17 03429 g007
Energies 17 03429 g008
Figure 8. FTIR spectra of (A): (a) initial and (b) VTES and 2-mercaptobenzimidazole + DMPA functionalized SiO2-NPs [20]; (B): bare and APTS functionalized SiO2-NPs [40]; (C): bare and different amounts of DCDMS functionalized SiO2-NPs [35].
Figure 8. FTIR spectra of (A): (a) initial and (b) VTES and 2-mercaptobenzimidazole + DMPA functionalized SiO2-NPs [20]; (B): bare and APTS functionalized SiO2-NPs [40]; (C): bare and different amounts of DCDMS functionalized SiO2-NPs [35].
Energies 17 03429 g008
Energies 17 03429 g009
Figure 9. Zeta potential distribution of SiO2-NPs and functionalized SiO2-NPs [1,36]. A1 and A2: initial and -NH2 functionalized SiO2-NPs [1]; B1 and B2: initial and amino-functionalized SiO2-NPs [36] (Modified from Yanxia Zhou et al. [1] and Sun, D et al. [36]).
Figure 9. Zeta potential distribution of SiO2-NPs and functionalized SiO2-NPs [1,36]. A1 and A2: initial and -NH2 functionalized SiO2-NPs [1]; B1 and B2: initial and amino-functionalized SiO2-NPs [36] (Modified from Yanxia Zhou et al. [1] and Sun, D et al. [36]).
Energies 17 03429 g009
Energies 17 03429 g010
Figure 10. Zeta potential of initial and functionalized SiO2-NPs changes with pH [38]. SiO2-NPs-1: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 1:3, SiO2-NPs-2: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 1:1, SiO2-NPs-3: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 3:1 (Modified from Jie Cao et al. [38]).
Figure 10. Zeta potential of initial and functionalized SiO2-NPs changes with pH [38]. SiO2-NPs-1: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 1:3, SiO2-NPs-2: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 1:1, SiO2-NPs-3: Mole ratio of OTES/APTES is 3:1 (Modified from Jie Cao et al. [38]).
Energies 17 03429 g010
Table 1. Functions of modifiers.
Table 1. Functions of modifiers.
ReferencesMaterialsFunctionInfluencing Factors
[1,20,21]surfactantsincreasing storage stability, increasing oil droplets contact angle, increasing structural disjoining pressure, alternation of wettabilityrelative concentrations of surfactant and nanoparticle
[22,26]polymersobtaining stable emulsions, alternation of wettability, increasing solution and chemical stability, reduction of interfacial tensionpH, light, temperature
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zhou, Y.; Jiang, Y.; Lin, J.; Aidarova, S.; Gabdullin, M.; Issakhov, M.; Fan, H. A Review on Surface Functionalization and Characterization of Silicon Oxide Nanoparticle: Implications for Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery. Energies 2024, 17, 3429. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143429

AMA Style

Zhou Y, Jiang Y, Lin J, Aidarova S, Gabdullin M, Issakhov M, Fan H. A Review on Surface Functionalization and Characterization of Silicon Oxide Nanoparticle: Implications for Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery. Energies. 2024; 17(14):3429. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143429

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhou, Yuhang, Yiran Jiang, Junzhang Lin, Saule Aidarova, Maratbek Gabdullin, Miras Issakhov, and Huifang Fan. 2024. "A Review on Surface Functionalization and Characterization of Silicon Oxide Nanoparticle: Implications for Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery" Energies 17, no. 14: 3429. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143429

APA Style

Zhou, Y., Jiang, Y., Lin, J., Aidarova, S., Gabdullin, M., Issakhov, M., & Fan, H. (2024). A Review on Surface Functionalization and Characterization of Silicon Oxide Nanoparticle: Implications for Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery. Energies, 17(14), 3429. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143429

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop