Social Aspects of Establishing Energy Cooperatives

Abstract

The aim of this research was to investigate the social conditions of the implementation of energy cooperatives in Poland as a demand-side policy tool to reduce carbon emissions. Qualitative empirical research was conducted, including interviews with members and leaders of energy cooperatives as well as experts, to assess the effectiveness of new legal regulations concerning energy cooperatives. This study shows that the negative historic connotations with cooperatives do not impede the readiness of Poles to create energy cooperatives. They are open to innovation and are willing to cooperate for energy stability, which seems to be the most important factor determining involvement in energy cooperatives. The results also highlight significant barriers for the development of energy cooperatives, such as regulatory constraints and a lack of true incentives. Energy cooperatives have the potential to popularize renewable energy sources in Poland, but their growth requires better adaptation of legal regulations and greater political support.

1. Introduction

The global energy market is currently shaped by rapidly growing demand for electricity, new production methods, and targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The global trend of increasing demand for electricity, driven by demographic and economic factors, poses challenges for the global energy sector to meet growing needs while striving for sustainable development.

Currently, the world economy is in a period of changes, which are treated as advanced and dynamic energy transition processes (TE). By design, they aim to create a more dispersed, competitive, secure, and sustainable electricity system, and achieve the long-term goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Sustainable cooperation of these areas should lead to the development of technology and innovative technologies, as well as to the creation of new workplaces and intellectual property [1]. The aim of energy policy is, on the one hand, to increase energy efficiency and, on the other hand, to minimize the negative impact of the energy sector on the environment. The strategic direction to achieve these goals is to increase the share of renewable energy sources (RESs) in the energy mix to replace traditional energy sources, such as coal. New sources include PV, wind, geothermal, and water energy, as well as biomass, biogas, and liquid biofuels. Energy obtained from natural processes is constantly replenished, without major human intervention. Faster implementation of renewable energy is one of the key directions of the deep decarbonization of economies.

In many countries, the development of renewable energy is carried out with the support of governments, not only through financial incentives, but also by creating an appropriate legal framework supporting the development of the sector in EU countries [2]. Among different tailored solutions addressed, energy cooperatives have a special role in introducing the justice dimension in the new energy system [3], giving citizens the possibility to participate in the TE and leveraging potential for inequality alleviation. Energy cooperatives play a crucial role in advancing climate goals by promoting decentralized, community-driven renewable energy production and consumption. In general terms, energy cooperatives are initiatives in RESs controlled, owned, and managed by communities (either of geographic or interest scope) with a multitude of different members: citizens, local authorities, business owners, and organizations [4]. These cooperatives empower local communities to invest in and manage energy resources, fostering greater public engagement in the transition to sustainable energy. By democratizing energy ownership, cooperatives reduce dependence on fossil fuels and enhance energy security through locally generated clean energy sources such as wind, solar, and biomass. Furthermore, energy cooperatives often prioritize environmental sustainability and social equity, reinvesting profits into further renewable projects or community benefits. Thus, energy cooperatives represent a vital model for achieving long-term climate goals by integrating local governance, sustainability, and energy autonomy.

The aim of this paper is to identify the determinants and bottlenecks of energy cooperative establishment in Poland. This research was conducted in 2022, six years after the first amendment of the Renewable Energy Act when the formation of energy cooperatives was still retarded. While energy cooperatives were thriving in other European Union member states, Poland experienced a noticeable delay in their development. Identification of the main social preconditions needed for establishing the energy cooperatives, as well as the hindering factors, was the main goal of this research. The law-making process did not translate into actions, and identification of causes of this underdevelopment was urgent. Simultaneously, this research enabled grasping the very moment of energy cooperatives’ formation and social aspects of those pioneering actions.

The primary challenge for the researchers was locating these cooperatives. Back then, only one was registered in the National Centre for Agriculture Support (Krajowy Ośrodek Wsparcia Rolnictwa), which is the required formal step for establishing an energy cooperative. The other two included in this study were found after extensive internet search and enhanced by distributed expert knowledge. Each of the cooperatives investigated was situated in a distinct region of Poland and exhibited different socio-economic characteristics Nevertheless, some shared features were observed, which could guide the development of similar cooperatives that exist today.

2. Literature Review

Given that the energy sector accounts for the largest proportion of greenhouse gas emissions [5], energy transition (TE) is pivotal to meeting climate targets. The primary strategy in this transition is to enhance the use of renewable energy sources (RESs) as alternatives to fossil fuel-based power generation [6]. While the development of RESs has the potential to mitigate emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing (as per the Avoid, Shift, Improve—ASI—framework), predominantly they fell into the ‘shift’ category by substituting fossil fuel-based energy sources with energy derived from natural, self-replenishing processes, without major human intervention. Regarding demand-side policy categorization, RES development crosscuts the ‘shift’ category with low-carbon infrastructure.

The adoption of climate targets with thresholds of well below 2 °C, as in the 2015 Paris Agreement, or 1.5 °C [7], is essential for the success of climate action on the global scale. Given that the combustion of fossil fuels is the single most important contributor to greenhouse gas emissions [8], achieving those climate objectives necessitates leaving much of the economically viable fossil fuels unextracted [9].

The consumption of fossil fuels at the global level generally equals extraction. Because limiting one side inevitably affects the other, adapted policies address either supply or demand. However, the combination of those two types of policies is necessary due to the different degree of involvement of particular state parties in the climate agreements [10]. The supply-side policies concentrate on measures reducing fossil fuel extraction. Generally, the supply-side policies can be categorized to price-based economic instruments (like taxes), quantity-based economic instruments (cap-and-trade system for fossil fuel production), regulatory approaches (limiting development of given resources or technologies), government provision (or restriction) of goods, services, and funds (like offsets for resources unextracted) [11], information programmes, voluntary actions, and accounting frameworks, with divestment as the most recognizable [12]. Even though many of the solutions never went beyond the proposal stage, some spectacular success stories can be pinpointed even in developing countries [13]. While supply-side policies are less frequently pursued, the demand-side climate change mitigation strategies have more political attractiveness and are recognized as crucial for achieving the climate targets. By essence, they aim for reducing fossil fuel consumption and are the default strategies sought in economic and social science research. Prevalence of the demand-side policies results in a more diversified thematic scope. Literature reviews distinguish four main topic clusters: housing, mobility, food/consumption, and the most prominent one, policy. Different demand-side mitigation strategies can be pinpointed: socio-behavioral change, low-carbon infrastructure, and service provision [14]. In its most prominent version, the demand-side measures are categorized into avoid, shift, and improve (ASI) approaches, which recurrently are recalled in the literature. Originally developed within the studies of the transport sector [15], they were swiftly transferred to different sectors [16]. The ‘avoid’ category covers policies aimed at avoiding the high emissions from energy generation. The ‘shift’ category covers policies aimed at substitution of the demand for carbon-intensive generation with low- or non-emission sources, and ‘improve’ category policies are directed at energy efficiency [17].

Energy transition is a global trend that, in addition to undeniable benefits, also brings challenges such as ensuring energy security and reducing energy poverty, achieving climate goals, and the need to respond to the needs of a changing economy. The ongoing energy transition (TE) in Poland and around the world is a process that is both complex and inevitable. The dynamic course of this process entails a number of challenges, such as the need to ensure energy security in changing circumstances, the implementation of climate and environmental goals, improving or maintaining the current quality of life of all citizens (just transition), and stimulating economic development (which necessitates the development of human resources with new competencies) [18]. Additionally, the precise direction and pace of TE are challenging to predict, regarding their strong dependence not only on access to technology and financial resources, but it also hinges on social factors, including acceptance of ongoing changes and the willingness to engage in them actively. The complex transition process requires decision-making centers to have a comprehensive approach to TE and carefully considered actions. On the one hand, it is necessary to adapt the policy to changing conditions and enforce it using adequate instruments. On the other hand, support may be required by various groups of stakeholders such as entrepreneurs, local governments, communities and local energy initiatives, prosumers, and, finally, citizens making individual investment decisions.

One of the pillars of the energy transition in the European Union is the advancement of energy cooperatives. In light of applicable EU laws, its organizational and legal framework is defined by renewable energy cooperatives and civic energy communities. The differences between these two types of energy communities were indicated and the organizational and legal form of an energy cooperative operating under Polish law, similar to them, was discussed.

The concept of energy communities that can support energy transition in the EU member states is based on energy clusters in energy cooperatives. The EU energy transition aims to be implemented through decentralized production units allowing citizens to actively participate in management of the energy sector. This approach is characterized by distributed energy production sites and high energy security.

Energy transition is a necessity, and one of the ways that can accelerate its implementation is energy clusters and cooperatives, which allow for the development of the energy industry at the local and regional level, and the clustering concept allows for the creation of distributed energy based on renewable sources [19,20].

Energy cooperatives based on RESs represent a viable mechanism for advancing the decentralization of the energy system. Now, the energy market is being controlled by a few major stakeholders, and thus it has a highly centralized structure. Decentralizing the system would not only democratize control and equalize power, but also provide an alternative pathway to achieving decarbonization [21]. Additionally, smaller but numerous and localized energy units, due to their proximity to customers, are perceived to be more dependable.

Energy clusters and energy cooperatives therefore play an important role in the process of improving energy security at the local, regional, and national levels, which results directly from Directive (EU) 2019/944 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 June 2019, which regulates the functioning of cooperative market rules in relation to the electricity sector. The definition of energy cooperative is usually regulated by law. This case also takes place in Poland. The Act of 20 February 2015, on Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) introduced the concept of energy cooperatives, defined their method of operation, and procedures for establishing and functioning [22]. The Act of 22 June 2016, amended the act on Renewable Energy Sources and brought legal definitions of energy cooperatives. By this meaning, the energy cooperative is recognized as cooperative under the Act of 16 September 1982 on Cooperative Law, while farmers’ energy cooperatives are recognized as such under the Act of 4 October 2018 on Farmers’ Cooperatives [23]. In addition to this, the activity of energy cooperatives centers around energy production for the needs of its members; they can operate in the rural or urban-rural area (but not urban solely), the cooperatives must be registered with the National Court Register, and can benefit from legal instruments [24]. Detailed rules for establishing and organizing energy cooperatives in rural and urban-rural communes have been presented in several works [25,26,27]. They discuss the issues of assessing organizational and legal support for civic forms of energy operating in rural areas.

The Act of 20 February 2015, on Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) introduced the concept of energy cooperatives, defined their operational framework, and procedures for establishing and functioning [22]. Eight years from the date of announcement of this regulation, there are six energy cooperatives on the list of energy cooperatives (as of 3 March 2023). The energy cooperative construct introduced by the legislature is flawed and fails to compete with other market solutions. It is puzzling that despite the evident trend towards promoting and supporting renewable energy initiatives in Poland—where energy cooperatives could play a crucial role, the legislature has constructed (and has not amended to this day) such an inaccessible and disconnected from socio-economic realities concept of a prosumer association. In consequence, the idea of energy cooperatives has not been embraced in Poland over the last eight years, largely due to significant economic, legal, and social barriers. The Act of 17 August 2023 amends the Act on Renewable Energy Sources by redefining the characteristics of the cooperative’s members and allows the cooperative to be recognized as meeting its energy demands if energy installation allows it to cover no less than 40% of members’ needs.

The legal conditions for the functioning of energy cooperatives and energy clusters in Poland were indicated. The shortcomings of the current solutions and, at the same time, the desired changes that could accelerate the development of energy cooperatives, were pointed out. Significant shortcomings of national legal regulations regarding cooperatives and clusters do not constitute a good foundation for their development in the future, and they are not consistent with the EU directives on energy cooperatives, which has an impact on the possibility of obtaining funds from EU funds intended to support the development of local energy cooperatives [28].

The energy cooperatives differ substantially from other actors on the energy market, since the latter tend to be companies built around invested capital. This means their shares can be sold or transferred. Cooperatives in this instance merge the features of economic entity and social group, where all its members and their interests are equitably appreciated (what underlies distinction between property and non-property rights). By this means, they form a tool for voluntary participation and democratization of the TE processes [24]. In a broader sense, energy cooperatives encapsulate social dimensions of TE, like energy justice [28] and energy democracy and energy citizenship [29]. Previous research has highlighted the role of cooperatives as a model for community-led sustainable energy initiatives [20,30] and appeared to be a good model for rural grid development, as well as for utilizing power from decentralized RESs [31]. No regulations have yet been adopted that would effectively encourage agricultural communes to implement projects related to renewable sources of energy or provide the necessary financial support for this type of investment. Moreover, national regulations regarding the organizational and legal forms of energy cooperatives are inconsistent with EU law. Therefore, an attractive system of incentives, including financial incentives, should be developed, while minimizing the economic risk associated with social investments in renewable energy sources.

In examining the emergence of energy cooperatives in Poland, it is instructive to contextualize these developments within the experiences of other transitional economies and regions with similar energy policies. Across Europe, energy cooperatives have proven to be vital players in advancing decentralized renewable energy systems, particularly where citizens seek alternatives to centralized, traditional energy structures. For example, in the Southern European countries like Spain, energy cooperatives have emerged in response to public dissatisfaction with existing energy models, yet continue to face significant regulatory and economic challenges that limit their influence on the energy transition [32,33]. In contrast, states such as Germany or Switzerland have benefited from supportive regulatory frameworks and close collaborations with municipalities, which have enabled cooperatives to thrive despite changing policy landscapes [34,35]. The Netherlands showcases the strategic potential of local renewable energy cooperatives in mobilizing citizens and brokering between public authorities, thereby supporting a just energy transition [36,37]. For Poland, where the cooperative movement is still in its infancy, these international experiences highlight the importance of establishing clear, supportive legislation to foster the growth of cooperatives. Drawing lessons from these comparative cases can inform strategies that address Poland’s unique regulatory and market challenges, ultimately enhancing the role of cooperatives in the country’s energy transition.

When talking about energy cooperatives in Poland, the situation is extremely dynamic on the legal, political, and public levels. In June 2024, there were 35 such cooperatives in Poland—this is still not much, compared to the European standards (over 9000 in the EU). However, the growth rate is quite dynamic (in 2021-1; in the end of 2023-21), which results from unlocking funds from the National Recovery Plan. While disruptions in the European energy market and rising energy prices in 2022 spurred increased interest in forming energy cooperatives, there were no significant legislative changes at that time to specifically support their development. Significant regulatory amendments designed to facilitate and accelerate the growth of energy cooperatives were only introduced in late 2023, indicating a delayed policy response to the growing demand for local energy self-sufficiency. The amendment to the act on renewable energy sources, which serves to implement the EU Directive known as RED II, expanded the scope of activity of energy cooperatives by allowing them to operate within the area of a single gas distribution system operator that also supplies agricultural biogas or biomethane. It has also expanded the definition of a member of an energy cooperative and the area of its activity. Restrictions on the number of cooperative members have been removed and a change was introduced, which clearly states that each of the statutory areas of activity of an energy cooperative may be used by one or more members of the energy cooperative, but not necessarily by all members of the energy cooperative. The amendment has not yet included major and highly needed changes.

Voivodeships, which are the most active in this matter, are Lesser Poland, Greater Poland, and Silesian. On the other hand, there are still no energy cooperatives in Lubusz, Łódź, and Subcarpathian voivodeship. The biggest challenges for establishing new cooperatives are still the centralization of the Polish electricity system and difficulties in connecting energy cooperatives to the grid. Other significant obstacles include ambiguity and unpredictability of regulations, difficulties in obtaining investment financing, and shortage of technical staff or administrative support. Another mental obstacle is the bad reputation of cooperatives in general, which is reminiscent of the Polish People’s Republic. However, we can observe how it is changing, and there are more and more examples of housing or food cooperatives that are effectively operating. Despite these obstacles, there is a visible development of renewable energy and civil energy in Poland, which could be a driving force of the energy transition.

3. Methodology

This research is based on three case studies of the energy cooperatives that existed in Poland at the time the fieldwork was conducted. Energy cooperatives in Poland are still a relatively new phenomenon, which limits the number of established and functioning entities. In effect, it is challenging to draw conclusions that would be representative of all cooperatives in Poland. Nevertheless, this study follows typical characteristics of qualitative research in sociology, which aims to depict certain trends and provide a deeper understanding of specific social, regulatory, and operational conditions. The value of the discussed research lies in its examination of available cases in the early stage of this sector’s development, enabling it to identify key success factors and barriers. By focusing on a smaller number of cases, this study allows for a more detailed, nuanced, and in-depth analysis. This qualitative study emphasizes the context and details, which may vary significantly between different cooperatives. Analyzing three cooperatives provides a comprehensive view of the diverse experiences and practices, necessary for drawing more precise conclusions. Furthermore, the analysis of three cases can serve as a basis for broader, more extensive research. Early findings may reveal directions worth further, deepened exploration, and help to refine the methodology for future research.

This research was intended to be exploratory. Case studies were planned to constitute a general diagnosis of the energy cooperatives’ situation in Poland, with specific reference to energy cooperatives. Due to the complexity of the topic, combining technical and social issues, it was planned to conduct an in-depth case study [31] of the only existing energy cooperatives in Poland at the time.

Given the topic of the research, it is important to highlight that although the research addressed many technical and legal issues, its core was sociological and required a qualitative methodological approach. In contemporary sociological studies, qualitative research holds a significant position. They aim to understand social phenomena from the perspective of those involved, offering rich, detailed insights that quantitative methods often cannot provide [38]. Through techniques such as in-depth interviews, participant observation, and content analysis, qualitative researchers explore the complexities of human behavior, social interactions, and cultural norms [39]. One of the key advantages of qualitative research is its ability to provide a profound and nuanced understanding of social contexts and the meanings people assign to their experiences. This is particularly valuable in sociology, where the objective is often to comprehend the subtleties of social life and the ways in which individuals and groups construct their realities. Qualitative methods allow researchers to generate new theories and concepts based on empirical data, contributing to a more grounded and context-sensitive comprehension of social issues [40,41].

In this study, qualitative research methods were employed to explore the social dimensions of establishing energy cooperatives (

Table 1. Methodological details—summary.

Method	Sociological qualitative research—case studies.
Technique	Individual in-depth interviews.
Research tool	Main question, interview instructions, and scenario.
Number of interviews	13 Seven respondents—comprising representatives from associations, research institutes, energy clusters, and companies dealing with the energy cooperatives, as well as consultants, activists, and representatives of local authorities who are experts in this topic. Six respondents were chosen based on their membership in an energy cooperative.
Sampling method	The snowball sampling, membership in an energy cooperative, and expert knowledge in the field of energy cooperatives.
Data analysis method	The researchers identified key themes by assigning codes to them and then extracted unique themes, which were organized into categories containing overarching and sub-themes. Then, the relationships between the individual themes were examined, which were grouped based on similarities.

). This project, grounded in sociological qualitative research, involved conducting 13 individual in-depth interviews [42,43]. Given the specificity of qualitative research design, the snow-ball sampling method was adopted [44]. The primary criterion for selection was either membership in an energy cooperative or possessing expert knowledge in the field. Cooperative leaders, whose information is publicly available in the National Court Register, acted as gatekeepers, connecting researchers with regular members. Similarly, identified experts recommended others who they believed could contribute significantly to this study. Identified experts were asked to recommend others who they believed could best contribute to this research. The participants included seven people representing associations, research institutes, energy clusters, companies involved in the energy cooperatives, as well as consultants, activists and local authority representatives, all recognized experts in this field.

It is worth emphasizing that, according to qualitative research design, this study included only research questions, and no hypotheses were formulated [45].

This study centered around two primary research questions:

(1)

What social conditions are necessary for the effective implementation of regulations and the establishment of energy cooperatives?

(2)

What are the main obstacles for establishing energy cooperatives in Poland?

In line with the principles of sociological qualitative research, the empirical part prioritized respecting participants’ rights of voluntary participation in the research, as well as to provide the auxiliary nature of the research scope (enhancing the knowledge to improve the problems under consideration), harmlessness (in the sense of respecting the interests of the respondents), and lack of bias (by considering diverse social actors, regardless of gender, age, or education). Furthermore, in the analysis phase, all participant data were anonymized [44].

Initially, the research plan involved analyzing the cooperative’s available documentation, conducting in-depth interviews with its leaders and regular members, and engaging in participant observation by signing up to the cooperative and participating in its meetings. However, as the study progressed, this approach proved to be suboptimal for two main reasons. First, despite repeated efforts, it was challenging to establish contact with the cooperative. This difficulty was later attributed to the cooperative leader being overloaded with responsibilities lacking necessary support from the other members. Second, the researchers also had the impression that the pressure on the pioneering energy cooperatives in Poland might have led to reluctance to disclose information about their internal operations ‘behind the scenes’. It seemed that the leaders preferred to showcase a ‘finished product’ version of the cooperative at a later, unspecified date, which did not align with this study’s timeline.

As this study progressed, additional cooperatives from various regions of Poland were identified through conversations with further informants and an in-depth review of available knowledge. Therefore, it turned out to be an interesting approach to compare the contexts and conditions in which these pioneering energy cooperatives were emerging. Consequently, we decided to research and describe three cooperatives from different regions of Poland:

• Sunny Serock, province Masovian Voivodeship—2 persons,
• Energy Cooperative of the Chełm Land, voivodeship Lubelskie—2 persons,
• Our Energy, province Silesia—2 persons.

The case study of each cooperative consisted of:

(a)

Review of publicly available information on the Internet about the cooperative,

(b)

An interview with the cooperative leader (it was not always the president of the cooperative),

(c)

A conversation with the cooperative’s ordinary members.

In addition to describing the current activities, origins, plans, and challenges faced by existing cooperatives, expert interviews were conducted, which provided additional knowledge and external perspectives on the development of energy cooperatives in Poland.

In total, between 9 September and 12 October 2022, 13 interviews lasting several dozen minutes were conducted. The interviews took place according to a framework scenario, with one part altered, depending on whether they were conducted with an expert or a member of the cooperative. A total of 12 out of 13 interviews took place online or by telephone. One was conducted in person due to the interviewee’s preferences.

Interviews with non-experts began with a general introduction, where participants shared their background and initial experiences with citizen energy. They were asked how they perceived the functioning and benefits of energy cooperatives. The second part of the interview focused on the challenges faced by early adopters of citizen energy and their motivations and hopes versus the difficulties encountered in cooperative activities. The final part addressed their views on the future of citizen energy development in Poland. For expert interviews, questions centered on definitions and regulations related to energy cooperatives. Additionally, experts were asked about their expectations for the future of energy cooperatives in Poland to gain insight into their professional perspectives on the subject.

All conversations were recorded with the interviewees’ consent. The analysis was based on thematic categorization of the selected fragments of interviews [46]. It is worth noting that cooperatives included in this study do not represent an exhaustive list of all existing cooperatives. These were accessible within the established research schedule. During the interviews, other regions and communes that would like to establish energy cooperatives were mentioned, but no specific names were provided. Moreover, one of the interviewees, who advises newly established energy cooperatives, could not disclose the names of his clients.

Due to the qualitative nature of this study, the presented analysis does not include numerical data, but categories of identified problems and demographic data of respondents from the energy cooperatives industry.

This study’s limited sample size—restricted to three pioneering energy cooperatives in Poland—introduces potential biases that stem from both the small number of cases and the limited scope of perspectives captured within each cooperative. The challenges in establishing contact with cooperative members and leaders led to a restricted participant pool, reducing the diversity of individual experiences represented in the data. As these cooperatives are still in the early stages of formation, the insights obtained may reflect provisional organizational structures and initial challenges rather than stable, long-term patterns of operation. Consequently, findings may not fully generalize to a broader spectrum of Polish energy cooperatives as they evolve. Additionally, the limited sample may amplify the specific characteristics of the earliest cooperatives, potentially obscuring a more varied landscape of practices, strategies, and challenges that could emerge as more cooperatives form and stabilize over time.

4. Research Results—Case Studies

This research was conducted in the summer of 2022, when the first energy cooperatives had just started to emerge in Poland. This timeframe allowed us to capture a pivotal moment that would shape the trajectory of future cooperatives that are existing now, two years later.

We conducted case studies of the three cooperatives that were active at the time: ‘Sunny Serock’ (Słoneczny Serock), ‘Our Energy’ (Nasza Energia), and ‘Energy Cooperative of the Chełm Land’ (Spółdzielnia Energetyczna Ziemi Chełmskiej) (Figure 1). Our primary focus was on the motivations of its members, the unique local contexts of the administrative cooperatives where they were established, and the major challenges. These social factors influence the implementation and development of the energy cooperatives in Poland.

4.1. ‘Sunny Serock’

Serock is a town in the Masovian Voivodeship with a population of 4691 people. The proximity of the mouth of the Bug and Narew rivers, as well as the Zegrze Reservoir, make the area an attractive leisure area for the Warsaw metropolitan area. In 2021 ‘Słoneczny Serock’ was established, with the employee of the Serock Commune Office serving as the president of its management board. The professional role of that person, combined with being a resident of the nearby village, was crucial for creating this cooperative. It facilitated the alignment of interests of the local authorities and local people. The primary motivation for establishing it was securing renewable energy sources and providing a financial framework for community-owned energy projects.

One of the interviewees highlighted that Association for Effectiveness of prof. Krzysztof Żmijewski played a pivotal role in the initial, challenging stage of establishing an energy cooperative. The association contributed expertise and leadership, preparing and distributing information materials among the inhabitants of Serock and the surrounding villages. Following several informational meetings, the cooperative’s funding group, consisting of approximately 30 people, emerged. The official founding meeting took place in 2021, during which, functions and tasks were assigned. In October, ‘Sunny Serock’ was officially registered.

Apart from the experts’ support, finding a suitable area for the common installation is another important step of establishing an energy cooperative. In this case, local authorities facilitated the process, offering a degraded landfill located on the Western border of the Dębe commune, unsuitable for residential development. After that, the Distribution System Operator approved this area in terms of its use for the planned investment. The following step involved selection of a contractor to build the installation. The power plant was assumed to have a potential of 350 kW, sufficient to supply approximately 120 households. At the time of this research, 30 people were registered as full members, paying an entry fee of PLN 300. This includes a diverse cross-section of society: shopkeepers, the owner of a clinic, and generally owners of farms and larger entrepreneurs. Another several dozen people are on the reserve list.

Each cooperative member purchased an appropriate number of shares based on their own needs and average energy consumption.

The cooperative is an entity that allows you to scale costs. So, you can join in, regardless of how much energy you need. An average, medium-sized household will have to buy shares for approx. min. PLN 15,000 [Interviewee #1].

The communes taking part in this cooperative are relatively affluent fruit-growing entities, where such investment capital is expected to be available. There is also significant anticipation of potential financial support for the cooperative, e.g., from the National Fund for Environmental Protection. Apart from the initial membership fee in the cooperative, the ongoing cost of maintaining the cooperative is projected to be relatively low (PLN 20-30 per person). Additionally, the insurance and property tax must be covered. Many costs can be reduced through voluntary work.

One of the social challenges faced by the cooperative was low level of involvement of its members in joint activities. High demands were being placed on the Management Board, despite performing their work for the cooperative voluntarily. This might have been due to some reluctance to work pro bono, but also to the specific situation of this region inhabited by two groups with conflicting interests: ‘allotment gardeners’ who visit for leisure, and ‘autochthons’ who live and work in the area.

4.2. ‘Our Energy’

The cooperative ‘Our Energy’ (Nasza Energia) was initiated by an energetic duo of local entrepreneurs, passionate advocates of renewable energy. Three communes were involved in its creation, Mszana, Godów, and Świerklany, and officially registered in September 2021.

One of the cooperative members recounted the difficult beginnings of the cooperative. Similarly to Serock, there were social animosities among the neighboring villages that had to be overcome to achieve the common goal. In Mszana, a generation of newcomers from Jastrzębie Zdrój settled in the 1960s and 1970s, which led to conflict with the local population. It was common to mock each other for different customs, leading to tensions and even physical altercations. Today, subsequent generations are well integrated, and there are many people who contribute to the cooperative.

It is also worth mentioning that Mszana is a relatively affluent commune, with many residents being former miners who, in addition to receiving a high—as per Polish conditions—pension, also often own a piece of land. Their children often emigrate to Germany, which gives older residents access to news from their Western neighbors, where the civil energy industry is developing dynamically.

The first step of the cooperative’s formation was the preparation of the statute. One of the founding members had experience with housing cooperatives, which helped with drafting regulations. After finalizing the documents, the founders held their first official meeting according to the interviewees, the principles of operation of the cooperative are very transparent, with responsibilities to the number of shares held. The cooperative was registered in the District Court in Gliwice. Unlike the other two cooperatives described here, ‘Nasza Energia’ planned to use the already existing individual installations on the roofs of four of its members‘ houses, with capacities of 3 kW, 4 kW, and 2 × 10 kW.

We will start with micro-installations, everyone builds what they can afford and connects to a common network; over time, the potential will increase (…)—said one of the cooperative members. [Interviewee #2]

Such an approach, based on the already existing installations producing energy, allows the cooperative to be registered in the National Centre for Agriculture Support and benefit from additional privileges. An additional advantage is that cooperative members with existing installations do not need to re-invest, minimizing the risk and allowing them to manage the produced energy more efficiently. One of the cooperative members invested approximately PLN 20,000 in panels on his roof, receiving a PLN 3000 subsidy. His annual electricity bills are now PLN 200. Therefore, the investment should pay off in less than a decade, with the added benefit of protection from rising electricity prices.

While the cooperative’s primary goal is to meet the energy needs of households, its creators have long-term ambitions.

We are thinking of having more than a few hundred cooperative members, we are thinking about using surplus energy for cold rooms to store local products, producing parts for welding machines, all these areas where there is a high demand for energy, there will be new ideas. Maybe windmills, if something changes in the law, maybe a biogas plant, maybe an ecological waste incinerator powered by photovoltaics [Interviewee #2]

This vision exceeds what is currently permitted by energy cooperative regulations. However, their members are optimistic and hope for favorable legislative changes. For now, they are focused on current challenges, particularly signing a contract with a local energy supplier, which—as the interviewees point out—is not easy.

The biggest obstacle is the energy supplier, because they deceive us, give different deadlines for signing the contract, they are certainly defending their interests, because if we manage energy, the operator will not get his usual 20% [Interviewee #2]

This quotation refers to the portion of energy provided to the network operator in exchange for ‘storing’ energy surpluses. In the opinion of the interviewee, energy corporations may hinder the creation of cooperatives due to concerns about losing their monopolistic position on the market. Although more people are interested in joining this cooperative, the registration has been suspended until an agreement is signed with the energy supplier.

The founders of the cooperative are highly motivated and perform unpaid work that requires a lot of time and effort. They are undoubtedly the spiritus movens of the cooperative, advocating the principles of operation of the energy cooperative among the neighbors. They also established good cooperation with the local government, which has significantly facilitated the whole process.

4.3. ‘Energy Cooperative of the Chełm Land’

This cooperative exemplifies effective cooperation between external experts, the local government, and the community. The president of the cooperative comes from the Chełm area, but resides in Krakow, while its main consultant is based in Warsaw. The idea of establishing this cooperative emerged when the energy infrastructure expert, having established relationships with local government officials across Poland through the Warsaw School of Economics, was requested to develop low-emission economy plans for the Białopole commune. The commune decided to implement the idea of the energy cooperative. Shortly thereafter, the expert co-founded an energy cooperative together with the communes of Dorohusk and Żmudź. Today, it has over a hundred members, most of whom are farmers seeking to reduce costs, as they have recently increased dramatically. One interviewee highlighted the impact of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine on the surge of energy prices for local entrepreneurs.

It is cheaper for them to buy coal from Kazakhstan, so when they closed the border, the energy became more... It is blocked by the Energy Regulatory Office for the average person, but for entrepreneurs, these prices are very high. [Interviewee #4]

According to the cooperative leaders, the local government played a key role in the cooperative’s formation, but proactive neighbors were crucial for its success. According to interviews, Białopole is one of the rural communes with the strongest support for the European Union in Poland, which is unusual given its proximity to Poland’s Eastern border.

At the time of this research, the cooperative was in the process of applying for a permit to build a photovoltaic farm with a capacity of 1.5 MW located on a wasteland in the town of Buśno in the Białopole commune. This land was leased to the cooperative on favorable terms. The environmental decision has already been issued, and documents for obtaining connection conditions were being prepared. The next stages involved completing the installation project, obtaining a building permit, and planning to open the facility in March 2023.

4.4. Case Studies of Energy Cooperatives: An Overview

Table 2. Details and comparison of energy cooperative case studies in Poland.

	‘Sunny Serock’	‘Our Energy’	‘Energy Cooperative of the Chełm Land’
Local context	Serock, Mazowieckie, a town with a population of 4691, attractive due to its proximity to rivers and a reservoir.	Three communes: Mszana, Godów, Świerklany. Mszana is a wealthy commune with many retired miners.	Municipalities of Białopole, Dorohusk, Żmudź. Chief consultant from Warsaw, president from Krakow.
The process of creation	A key role was played by the Association for Efficiency named after prof. Krzysztof Żmijewski, which provided expert opinions and information materials.	Preparation of the statute, transparency of operating principles, basing on existing micro-installations (3 kW, 4 kW and 2 × 10 kW).	Support from local authorities, experts from SGH, low-emission economy plans.
Motivations	The main motivations are securing renewable energy sources and stabilizing energy prices.	Independence from rising energy prices, the common good of the local community.	Dramatically rising energy prices, local farmers want to reduce costs.
Membership	About 30 members, including various representatives of the local community.	Registration suspended until a contract is signed with an energy supplier.	Over 100 members, mostly farmers.
Challenges	Low activity of members, conflict of interests between various social groups (allotment holders and indigenous people).	Difficulties in signing a contract with a local energy supplier, resistance from energy corporations, low member involvement.	Obtaining a building permit, problems with connecting to the power grid.
Infrastructure	A 350-kW photovoltaic installation, designed to serve approximately 120 people.	Use of members’ existing photovoltaic installations.	Planned photovoltaic farm with a capacity of 1.5 MW in Buśno.

provides a comprehensive overview of the three energy cooperatives in Poland, covering essential aspects such as their establishment, local contexts, motivations, membership, challenges, and infrastructure. This table aims to offer a comparative perspective on how “Sunny Serock”, “Our Energy”, and the “Energy Cooperative of the Chełm Land” operate within diverse socio-economic and geographic settings. By examining both shared features and distinctive characteristics of these cooperatives, the table provides valuable insights into the dynamics and practical realities of community-led energy initiatives in Poland.

5. Discussion

5.1. Local Context and the Process of Creation—Conditions Facilitating Establishing the First Energy Cooperatives

Based on the experiences of three pioneering energy cooperatives that existed in Poland as of July 2022, key factors can be identified that may facilitate further development of civil energy initiatives. The crucial element in each case was the presence of local leaders who were committed to the idea of community energy. In all of the cooperatives studied, proactive duos were the driving force. In two cases, the leaders were members of the local communities where the cooperatives were established. In the third case, external experts were invited by the local government authorities to guide the process.

While it is certainly beneficial, though not essential, for leaders to possess some technical knowledge of the functioning of the energy market, this expertise can significantly enhance the cooperative’s development. This was the case of the cooperative, supported by the knowledge and experience of external experts. The other leaders were either educated in related fields or were passionate advocates of renewable energy solutions.

Another important factor in the successful establishing of the discussed cooperatives was good cooperation with the local government. While the initiative to form a cooperative does not have to originate from the local authorities, their support is vital. Local governments must recognize energy cooperatives as a beneficial solution for the commune. Concrete examples of this support include assistance in finding suitable land for the installation, or even providing land for cooperative use. The alignment of interests between local authorities and residents is evident here: energy cooperatives enhance energy security for the commune, enable energy production while preserving the environment, and in the long term could lead to capital surpluses that stimulate economic development and local entrepreneurship.

5.2. Motivation to Start Energy Cooperative and Membership

Ecological awareness does not appear to be the primary motivator for establishing energy cooperatives in Poland, even though it is gradually increasing among local communities, mainly in terms of air quality. The main driving force for investing in energy cooperatives is to gain independence from fluctuating electricity prices.

Establishing energy cooperatives in Poland requires significant determination. Navigating through bureaucratic procedures and collecting the comprehensive documentation demands engagement, patience, and the ability to devote time to voluntary work. The primary stimulus for the leaders of the three discussed cooperatives was the dramatic rise of energy prices. Participants, whether private individuals or business owners that engaged in energy cooperatives, were all concerned about the energy crisis. In this context, achieving a sense of stability, peace, and security was the key motivation for the energy cooperatives’ pioneers. It is important to note, however, that establishing an energy cooperative in Poland is just the first step towards energy independence, as complete energy autonomy from the centralized national system is not yet possible.

Membership in energy cooperatives lacks clear rules, due to the novelty of these activities. In the one case, there were about 30 members representing various segments of the local community. In another case, registration was suspended until a contract with an energy supplier could be secured. Farmers can certainly be an important group, who in the case of the third entity, constituted a team of over 100 people. For them, the very vision of energy sovereignty was particularly appealing.

Another important motivator that pushed the described cooperatives into existence was the desire to contribute to the local community, more specifically, to keep the generated capital within it. Interviewees emphasized the importance of believing that the work and investment would serve the common good.

Additionally, the cooperatives’ members felt that they take part in a groundbreaking endeavor that is pioneering, future-oriented, and innovative in Poland. Their self-perception was that they are trailblazers for future energy cooperatives to come that can eventually have a great influence on the Polish energy transition.

Interestingly, none of the interviewees expressed any doubts about the risks associated with the investment. There was a shared belief among the energy cooperatives’ members that their approach to energy production and consumption was the only logical path. The consensus was that with enough determination, they could overcome any challenges they faced.

In summary, the motivations for establishing energy cooperatives can be categorized into two main groups:

• External Motivators: The primary external drivers are the energy crisis and the surge in energy prices. These factors have a significant impact, pushing individuals and businesses to seek alternatives for stable and predictable energy costs.
• Internal Motivators: These include the desire to contribute to the local community and, more broadly, to the development of the country. Members are motivated by the prospect of securing energy supply and cost stability for all involved.

Although external motivators are more dominant, both sets of motivations are rooted in a shared value system centered around security, independence, and a sense of communal solidarity.

5.3. The Greatest Challenges Faced by the Pioneer Cooperatives

The primary challenges encountered by the people running the first energy cooperatives or planning to establish them can be categorized into two basic groups: external challenges, which include issues related to legislation, limited access to financing, and difficulties in contact with energy suppliers, and internal challenges, which pertain to community-related issues.

5.3.1. External Obstacles

Although energy cooperatives are recognized in legislation, there is lack of clear legislative support to promote their creation. A significant limitation is that, contrary to the EU directive, Polish cooperatives cannot currently sell surplus energy produced. Energy cooperatives can generate electricity (as well as biogas or heat) solely for their own use and its members’ own needs. This limitation probably discourages those who would, beyond meeting their own needs, be interested in pursuing energy cooperatives as business ventures. The settlement system between cooperatives and the network operator does not incentivize people to join an energy cooperative. Currently, the only way to utilize surplus energy is by feeding it into the distribution network, which acts as a storage facility. Unfortunately, only 60% of the energy fed to the grid can be reclaimed. While the cost of storage is understandable, the proportion withheld raises concerns. The requirement to transfer 40% of one’s own production to the energy supplier may not actually reflect the costs incurred by the network operator, as outlined by the EU directive.

Regardless of the settlement system, the greatest statutory limitation is the requirement for the newly established cooperative to declare energy production from its own installation at the level of at least 70% of its own demand per year. Given that energy cooperatives are still in an experimental stage in Poland, and accurately estimating the energy production from renewable sources is challenging, this stipulation may deter potential participants. Many interviewees expressed dissatisfaction with the restriction that energy cooperatives can only be formed in rural or urban-rural communes. While this limitation can be justified by potential challenges in finding suitable land for a generation installation in densely populated cities, it prevents the creation of energy cooperatives in degraded post-mining areas, which can be found in the cities of Upper Silesia and Zagłębie. It seems more reasonable to allow municipalities to address land availability rather than imposing restrictions from above. Additional legislative constraints include the maximum energy capacity of 10 MW (30 MW for heat) or the maximum number of members of 999 per cooperative.

Another significant obstacle for newly established cooperatives, as well as other installations, is the difficulty in connecting to the energy transmission networks. According to a report by the ClientEarth foundation, in 2015–2021, energy operators issued 6000 refusals to connect to the grid with a total capacity of approximately 30 GW, most of which concerned renewable energy sources. In 2021 alone, the number of refusals increased, reaching 70% of all applications. The primary reason for these refusals is technical limitations, i.e., lack of available network connection capacity [47].

5.3.2. Internal (Psychological) Obstacles

During this research, many interviewees identified the lack of trust in the very idea of cooperatives as a significant barrier to finding people willing to establish an energy cooperative. One interviewee noted that the term “cooperative” evokes negative associations, particularly for people who remember numerous cooperatives, popular in the times of the Polish People’s Republic—Most people remember state farms and the word “cooperative” opens a knife in their pocket [Interview #4].

Cooperatives and collectivization are still associated with the forced transition of individual farms into the so-called agricultural cooperatives, craft workshops into production cooperatives, and private landholdings into state-run farms during the communist era. This historical baggage, especially in rural areas where state farms were prevalent and served as a negative model of cooperatives, poses an additional obstacle to the development of energy cooperative initiatives.

The issue of negative perception of cooperatives is closely linked to low levels of civic engagement. Interviewed cooperative members often expressed frustration over the lack of interest among other residents in ensuring energy security, citing distrust and reluctance to engage in pro bono activities. Few individuals are willing to devote their time and energy to community efforts, which highlights the relative underdeveloped state of the civil society in Poland.

Apart from the difficulties in mobilizing local communities in working for the cooperative, another major obstacle is the lack of knowledge and expertise. The interlocutors mentioned that despite their willingness, they frequently struggled with staff shortages and unavailability of specialized knowledge, e.g., related to the construction of new generation installations.

The use of this area required detailed research, we had to assemble a design team that would undertake this effort. It was difficult because we are dealing with staff shortages. [Interview #5]

The challenges described by the respondents are largely due to the novelty of the phenomenon in Poland. Energy cooperatives are still terra incognita, with no established models to follow. While there are examples of energy cooperatives abroad, they may not be fully applicable to the local contexts in Poland. Renewable energy itself is also a relatively new field, so many questions posed by new cooperative members can only be answered through direct experience. The perceived lack of expertise is, therefore, an inherent issue in the pioneering energy cooperative initiatives. However, this research revealed that some individual consultants and companies specialize in advising on renewable energy projects. It is also likely that the first cooperatives emerging today will be able to guide others in the future, and their experiences will contribute to the development of in-depth expertise, outlining the most effective practices for energy cooperative projects in Poland.

6. Conclusions

The development of energy cooperatives in Poland presents a promising path for just energy transition and enhancing energy security at the local level. Despite the initial challenges including bureaucratic hurdles, social resistance, and the need for technical expertise, the case studies of ‘Sunny Serock’, ‘Our Energy’, and the ’Energy Cooperative of the Chełm Land’ highlight the viability and benefits of community-driven energy initiatives. These cooperatives demonstrate that successful outcomes rely on local leadership, collaboration with local authorities, and the engagement of community members.

This research was conducted at a time when identification of bottlenecks and barriers hindering proliferation of energy cooperatives was crucial. This study identified numerous, often overlapping, difficulties in establishing energy cooperatives. The existing literature categorizes these barriers into four types: technological, social, economic, and regulatory [48]. The technological barriers tend to be least mentioned and are often related to the requisite know-how. The presence of technically literate experts within the cooperative alleviates the pressure of those types of obstacles, and availability of expertise from specialized companies also facilitates the technical issues in the cooperative’s establishment and functioning. Economic barriers can be reduced to two categories: investment and operating costs and missed profits. The former can be partially mitigated when a cooperative is being established between members with already operating installations. The latter—40% grid storage fee—poses a significant financial burden, particularly when the lost potential of selling the surplus power on the market is considered. However, the skyrocketing energy prices due to the energy crisis following the Russian invasion in Ukraine has made the endeavor more profitable and safeguarding towards potential power shortages. The regulatory obstacles are particularly explicit in Poland where the regulatory framework suffers from frequent changes, and the policy makers tend to overlook the different stakeholders’ viewpoints. The amendments of the act have not led to a corresponding increase in the number of new cooperatives.

This research also highlighted social bottlenecks as major hindrances. The lack of leaders ready to volunteer for the cooperative, local animosities and general distrust, the absence of good examples, and high tensions were the predominant obstacles to establish the cooperatives.

Conversely, these elements constitute the social prerequisites for successful cooperative establishment. The leaders must possess a diverse set of competences: have technical, legal, economic, and social competences and be able not only to contribute their own work, but also bring others to this task, orchestrate multiple interests of different stakeholders, cooperate with external experts and local authorities, and finally be able to foster social networks and organize community.

Despite the growing importance of energy cooperatives, research in this area faces several limitations. The most significant concern is the availability of data on cooperatives, as demonstrated by the three cases analyzed. Many cooperatives are small and local, which makes it difficult to collect consistent and comprehensive information on their activities. Their principles of operation may also be different—they may have different models of operation. Energy cooperatives differ in terms of structure, business model, and technology, making standardized analyses and comparisons between them difficult. The absence of common standards and definitions in the energy cooperative sector further complicates the classification and analysis of these entities. Limited financial resources and small scale of operation restrict the capacity of many energy cooperatives to participate in research and implement innovative solutions. Additionally, changing legal regulations poses a significant challenge to the stability and long-term planning of research activities. Limited cooperation between cooperatives and external entities, such as universities, research institutes or private companies, further hinders the exchange of knowledge and best practices. Researching new technologies and logistics solutions is often cost-prohibitive and requires specialized knowledge, which many cooperatives lack. The process of obtaining funds for research and development may also be challenging, especially for small cooperatives inexperienced in applying for grants or other forms of support. Social and cultural barriers, such as resistance to change or distrust in new technologies are also important hindrances and often require educational, sociotechnical, or marketing efforts. Finally, most of the research on energy cooperatives is short-term, making it difficult to assess the long-term effects and impacts of these entities on local communities and the environment. Overcoming these limitations requires multi-level cooperation, increased support from government and financial institutions, and active involvement of local communities in the research processes and implementation of new solutions.

Future research should focus on a more detailed understanding of the social, economic, and technological factors influencing the development of energy cooperatives. It is also worth examining the long-term effects and impacts of these initiatives on local communities and the environment. Comparative studies of energy cooperatives from different regions can provide valuable insights into best practices and challenges specific to local contexts.

Based on case studies of energy cooperatives, several recommendations have been developed for practitioners and individuals planning to establish energy cooperatives:

• Identifying leaders: Effective and determined leaders with community support are essential in establishing and running energy cooperatives. Policymakers could establish leadership training initiatives tailored to individuals interested in leading energy cooperatives. This might include workshops on cooperative management, conflict resolution, and community mobilization. Additionally, creating mentorship programs that connect emerging leaders with experienced cooperative managers could build a stronger leadership pipeline.
• Engagement of local authorities: Active involvement of local authorities, such as helping in finding suitable land for energy installations and offering administrative support, is crucial to the cooperative’s success. Encouragement for local authorities to actively participate in cooperative initiatives can be achieved by creating incentives for municipalities that support cooperatives with land allocation and administrative assistance. Policymakers could also introduce guidelines that facilitate public–private partnerships between cooperatives and local authorities to streamline regulatory approvals.
• Collaboration with experts: Cooperation with renewable energy experts, research institutions, and non-governmental organizations can accelerate the establishment and development of cooperatives. The Ministry of Climate and Environment, in collaboration with relevant government agencies, should consider establishing a dedicated one-stop support center to provide comprehensive assistance to communities interested in forming energy cooperatives. This center would consolidate technical, legal, and financial expertise into a single, accessible resource hub. The center could offer tailored advisory services, including guidance on legal frameworks, funding opportunities, and the technical aspects of renewable energy systems. By centralizing these resources, the support center would help communities overcome common bottlenecks related to the lack of specialized knowledge, thereby streamlining the cooperative formation process. Additionally, regional branches of this center could be established to provide localized support and training, further enhancing accessibility for communities in diverse regions.
• Sustainable business model: Developing a realistic and sustainable financial model that addresses both upfront and ongoing costs is key. Exploring diverse funding sources, such as grants, loans, or crowdfunding, can help mitigate financial constraints. Policymakers should implement regulations and provide targeted assistance to help cooperatives establish sound financial and business models that ensure long-term economic viability. This could include creating guidelines for sustainable financial planning, offering templates for business plans, and providing advisory services to help cooperatives navigate funding options.
• Access to technical training: Providing publicly funded training programs in renewable energy technologies, specifically targeting communities interested in forming cooperatives. These programs could include hands-on workshops, online courses, and certification schemes to ensure that cooperative members possess the skills necessary for efficient system management and maintenance.
• Policymakers should consider revising existing regulations to remove restrictions that currently limit the establishment of energy cooperatives to rural and urban-rural municipalities. By extending the legal framework to include urban areas, more communities would have the opportunity to participate in cooperative energy projects, thus accelerating the adoption of decentralized renewable energy systems. Additionally, regulatory changes should be made to allow cooperatives to sell surplus energy directly to clients who are not members of the cooperative. This would enhance the financial sustainability of cooperatives by opening up new revenue streams and incentivizing more communities to invest in renewable energy initiatives.
• Advocacy groups could implement public awareness campaigns to educate citizens about the benefits of energy cooperatives, focusing on local energy security, cost savings, and environmental sustainability. Community leaders could be provided with toolkits to host informational events or workshops. Additionally, establishing cooperative networks or forums for knowledge sharing could foster a culture of collaboration among existing and prospective cooperatives.

Further research should aim to deepen understanding of the social, economic, and technological factors influencing the development of energy cooperatives, and assess the long-term effects and impacts of these initiatives on local communities and the environment.