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Review

Utilization of Biomass Waste Through Small-Scale Gasification Technology in the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa: Towards the Achievement of Sustainable Development Goal Number 7

by
Shylet Yvonne Chivanga
1 and
Patrick Mukumba
2,*
1
Faculty of Management and Commerce, University of Fort Hare, King William’s Town Road, Alice 5700, South Africa
2
Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of Fort Hare, King William’s Town Road, Alice 5700, South Africa
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2024, 17(21), 5251; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215251
Submission received: 16 August 2024 / Revised: 6 October 2024 / Accepted: 6 October 2024 / Published: 22 October 2024
(This article belongs to the Section B: Energy and Environment)
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Abstract

:
Despite being resource-richly endowed with various energy sources, and despite the connection of 89.8% of the households to the grid in South Africa, the Eastern Cape province, as compared to other provinces, has the lowest level of grid connection of about 64.5%. Some of the rural poor households in the Eastern Cape province supplement their free basic electricity with unclean energy alternatives. Using unclean energy alternatives is not only detrimental to the environment and health of the people, but it is a sign of energy poverty and among the contributing factors to depesantization, deagrarianization, and deindustrialization which prolongs the underdevelopment in rural areas. Innovation in energy technologies is a key ingredient in meaningful rural development. The utilization of small-scale biomass gasification technologies can be a solution to the South African energy crisis in rural areas, and it is in line with sustainable development goal number 7, which is about ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. Alternative renewable energy sources cannot be ignored when dealing with the energy crises in South Africa. Renewable energy sources in the country include biomass, solar, wind, and hydropower. Despite its low utilization in the Eastern Cape province, small-scale biomass gasification technology remains pivotal in reducing energy crisis by producing electricity. However, the affordability of biomass gasification technology also plays a role in whether people will accept small-scale biomass gasification technology. The purpose of this paper is to determine the possibilities of using small-scale biomass gasification technology. This paper gives a comprehensive review of small-scale biomass gasification technology potential in the Eastern Cape province and the link between acceptance of small-scale gasification technology and affordability by evaluating the availability of biomass sources in the province and achievements with regards to small-scale biomass gasification. This paper also covers the impact of biomass gasification technology integration in the energy grid, what needs to be taken into consideration before its installation, its benefits and the barriers to its development in Eastern Cape province.

1. Introduction

With the increasing costs of grid energy and the country’s commitment towards the use of renewable energy sources [1] the application of small-scale biomass gasification technology in the Eastern Cape province can be a step in the right direction towards sustainable rural development and towards the respect to right to energy access as a human right and towards the achievement of sustainable development goal number 7, which is to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all [2]. Biomass waste have the potential to either substitute or augment fossil fuels for energy production, as well as in the development of a range of value-added products [3]. Alternative renewable energy technologies need to be taken into consideration in solving the energy crisis, if we are to achieve sustainable development goal number 7 by 2030. Small-scale biomass gasification technology allows for the conversion of different wastes such as plant waste and animal waste to a gaseous fuel such as syngas which can be used as an energy. Given the fact that, by nature, resources are scarce, there is a need for a deeper understanding of alternative renewable energy technologies in rural areas. Feedstock for small-scale biomass gasification technology is eco-friendly and available in rural areas and farms considering the availability of animal waste and crop waste in rural areas. Using plant and food waste for small-scale biomass gasification protects the water sources and the environment. In support of this, the National Energy Policy and Integrated Resource Plan of South Africa is in support of the use of biomass as a renewable resource [4]). In the same line, the South African Department of Science and Technology has indicated that biomass has the potential of contributing 1300 Megawatt (MW) of electricity to South Africa’s energy mix [5]. The acceptance of two biomass energy projects, namely Mkuze 16 MW and the Ngodwana (25 MW), by the Department of Energy under the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme shows the potential of biomass energy source as a renewable alternative [6]. There is a need for further research in terms of the harvesting, transport, maintenance, and availability of affordable and small-scale biomass technology as well as the sustainability of biomass energy sources; moreover, biomass as compared to the current grid, which uses coal, has an advantage of using renewable feedstock.
The use of plants and animal and domestic waste will reduce environment and water pollution and assist in waste management while providing affordable energy to rural households [7]. As much as small-scale biomass gasification technology has many advantages environmentally and in terms of employment creation and energy crises solution, it is still lagging in terms of application in the Eastern Cape province. The Eastern Cape province was chosen because it has the lowest level of grid connection compared to other provinces in South Africa Opting for small-scale biomass gasification technology will reduce environmental degradation in the future. Energy is the key to sustainable development [8]. However, the use of non-renewable energy sources does not only impact energy access but also affects the livelihoods, health, and education access of the affected people [9].
About 43% of South African households spend more than 10% of their budget on domestic energy services [10]. Despite coverage of over 89.8% of the grid connection and the government efforts towards energy poverty reduction such as the free basic electricity policy, which offers 50 kWh to registered indigent households in the indigent program, some indigent households continue to use unclean energy alternatives because the free 50 kWt which they receive monthly is not enough [11]. Energy poverty is still a challenge in South Africa, especially in off-grid and rural areas as indicated by the approximately 3.5 million households not connected to the grid [12]). The Eastern Cape is the second province in South Africa, with the largest number of households receiving free basic electricity and the third province with a huge number of households using firewood for cooking [13]. Electricity cost is high, and for low-income households, such a scenario leaves them with limited energy choices. In most cases, low-income households resort to unclean sources of energy.
In the current power grid of South Africa, 78% of electricity is from coal, 5.9% from open cycle gas turbines (OCGTs), 5.7% from wind, 3.9% from hydro, 3.6% from solar and 3.2% from nuclear. More than 78% of electricity from South Africa is from fossil fuel which is non-renewable. In such a scenario, opting for improved biomass energy sources which are renewable and using readily available sources of energy such as leaves, grass, and dung in a manner which is eco-friendly will be a better option. However, biomass is not in the current power grid of South Africa. Further details of the current power grid are indicated in Figure 1.

1.1. Significance of This Study

The significance of this study is that it focuses on small-scale biomass gasification technology in the Eastern Cape in South Africa, an area which still needs more research not only in South Africa but in Africa. The advantage of small-scale gasification technology especially in rural areas is that biomass gasification feedstock is available. Considering the country’s high reliance on coal, biomass gasification technology which uses renewable energy sources can reduce the country’s high reliance on coal, which is a non-renewable resource. Gasification technology is a promising sustainable technology of waste management because it converts waste into electricity. As much as gasification technology requires a lot of capital, small-scale biomass gasification technology, in the case of South Africa, reduces fossil fuel usage; it has a potential of creating scarce skill employment and contributing to the goal of the country—using 18% of the energy from renewable energy sources by 2030.

1.2. Research Questions

The study used the literature review methodology. The following research questions were formulated to guide the study on which this paper is based:
  • Which biomass energy sources are available in the Eastern Cape province?
  • Does Eastern Cape have a potential of small-scale biomass gasification?
  • Which factors need to be taken into consideration before small scale biomass gasification technology?
  • Which areas which need research and innovation to promote small scale biomass gasification technology?

1.3. Research Objectives

The research objectives were as follows:
  • To identify different sources of biomass energy in the Eastern Cape province.
  • To examine the potential of small-scale biomass gasification technology in the Eastern Cape province.
  • To identify the factors which need to be taken into consideration before small-scale biomass gasification technology.
  • To identify the areas which need research and innovation to promote small-scale biomass gasification technology.

1.4. Search Strategy and Literature Search Process

The information in this paper was searched from different databases. Some of them are as follows: DHET, DOAJ, Scopus, Google Scholar, google, and different relevant government websites and reports. The keywords which were used include, small-scale biomass gasification and biomass. The researchers screened the articles by evaluating article titles, and abstracts. The purpose for screening articles was to focus on the most relevant articles. The study focused mainly on articles published not more than 10 years ago and excluded articles that were irrelevant to the research questions, unpublished theses, articles written in other languages, and duplicates. Articles used were selected according to their relevance to the research questions and objectives of the paper.

2. Biomass Gasification

As shown in Table 1 there is a potential of using biomass energy in South Africa as indicated by the presence of biomass energy sources, namely agriculture residues, sugar cane bagasse, sugar cane field residues, plantation residue, pulp and paper mill residue, black liquor, sawmill waste, invasive species, fuel wood, organic solid waste, organic sewage sludge, and purposively cultivated crops. As much as there is potential for biomass energy in South Africa, the challenge of biomass is rainfall constraints which will also cause constraints in access to the sources of biomass thereby affecting the supply of biomass sources [5]. Despite the question of sustainability in the extraction of some of the biomass energy sources, small-scale biomass gasification technology energy can be used at small-scale level in areas with plenty of biomass sources such as Eastern Cape. Biomass can also be used as an alternative during load shedding. There is a need for more research on small-scale biomass gasification technology potential in the Eastern Cape province.
Column description of Table 1.
AllocatedUnavailable to maintain soil productivity and condition, or not accessible
Energy AllocatedUsed already for energy applications
Not availableTotal not available = Sum (allocated Categories)
Available nowAvailable = Total potential—Not available
Potential additional availabilityAdditional biomass unlocked through various scenarios
Energy densitySpecific energy content of biomass
Moisture contentEstimated moisture content of the biomass (air-dried, except in the case of black liquor)
Energy equivalent nowTotal energy in dry biomass currently available
(Hugo, 2016:15) [5].
Biomass refers to carbon-based materials such as animal waste, human waste, food waste, algae, industrial waste like sawdust, cut-offs, bark, shavings, and reject timber from sawmills plant material, which when processed can produce organic fuels [14]. Biomass is renewable and available in rural areas. The advantage of biomass is that it can be converted into heat and electrical energy, methane gas, chemicals, and transportation fuel through thermochemical and biochemical processes. Examples of thermochemical conversation are gasification, pyrolysis, and combustion.
Biomass can be used directly for heating and combustion and indirectly as biofuels [15]). The utilization of biomass as an energy source is based on the heat energy released during the combustion of biomass waste [16]. The solar energy trapped by plants is given off in the form of heat energy during biomass combustion.
As indicated on the 2022 South African power grid, biomass energy is not part of the power grid. Despite not being considered part of the energy grid, there is a potential for biomass as a source of energy in South Africa, as evidenced by the availability of 42 million hectares of natural woodland; 1.2 million tons of woods fuel; 35 million hectares of plantation; several trees in rural areas [17]); 107 million tons of waste annually, with most of it being landfilled; 92.7 hazardous and 65% general waste [18]); plant and animal waste in rural areas; and domestic waste. Table 2 shows the number of biomass power plants in South Africa namely Umfolozi Sugar Mill, Tongaat Felixton, Komati Mill, Busby Renewables Biomass Project, George Biomass to Energy Project, Tongaat Amatikulu, Malelane Mill and Illovo Eston.
Mkuze biomass plant: The success story of the potential of biomass energy as an alternative renewable energy in South Africa
The Mkuze biomass project in Kwazulu Natal, currently owned by Navosync, was accepted by the Department of Energy under the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme in 2013. The construction of Mkuze biomass plant project is expected start in 2026 and enter into commercial operation in 2027. The sources of energy which will be used for the Mkuze biomass plant will be agriculture (mainly sugar cane waste) and forest biomass (woody). Mkuze biomass project is expected to produce 132,000 MWh electricity and supply clean energy to around 40,000 households and is expected to offset 67,600 t of carbon dioxide emissions (CO2) a year [19].
Biomass gasification is a thermochemical process which converts carbon-containing material into combustible gas through the supply of restricted amounts of oxygen. Compared to other conversion technologies such as combustion and pyrolysis, gasification has a higher energy efficiency recovery and higher heat capacity. The gas produced by biomass gasification, especially in the case of feedstock is known as producer gas, wood gas, or syngas [20]. Syngas is a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor [21]. It is important to note that gas specifications are different for various applications and the composition of gas is dependent on the gasification process, the gasification agent, and gasification temperature. Two main types of gasification gas are biosyngas and product gas [22]. Product gas is generated in a low-temperature gasification process of about 800 to 1000 °C, whereas biosyngas is produced at a higher temperature of around 1200 to 1400 °C. Product gas contains carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, and other hydrogen carbon components (CO, H2, CH4, CxHy), whilst Biosyngas contains carbon monoxide and hydrogen (CO and H2). Syngas can also be produced from producer gas through heating, thermal cracking, or catalytic reforming. This is further indicated in Figure 2.
  • Uses of syngas
Syngas can be used for heating, steaming, electricity generation, chemicals, and fuel. It can be converted to methane, methanol, and ethanol. Methanol from syngas can further be processed into biodiesel. Table 3 further shows the uses of syngas.
The gasification of biomass can be a cheaper and better energy technology alternative to rural households as compared to the current energy grid which uses [12]. Gasification refers to the indirect combustion of solid and liquid biomass to convert them to combustive syngas [24]. The advantage of syngas is that it can be purified before use, thereby reducing air pollution [25]. Unlike the traditional combustion of biomass that produces gases such as carbon monoxide, which pollutes the air, gasification reduces carbon emissions while using the energy sources available to rural households [26]. A biomass gasification system generally comprises different parts that make up a unit, namely, a feeding system, a gasifier/reactor, cleaning systems such as cyclone, and syngas cooling systems such as a gas scrubber [27].
The thermochemical process occurs in a gasifier which is also known as a reactor. As indicated in Figure 3, the main types of gasifiers are 01: fixed bed, 02: fluidized bed, 03: entrained flows and 04: plasma gasifiers (Jančauskas et al., 2024 [22]). Examples of fixed bed gasifiers are downdraft, updraft, and cross draft gasifiers. Fixed bed gasifiers consist of four different zones, namely the drying zone, pyrolysis zone, reduction zone, and combustion zones, where different chemical and physical processes take place. In general, fixed bed gasifiers are cheap, simple and they produce low heat [28], whereas fluidized bed gasifiers are more expensive, complicated, and produce syngas of high heat value [29]. Examples of fluidized gasifiers are bubbling fluidized bed gasifiers and circulating fluidized gasifiers.
Entrained flow gasifiers are comparatively new, and they have a high efficiency. In most cases, entrained flow gasifiers are used for large-scale gasification of biomass and coal and refinery residues. Entrained flow gasifiers require highly pulverized articles which makes it problematic to use biomass as a feed stock [30]. Entrained flow gasifiers can be used as a substitute for natural gas heating which is an advantage of carbon reduction. It has the advantage of a calorific value of synthetic gas of about 10 MJ/m3 [31].
Plasma gasifiers are the other types of gasifiers which are environmentally more friendly because they use waste, which is very helpful in terms of reducing landfills and in terms of waste management [32] presenting its alignment with SDG 7 especially in terms of sustainable energy access for all. Plasma gasifiers gasify the feedstock in plasma produced by a high-energy electric arc. Inert gas is passed through the arc, heating the process gas to 1500–5000 °C [33].
Energies 17 05251 g003
Figure 3. Types of gasifiers: (Akbarian et al.,2022: 4) [34].
Figure 3. Types of gasifiers: (Akbarian et al.,2022: 4) [34].
Energies 17 05251 g003

3. Sawmills in Eastern Cape for Small-Scale Biomass Gasification

Sawmill waste can be used as a feedstock for biomass gasification. The sawmill’s main waste materials are sawdust, cut-offs, bark, shavings, and reject timber. Table 4 shows some of the sawmills in the Eastern Cape, which shows the potential of biomass gasification technology in the province.

4. Forests in Eastern Cape

The Eastern Cape constitutes about 46% of South Africa’s remaining indigenous forest cover. Forests constitute about 2.2% of the land cover of the Eastern Cape, and there seems to be an increase in the indigenous forest cover in the Eastern Cape due to revegetation of the previously cultivated fields since independence, owing to the increasing deagranisation in rural areas [35]. As much as the Eastern Cape has the potential of biomass energy, there is a need for sustainable ways of collecting biomass raw materials in the forests since the forest in the Eastern Cape constitutes 46% of South Africa’s remaining indigenous cover [35]. The list of forests in the Eastern Cape include the following: Missippi, Lully, jhali Donkey, Hogsback, Inyarha Isidenge, Katberger, Kologha, Booman, Krishna River, Surbhi, Lamborguine, Lottering, Plaatbos, Robbe Hoek, Storms River, Welbedacht, Amatole, Dwesaa and Tsitsikamma. Table 5 shows the number of households with serviced and unserviced sewage sludge. Sewage sludge can be used as a source of biomass gasification.
Research conducted by [5] indicated the presence of both serviced (584,140) and unserviced sewage sludge (1,092,176) from 1,676,316 households. The availability of sludge which can be used as a source of small-scale biomass gasification shows that the Eastern Cape has the potential of using sewage sludge for biomass gasification. Using sewage sludge for small-scale biomass gasification reduces land pollution, which in turn has a negative impact on the climate. Table 6 shows the potential of animal waste as a source of biomass gasification.
There are plenty of animals in the Eastern Cape. Animals produce animal waste which can be used as a source of biomass energy. The Census of commercial agriculture—Eastern Cape Report of 2018 showed that there were plenty of animals in the Eastern Cape province as indicated by the availability of 1,013,298 cattle, 476,296 goats, 162,884 pigs 25,618 springbok; 15,418 impala; 7116 wild beast 9260 kudu, and 4314 zebras. In support of this, research performed by [36] indicated that there are a lot of energy sources for biomass energy in the Eastern Cape province. A rough estimation of cow dung produced by a cow per day is 15 kg, while a rough estimation of animal waste produced per day is 15,199,470 kg from cattle, 417,296 kg from goats, and 488,652 kg from pigs. Animal waste is rich in nitrogen, which is used for biomass gasification. Through biomass gasification technology, if all this animal waste is utilized for the energy production of the Eastern Cape province, it will go a long way in promoting economic opportunities for rural poor and in improving pass rates especially for the girl child. Energy poverty is a symptom of low income and, at times, a major challenge in households with gender-based violence. Promoting sustainable energy production through using energy alternatives such as the use of small-scale biomass gasification technology has the potential for creating sustainable employment, which in turn will promote stability in families and improve pass rates. Usually, violence and all forms of poverty including energy poverty affects the mortality rates of children. At the country level, small-scale biomass gasification may not be financially viable; however, in the Eastern Cape province, it may be a viable option for a mini grid, especially in areas with plenty of biomass energy sources. What is needed is biomass gasification technology which can harness biomass at the household level. From the rough estimation of animal waste produced by animals in Eastern Cape per day, there is a need for biomass gasification technology. Table 7 indicates an estimation of waste produced by each animal per day.

5. Culture and Biomass Gasification Technology in Eastern Cape

The Eastern Cape province is mostly rural [37]. The rural population constitutes mostly of women, children, old people and unemployed youths. In rural areas, especially in female-headed households, women are responsible for the collection of biomass feedstock for biomass gasification. In most cases, in African rural areas, men are supposed to carry timber because timber is heavy especially when sawmills are far away from the villages. In the case of female-headed households, even if biomass gasification uses available sources, culture will be a hindrance to such renewable energy technology.

6. Legislative Frameworks of Energy Linked to Biomass in South Africa

There are legislations which have been put in place by the government in the energy sector to protect the environment and the rights of the citizens such as the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act, 2004 (Act No. 39 of 2004), the National Energy Act 34 of 2008, the National Water Act, 1998 Section 24, and the 2008 Energy Act. Further details of the acts are explained in Table 8.

7. Benefits of Considering the Use of Small-Scale Biomass Technology in Rural Areas

The advantage of small-scale biomass gasification technology is that it is more efficient compared to direct combustion of the original feedstock material. Using biomass sources of energy in a traditional way, for example, cooking using traditional stoves, produces carbon monoxide, which pollutes the air while having negative impacts on people’s health, especially women, children, and old people, who constitute most of the rural population. About 2.4 billion people cook using polluting technologies, and about 6.7 million people die yearly because of household air pollution [38].
Biomass gasification technology is a cleaner process that converts most dry organic matter into clean fuel. The clean fuel can also be converted to ammonia which can be used for agriculture in rural areas. It has an advantage over coal, a non-renewable source of energy which is currently used in South Africa as the main source of electricity [39]. Small-scale biomass gasification technology can be used on farms. Increase in agriculture productivity to cater for the increasing population requires energy. Small-scale biomass gasification technology, especially at farms with available feed stock, is much more reliable and economical than using expensive sources of energy like petroleum. The use of biomass gasification in agriculture is not new, it has been used for transportation and biomass gasification on farm systems during World War II [40].
The other advantage of small-scale biomass gasification is that it allows for wider choices of electricity generation through biomass technology since it produces gaseous fuel that can power boilers, engines, and turbines. Synthesis gas from thermal gasification of biomass can also produce electricity and heat through fuel cells. Moreover, the gasification of biomass can produce synthetic diesel which can be used as transport fuel. The generation of electricity through products of gasification reduces pollution as compared to direct air combustion from solid fuels [41].
Biomass gasification is helpful in sustainable waste management because it uses waste which pollutes the air, water, and land when not used [42]. Gasification is economically friendly because it uses waste material, which is available and accessible in rural areas, which is an advantage over traditional biomass.

8. Factors to Consider Before Small-Scale Biomass Technology Installation

The following must be considered: Need for sampling before such technology is used in many areas to test consumer preferences.

9. Affordability of Gasification Technology

There is a need to compare the affordability of gasification technology to the existing technologies and whether it can be cheaper in rural areas. If the biomass gasification technologies are cheaper than the existing technology, there will be a need to adopt the technology. In order to solve the challenge of affordability and to encourage stability in the biomass market, there is a need for partnership between biomass producers and biomass energy plant producers to promote the large-scale production of biomass energy, which will promote stability in biomass energy supply [43].

10. Biomass Sector Report

10.1. Environmental Friendliness

There is a need to check the environmental friendliness of biomass gasification technology. As much as there is a need for renewable energy technologies, there is also a need for balance between energy and the environment for the sake of future generations. For example, there is a need for conserving the trees, and the disadvantage of tree harvesting is that it can cause soil erosion and health problems if it is not properly monitored [44].

10.2. Culture

Culture needs to be considered when installing small-scale biomass gasifiers to find out if the technology does not go against culture. Installing technology which does not comply with people’s beliefs and needs results in a loss in the long run.

10.3. An Area Not Connected to the Grid

There are some rural areas which are not connected to the grid. It will be a good idea to install off-grid renewable energy technologies such as small-scale biomass gasifiers, considering the availability and affordability of such an energy source. In rural areas, trees and sawmill waste are accessible and not costly as compared to grid connection.

10.4. Low-Income Households

Installation of affordable renewable energy technologies in low-income households will reduce energy poverty. Energy is a basic need, but most low-income households spend more than half of their monthly income on energy which strains food security. Money that is supposed to be used for buying food will be used for energy, resulting in food insecurity to low-income households. Therefore, the use of affordable renewable gasification technologies in rural areas will reduce budget constraints and food insecurity among low-income households.

10.5. Availability of Biomass Energy Sources

There is a need to consider the availability of biomass gasification technology energy sources. In the case of the Eastern Cape, there are many forests and sawmills, making it easier for low-income households to use sawmill waste and animal waste for energy production thereby reducing land, air, and water pollution.

10.6. Biomass Technology Awareness

Before the installation of renewable energy gasification technology in rural areas, there is a need to provide detailed information to rural households about how to use such technologies, how to maintain the technology, and the advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy technology to people through awareness campaigns. There is also a need to use the vernacular language during explanations for the sake of older people and the uneducated communities.

The Success Story of Small-Scale Biomass Gasification Technology in Other Countries

A small-scale biomass gasification plant called the Harbøre Plant, with a capacity of 650 kWe, was successfully implemented in Denmark. Countries like Sweden, Germany, India, Japan, and Thailand have successfully set up small-scale biomass gasification technologies. Small-scale biomass gasification technology has been a success story as well in China as indicated by the commercialization of the small-scale biomass gasification technologies by the following companies, namely Huairou Wood Equipment, Huantai Integrate Gas Supply System, Tianyan Ltd. (downdraft), Tianyan Ltd. (fluidized bed), GIE, and GIEC [35]). Further details of the small-scale biomass gasification technology in China are indicated in Table 9.

10.7. Biomass Gasification Technology in South Africa

A small-scale, 300 Nm3/h (150 kVA) biomass gasifier in the Melani Village in the Eastern Cape was installed in 2007 to assess the viability of biomass gasification potential in the Eastern Cape. It uses sawmill waste as feedstock for the gasification process. In addition, in 2010, a biomass gasification plant of a capacity of 120 kW at Honeydew in Johannesburg was launched by Eecofuels re-newable energy company in South Africa [45]. SystMB Johansson gas producer also developed a gasifier with a capacity of 30–500 Kw to utilize woody biomass waste [46]
It is important to note that there are some of the gasification plants in South Africa which use coal, namely Synfuels West which started in 1977, Sasol Synfuel East which started in 1982, and ESKOM Majuba Underground gasification project which started in 2007, and CISR pilot plant [47] These gasification plants use coal. However, this study focuses on biomass gasification technology that uses renewable energy feedstock.

10.8. Eastern Cape and Gasification Technology in Eastern Cape

Considering the availability of biomass energy sources in rural areas, the implementation of biomass gasification technology could increase; however, the implementation of biomass gasification technology is moving at a snail’s pace.
Despite the availability of energy sources for small-scale biomass gasification technology, rural people continue to use firewood. Firewood is used with cook stoves or with open fire and is the most preferred over cow dung. Firewood is used because it makes the flavor of the food taste nice, for example, meat cooked in a three-leg pot using firewood tastes nicer than meat cooked on an electric stove. Firewood is accessible. It is readily available and free in rural areas. It can be used without any technology. However, in firewood scarce areas use of firewood becomes expensive in the long run. Firewood releases carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and particles, which result in both indoor and outdoor air pollution. There has been a challenge of time and labor involved in collecting wood which has made it costly [48]. Nonetheless, the contribution of biomass collection to environmental degradation cannot be ignored. Small-scale biomass gasification technology reduces the extent of deforestation attributable to biomass sources by enhancing efficiency therefore reducing demand [49]. Therefore, there is a need to design and construct many small-scale biomass gasifiers in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, for electricity generation for the benefit of rural communities and can reduce pollution from unutilized biomass waste. Hydrogen from the gasification process can be a fuel for hydrogen cells.

11. Innovative Strategies Employed in the Utilization of Sawmill Waste

Given the availability of biomass waste for gasification technology in the Eastern Cape, cheaper small-scale biomass gasification technologies can be used as supplements for the energy grid which is more costly. On the other hand, from an economic point of view, biomass gasification technology should be relatively inexpensive for it to be used over the other energy alternatives used by rural people. Advantages in terms of costs and sustainability should be the drive from moving from other sources of energy used by rural people to biomass gasification technology.

Biomass Gasification and Sustainable Development Goals

The sustainable development goals superseded the MDGs from 2016 and articulate the aims of the second 15-year phase of the United Nations Millennium Declaration [50]. The SDGs are inclusive of the three bottom line approaches to human well-being, namely social inclusion, environmental sustainability, and economic development. The unique character of the SDGs, especially SDG 7, lies in their integration of sustainability into the processes of reducing energy poverty, which enables the three bottom line approaches to human well-being to be balanced, thereby reducing pressure on resources [2]. The use of cheaper and renewable biomass wastes for gasification as a supplement to the grid which is more expensive especially in Eastern Cape province will go a long way in reducing pressure on environmental resources and reducing energy poverty and high costs of the current grid. In South Africa, there are around 59.89 million people [51], which indicates a high population. As the population of the world stands, it is expected to reach 8 billion this year; therefore, ensuring the sustainability of resources has become an increasingly crucial imperative for the survival of people [51]. The SDGs provide a set of 17 universal goals upon which South Africa is also expected to base its developmental agendas and energy policies on.
Although meeting SDG 7, which articulates the aims to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all, would almost certainly be accompanied by significantly reduced levels of energy poverty, reliable affordable and sustainable energy technologies require immense injections of capital, particularly in rural areas. For some rural areas in the Eastern Cape province, with some families struggling with food insecurity, obtaining the capital for renewable technologies, especially at the household level, without significant government and external assistance would render the use of biomass renewable energy technologies impossible.
Although SDG 7 represents a global necessity and a necessity in the Eastern Cape province, in the face of reality as represented by the households which still use unclean sources of energy as supplements to the grid, the question of the willingness of the people to use biomass gasification technologies need to be answered to avoid wastage of the resources. In the absence of the appropriate strategies and plans, to the use of reliable, sustainable, and renewable energy sources, SDG 7 will take on the character of little more than a wish list item.

12. Conclusions

As much as there are plenty of sources for small-scale gasification technology in rural areas, capital for small-scale biomass energy technology remains a stumbling block to access to renewable, affordable, sustainable, and reliable energy sources and to the achievement of SDG 7. The installation of small-scale biomass technology requires capital. It was indicated in this paper that the advantages of biomass over coal, which is currently the main source of electricity in South Africa, is that biomass gasification is environmentally friendly as compared to coal-powered plants, and biomass is readily available. As much as biomass gasification process can be part of energy mix in South Africa since it is more environmentally friendly than coal, there is a need for more research on biomass gasification technology in the Eastern Cape province. There is also a need for awareness campaigns on biomass gasification technology since most rural people need more information on the advantages of biomass gasification technology. For instance, in Eastern Cape, firewood still represents the most prominent source of power despite the increased electrification in rural areas from 24% in 1996 to currently 64.5%. This paper also discusses what needs to be taken into consideration before the installation of biomass gasification technology, its benefits, and the barriers.

13. Recommendations

Rather than the current small-scale biogas energy system, biomass gasification has to be carried out on a large scale to outcompete the existing expensive grid connection.
Since low-income households in the Eastern Cape find it challenging to buy electricity, it is necessary to quantify the recently available sources of gasification for electricity generation. There is a potential for using biomass energy as an alternative source of energy, for instance, when solar energy is affected by weather or during load shedding. In the Eastern Cape, in the Melani village, there is a gasification plant. It can be used as a starting point in Eastern Cape rural areas, regarding sizing and the actual quantity of waste needed for a gasification plant in rural areas.
Electricity generation through gasification is more efficient than direct combustion. However, production and transport costs should be reasonable and not be more than the cost of available sources of energy for it to be favorable to rural people. The use of biomass gasification plants is also likely to reduce energy poverty. The coupling of biomass gasification with gas and steam turbines can provide a modern, efficient, and clean biomass system for generating heat and electricity. There is a need for more research and innovation on the affordable and small-scale biomass gasification technologies suitable at household level.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation: P.M. Writing Original draft: S.Y.C. and P.M.; Methodology: S.Y.C.; Supervision/Resources/Project administration: P.M.; Writing review and editing: S.Y.C. and P.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the National Research Foundation of South Africa, the Department of Science Innovation (DSI), Technology Innovation Agency (TIA), Eskom TESP, Renewable Energy RNA and the Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre and the National Research Foundation of South Africa.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Energies 17 05251 g001
Figure 1. The current power grid of South Africa.
Figure 1. The current power grid of South Africa.
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Figure 2. Differences between biosyngas and product gas and their typical utilization applications (Kilpimaa, 2013:1012) [23].
Figure 2. Differences between biosyngas and product gas and their typical utilization applications (Kilpimaa, 2013:1012) [23].
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Table 1. The availability of feedstock for biomass gasification in South Africa.
Table 1. The availability of feedstock for biomass gasification in South Africa.
SourceEstimates of Availability or Potential
Potential (Dry Mass) Tg/aAllocated Already (Dry Mass)Not Available (Dry Mass) Tg/aAvailable Now (Dry Mass) Tg/aPotential Additional Availability (Dry Mass) Tg/aEnergy Density (PJ/Tg) (10)Moisture Content Estimate (%) (11)Energy Equivalent Available Now (PJ/a)
Re-Use (Tg/a)Unavailable (Tg/a)Energy Use (Tg/a)
Agricultural residues36.22 30.42 30.425.802.90110.0042%57.95
Sugar cane field residues5.06 5.06 5.060.002.53210.0042%0.00
Sugar cane bagasse5.350.2 4.544.740.602.34310.0042%6.02
Plantation residue6.70 5.20 5.201.500.00412.5030%18.75
Pulp and paper mill residues0.69 0.690.690.010.35512.5030%0.09
Black liquor1.50 1.491.490.000.7766.3059%0.00
Sawmill waste (bark included)3.100.15 2.002.150.951.03710.4040%9.88
Invasive species11.30 3.23 3.238.071.16814.7020%118.63
Fuelwood14.00 10.0010.004.0012.00914.7020%58.80
Organic solid waste component6.47 0.650.655.820.001210.0020%58.23
Organic sewage sludge2.53 0.250.252.280.001310.0020%22.77
Purposely cultivated crops9.26 0.009.260.001414.7042%136.12
Total83.910.3543.9118.7262.9720.9223.08 487.24
(Hugo, 2016:14). [5].
Table 2. Biomass plants in South Africa, a source of raw material for gasification.
Table 2. Biomass plants in South Africa, a source of raw material for gasification.
Power PlantProvinceInstalled Capacity
MW		Annual Output
GWh		Date CommissionedOperator
4.2(32)2007PetroSA
Ngodwana Energy Project 25(198)Q3 2018Sappi
Mkuze (17.5)(130)2023–2024
Umfolozi Sugar MillKwazulu Natal4.5 Umfolozi Sugar Mill Pty (Ltd.)
Tongaat FelixtonKwazulu Natal9 Tongaat Hulett Sugar SA Ltd.
Komati MillMpumalanga8 TSB Sugar International
Busby Renewables Biomass ProjectMpumalanga5
George Biomass to Energy ProjectWestern Cape5
Tongaat AmatikuluKwazulu Natal5 Tongaat Hulett Sugar SA Ltd.
Malelane MillMpumalanga4 TSB Sugar International
Illovo EstonKwazulu Natal2 Illovo Sugar (South Africa) Ltd.
Table 3. Uses of syngas.
Table 3. Uses of syngas.
SyngasSyngas End UsesBenefits to People
SyngasSyngasGeneration of electricity
Generation of liquid fuels
Syngas productsMethaneElectricity production
Heating
Lighting
Fuel for vehicle
MethanolUsed to make clothing
Used as a chemical agent in pharmaceuticals and agrichemicals.
EthanolUsed as a high-octane fuel in vehicles
Heating
Pest control in agriculture
Used as an antibacterial cleaner
Used for removing grease and stains on clothes
Table 4. Sawmills in Eastern Cape source gasification feedstock.
Table 4. Sawmills in Eastern Cape source gasification feedstock.
SawmillLocation
Rance timber Stutterheim
Mto Forestry (PTY) Ltd.Uitenhage
E LentzKing Williams Town
Schenk Enterprises (PTY) Ltd.Alice
A C Whitcher (PTY) Ltd.Tsitsikamma
Uitenhage Sawmills (PTY) Ltd.Uitenhage
Pirie Sawmills (PTY) Ltd.Stutterheim
Tekwani SawmillsMount Ayliff
A P Green’s Sawmills CcQueenstown
Chestnut Grove SawmillsBedford
Longmore SawmillHumansdorp
Yonder Lea Timber (Pty) Ltd.Stutterheim
Green’s SawmillsKomani
Table 5. Potential of Sewage sludge as a source of biomass energy in the Eastern Cape province.
Table 5. Potential of Sewage sludge as a source of biomass energy in the Eastern Cape province.
Category of Sewage SludgeNumber of Households
Serviced584,140
Unserviced1,092,176
Total1,676,316
Hugo, 2016 [5].
Table 6. Potential of animal waste as a source of biomass in the Eastern Cape province.
Table 6. Potential of animal waste as a source of biomass in the Eastern Cape province.
CattleGoatsPigsSpringbokImpalaWild BeastKudu NumberZebra
AmatholeGreat Kei (incl. Mnquma)30,2325859 750480538983502696
Amahlathi58,515 1466149525558
Raymond Mhlaba20,09621,47629,17825301196185480162
Alfred NzoMatatiele37,515
Buffalo CityBuffalo City39,867631576304015404
Chris HaniEmalahleni17,021 100
Enoch Mgijima (incl. Intsika Yethu)72,270812675,12868928227860151
Inxuba Yethemba50,83747,908121554311547152526393
Sakhisizwe153,0923876
Joe GqabiSengu31,07540442
Elundini169,232
Walter Sisulu31,03367513,1492234615494171131
Nelson Mandela BaNelson Mandela Bay20,7912229431472575189
Sarah BaartmanBlue Crane Route28,25622,52440,125133210212277
Dr Beyers Naude34,641269,260209411,37479849729932
Kou-Kamma26,651 303224 41
Kouga101,700 2246625316128635
Makana21,4537094 19204388902138527
Ndlambe52,485216 20495139238125
Sundays River Valley16,52523,374183 282792019
Total 1,013,298417,296162,88425,61815,418746992604314
(Census of commercial agriculture—Eastern Cape, Report No. 11-02-03 2017:75-81).
Table 7. Rough estimation of animal waste produced per day.
Table 7. Rough estimation of animal waste produced per day.
Number of CowsEstimation of Quantity of Animal Waste Produced per DayEstimation of Quantity of Animal Waste Produced per Day
Cattle1,013,29815 kg15,199,470 kg
Goats417,2961 kg417,296
Pigs162,8843 kg488,652 kg
Table 8. Legislative frameworks of energy linked to biomass in South Africa.
Table 8. Legislative frameworks of energy linked to biomass in South Africa.
ActAimLink between the Act and Biomass Gasification
National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act, 2004 (Act No. 39 of 2004).Aims at protecting the environment through measures for preventing environmental pollution by all spheres of government. This Act aims to prevent pollution and ecological degradation and ensure sustainable development by providing for air quality measures, norms and standards, management and control by all spheres of government.Biomass gasification technology uses renewable sources such as animal waste and plant waste which reduce air, water, and land pollution because it uses animal and plant waste, which pollutes the air when not used.
National Energy Act 34 of 2008This Act establishes the framework for the accelerated development and advancement of renewable energy resources as well as the development of a strategic program to increase its utilization.
National Water Act, 1998
Section 24		It is about the rights of the people to an environment that is not harmful to their health.
The 2008 Energy ActIt is about the diversification of sustainable and affordable energy sources even to the poorest of the poor.
Electricity Regulation Act section 34The law (Electricity Regulation Act section 34) provides for the Minister for Energy to issue a determination for large-scale new electricity generating capacity to be built.
Table 9. Small-scale biomass gasification systems commercialized in China.
Table 9. Small-scale biomass gasification systems commercialized in China.
Company/OrganizationGasifier TypesCapacityBiomass
Huairou Wood EquipmentDowndraft200 kWSawdust
Huantai Integrate Gas Supply SystemDowndraft300 kWCrop residues
Tianyan Ltd.Downdraft200 kWAgriculture and forestry waste
Tianyan Ltd.Fluidized bed1 MWAgriculture and forestry waste
GIECCirculating fluidized bed200–1200 kWAgriculture and forestry waste
GIECCirculating fluidized bed5.5 MWRice husk, straw, wood sawdust, peanut hull
Situmorang et al., 2020:9. [35].
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Chivanga, S.Y.; Mukumba, P. Utilization of Biomass Waste Through Small-Scale Gasification Technology in the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa: Towards the Achievement of Sustainable Development Goal Number 7. Energies 2024, 17, 5251. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215251

AMA Style

Chivanga SY, Mukumba P. Utilization of Biomass Waste Through Small-Scale Gasification Technology in the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa: Towards the Achievement of Sustainable Development Goal Number 7. Energies. 2024; 17(21):5251. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215251

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Chivanga, Shylet Yvonne, and Patrick Mukumba. 2024. "Utilization of Biomass Waste Through Small-Scale Gasification Technology in the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa: Towards the Achievement of Sustainable Development Goal Number 7" Energies 17, no. 21: 5251. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215251

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Chivanga, S. Y., & Mukumba, P. (2024). Utilization of Biomass Waste Through Small-Scale Gasification Technology in the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa: Towards the Achievement of Sustainable Development Goal Number 7. Energies, 17(21), 5251. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215251

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