Place-Based Conservation in Coastal and Marine Ecosystems: The Importance of Engagement with Underrepresented Communities

Abstract

Through the years, research has described the importance of community-based approaches in the management of coastal and marine ecosystems. Coastal and marine issues are multifaceted and require place-specific approaches developed in partnership with vulnerable communities who are impacted by environmental stressors. Place-based conservation, a management approach that focuses on unique, place-specific characteristics, and other similar methods. It considers the need to integrate human dimensions and location-centered approaches, which are often lacking in typical natural resource management. Meaningful engagement with underrepresented communities can holistically account for socioeconomic factors and cultural knowledge that inform best management practices. As the health of marine and coastal ecosystems is linked with environmental quality and local livelihoods, engaging practitioners with knowledge of these systems can support science and trust in environmental management. This article discusses the importance of community-based research, local insight, various examples of successful management, and culturally relevant knowledge to advance sustainable place-based conservation.

1. Introduction

Globally, about forty percent of the world’s population resides in coastal areas [1], which comprises of nearly 129 million people in the United States [2]. In the U.S., over twenty percent of coastal residents also demonstrate one or more components of social vulnerability [3]. For example, island nations, low-income communities, and other vulnerable populations in coastal areas are susceptible to severe consequences of climate change [4]. While some nuances can vary, several scholars describe the overlapping conditions of underrepresented populations, which are often underserved and experiencing disadvantages and limited representation which make them socially vulnerable [5]. Such vulnerability can apply to underrepresented and underserved communities which are often excluded from decision-making and may experience inequalities related to factors such as their race, socioeconomic status, gender, and/or disabilities [6]. The vulnerabilities that underrepresented communities experience also relate to limited access to resources to adapt to coastal hazards [7]. Place-based conservation involves topics and conservation methods related to a specific location (e.g., place and region) aimed at cultivating approaches developed by communities for their benefit [8].

The U.S. National Climate Assessment shares that “proactive community-led adaptation strategies” can help communities adapt to coastal hazards and other climate impacts [9]. Place-based conservation, similar to community-based conservation (CBC), aims to highlight conservation efforts in a specific location, engaging the community while incorporating key socioeconomic factors (e.g., demographics and zip codes as a proxy for socioeconomic indicators) [10]. Hence, place-based programs that value the perspectives of local communities can blend traditional and modern conservation techniques [8].

In order to achieve the sustainable protection of coastal environments and communities, it is important to include PBC and CBC, integrated into effective coastal resource management [11]. Place-based conservation and community-based conservation overlap but can differ in their focus. Place-based conservation centers largely on conservation science tailored to a specific location, while the focus of community-based conservation prioritizes local inputs and the needs of that community [8,12]. PCB and CBC can be affected by inequitable coastal resource management for underserved communities that are disproportionately impacted by coastal and marine hazards. Underserved coastal and flood-prone inland communities tend to have a higher proportion of people from underrepresented groups and low-income backgrounds [13,14,15]. For example, a study conducted by Wing et al. found that the flood risks in predominantly Black communities across the southern US are predicted to increase by 20% in the next 30 years [13]. Flooding from the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, Hurricane Katrina in 2005, and the El Paso flood disaster in 2006 impacted underserved communities with inadequate resilience, resources, and ineffective environmental management [16,17]. The disproportionate impact on underserved communities illustrates the impact natural disasters have on communities that exhibit socioeconomic disparities [16,17].

A place-based approach can be used to assess the benefits and services that ecosystems provide to communities [18]. Marine and coastal environments provide a range of ecosystem services that relate to a human dimensions perspective of these systems [11]. Ecosystem services (e.g., regulating, provisioning, cultural, supporting) are the outputs and benefits that natural resources provide to human health and well-being [19] and can serve the exploration of the equitable distribution of these services [20]. Inadequately accounting for the services from coastal and marine ecosystems (e.g., cultural heritage, climate regulation, carbon storage, environmental aesthetics, recreation) can limit their valuation [11]. To counteract devaluation, ecosystem services can be informed by a place-based perspective to determine societal preferences and equitable access to these benefits [18]. For example, social indicators (e.g., income, number of recreational tours) can be used at various scales (e.g., locally and globally) to determine changes in the availability and access of ecosystem services [11]. The gaps between the norms and priorities of the research community and the values, culture, and goals for many underrepresented communities are barriers that affect local participation [21]. With this in mind, it is important to reassess the vulnerabilities, impacts, and resilience of coastal communities after natural and climate-induced disasters [22].

Findings show that the degree to which underserved communities are at risk of isolation can vary [13,14,15]. As climate change worsens, the federal government greatly emphasizes the creation of equitable climate resilience and adaptation strategies to address such vulnerabilities [23,24]. The uneven distribution of resources and environmental vulnerabilities warrants co-developed community-based strategies for resilience and adaptation to coastal and marine hazards [25,26,27,28]. To answer the government’s call to action, some federal agencies have developed plans meant to establish culturally relevant ecosystem management strategies. For instance, the NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) [29] released a strategic plan emphasizing the importance of the responsible management of oceanic and coastal resources, especially in underserved communities. This strategic plan recognizes the importance of addressing disparities in access to and use of the nation’s coastal spaces and requires a comprehensive understanding of complex socio-ecological interactions. The NCCOS are prioritizing the identification of vulnerable and underserved communities to mitigate coastal risks and vulnerabilities effectively and equitably [29].

To align community priorities effectively with research, conservation, and coastal management objectives, environmental managers, policymakers, and academia should meaningfully engage all stakeholders including underrepresented communities from the onset [21]. This push for stewardship and community engagement has been emphasized as an essential step in resolving issues related to ecosystem degradation and social inequity [27,30]. A systematic review about adaptive capacity and social–ecological resilience in coastal areas found that the local dimensions of climate vulnerability were limited in the marine and coastal academic literature [31]. Limited research that comprehensively explores local experience and knowledge also exists in locations within the Caribbean, such as St. John, St. Thomas, and Puerto Rico [32], and other coastal communities [33] around the world. Moreover, local insight also aligns with the advancement of research and practice in other fields. For example, as public health professionals call to expand inclusive research and the engagement of ocean researchers and coastal communities [4], place-based conservation aligns with community engagement in coastal management issues.

Accounting for different social factors (e.g., demographics, governance, economics, and infrastructure) can inform strategies that develop social–ecological resilience [31]. Previous review articles on coastal and marine topics highlight that knowledge from local and underrepresented communities is a major research and engagement gap in need of attention [31,34]. To advance this knowledge gap, additional understanding of vulnerable coastal and marine communities is needed. In this article, we discuss the importance of place-based conservation to coastal and marine ecosystems, particularly in underrepresented and underserved communities. We also aim to highlight the advantages and potential challenges of integrating local input into conservation science and natural resource management.

2. Community Perceptions in Coastal and Marine Ecosystems

Local insight plays a pivotal role in enhancing coastal and marine conservation projects. Coastal residents can provide valuable knowledge rooted in the deep understanding of local ecosystems, cultural practices, and the historical background. Similar to place-based conservation, community-based conservation (CBC) promotes the idea that long-term conservation success requires engaging with and providing benefits for local communities [12]. These insights are often possessed by the diverse voices of the affected community, including indigenous communities, local fisherfolk, and coastal residents whose livelihoods are intricately tied to the health of the marine environment [35,36]. For example, traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) offers a nuanced indigenous perspective that may not be captured through conventional scientific methods alone [37]. Therefore, incorporating local perspectives into conservation projects can lead to more effective and sustainable outcomes. For example, CBC enables the identification of key conservation priorities that align with the specific needs and values of local communities, not just the assumed, fostering greater buy-in and support for conservation efforts.

Additionally, local knowledge can inform the design of conservation strategies that are culturally sensitive and socially equitable, ensuring that conservation actions respect and empower local stakeholders [12]. Community insight can provide critical information on resource use patterns, enabling the development of management strategies that balance conservation goals with the socioeconomic needs of coastal communities [38]. By bridging scientific knowledge with local wisdom, coastal and marine conservation projects can become more holistic adaptive and ultimately successfully safeguard marine ecosystems for future generations.

Coastal resource management strategies seldom consider the unique perspectives of underrepresented communities, particularly those directly impacted by these decision-making practices and coastal issues [38]. Underrepresented populations, such as indigenous communities, hold invaluable knowledge on local ecosystems, storm patterns, and traditional practices for coastal stewardship [39,40]. TEK from indigenous peoples and fishers’ ecological knowledge (FEK) are examples of place-based knowledge shared through cultures [41]. Such place-based knowledge describes adaptive practices and interconnected beliefs between humans and their environment [42,43,44]. According to research conducted by Hoskins-Brown, African American fishermen within the Gullah/Geechee Corridor possess significant cultural, economic, and ecological knowledge related to changes in fisheries’ productivity and the decline in once-profitable commercial species, such as blue crab and white shrimp [45].

By incorporating co-management and co-production with indigenous TEK practices, place-based conservation initiatives aim to address environmental challenges in a manner that is both contextually relevant and socially inclusive [30]. For instance, place-based conservation efforts may involve collaboration with indigenous communities to revive traditional fishing practices (TFPs) or restore mangrove ecosystems in coastal areas [46,47]. Taking a closer look at TFPs, researchers noted that fisherfolk on Lake Kolleru in India employ diverse traditional fishing gears that have specific place-based adaptations developed over time, which contribute to the sustainability of the lake’s fishery as non-destructive practices [46]. By aligning conservation goals with local values and aspirations, place-based initiatives not only enhance ecological resilience but also foster a sense of ownership and empowerment among community members [47].

Moreover, oral histories can allow scientists to better engage with underrepresented and underserved communities [48,49] and contribute to more inclusive engagement approaches. This can enhance the overall effectiveness of conservation and management strategies by assessing the broader impacts of oral histories from individuals and communities that would otherwise go unheard [49]. NOAA’s Voices Oral History Archives is a digital archive of recorded oral histories and first-hand accounts of changing environments, climates, and coasts that may be lost otherwise [49,50]. This crucial first-hand knowledge gathered by NOAA can illustrate how changing oceanic, coastal, and environmental conditions impact communities. These collective histories are necessary for understanding these communities’ resilience and adaptability to changing environmental conditions and the implications of these displacements (e.g., the viability of fishing) [14,25,45,48]. These histories can allow scientists to better understand human experiences with the environment [49].

As coastal communities face multiple threats, including climate variability, cultural displacement, and reduced access to natural resources [51,52,53], the impact on local communities should not be underestimated. In the Southeast U.S., indigenous communities like the Gullah/Geechee have developed a culture inextricably linked to coastal ecosystems [53]. The vast salt marshes along the Southeast region of the United States serve as a barrier that protects shorelines and provides sustenance and a source of income for local communities like the Gullah/Geechee [54]. Unfortunately, the development and privatization of coastal lands and other environmental hazards have led to decreased public access to key ecosystem services the coastal environment provides [14,25,45,52,53]. It is worth noting that some private companies and nonprofit organizations have adopted private conservation easements to conserve natural resources in the Lowcountry [55]. However, it should be emphasized that private conservation easements, akin to private property and water access infrastructure, have the potential to impede access to crucial resources [52,53,55].

Place-based conservation presents a vital opportunity to address environmental injustices in coastal settings by integrating community input, enhancing rights and livelihoods, and honoring cultural heritage [14,27,51]. Key themes include environmental justice, where incorporating traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) can prioritize restoration efforts and increase public support, as demonstrated by the Louisiana Sea Grant [43]. Community engagement is essential in developing trust and collaboration, which is key to effective policy adherence, as evidenced by research in the Gulf of Mexico’s fisheries [56]. Furthermore, adaptive management strategies, such as nature-based solutions for flood management, are increasingly necessary in the face of climate change, as seen in Nepal’s successful implementation of these approaches [57]. By intertwining these themes, we can develop more informed and effective conservation strategies that address local challenges and promote sustainable futures for coastal communities [58,59,60,61,62,63,64].

3. Water Quality and Community Impact

The ocean represents the Earth’s largest connected ecosystem and greatly influences our climate, weather, food production, and international trade [4]. Thus, ocean and coastal environmental quality directly affect mankind’s livelihood, health, and quality of life. This impact can vary by spatial, temporal, and sociodemographic characteristics. For example, challenges such as property damage from storms, sea level rise, the loss of livelihoods from exposure to harmful algal blooms (HABs), overfishing, and flooding hazards are common occurrences in coastal ecosystems [4]. For instance, the persistent accumulation of organic pollutants in Arctic indigenous communities presents a growing strain on fisheries and endangers coastal livelihoods [4]. In addition to the impact on livelihoods, HABs can adversely affect general environmental quality and human health. Understanding public perceptions of HABs is vital to effectively communicate and disseminate information (e.g., warnings). Ames et al. [65] held focus groups in Lake Erie’s western basin to assess public perceptions of HAB messaging, identifying themes related to residents’ perceptions of information about HABs that can guide effective risk communication. The findings highlight diverse reception, interpretation, and responses to the distributed information among individuals, potentially influencing their risk perceptions and behaviors [65]. The study underscores the significance of timely and unbiased risk communication, providing insights for effective communication strategies in different regions [65].

Nierenberg et al. [66] conducted a focus group in Sarasota County, Florida, to assess residents’ and visitors’ knowledge of the Florida red tide phenomenon. The assessment identified data gaps in public understanding and preferred information sources. Study participants included residents and visitors who relied on sources such as the Mote Marine Laboratory, the internet, and television for red tide information [66]. Insights from local focus groups emphasize the significance of understanding political and cultural dynamics in public engagement. More specifically, Nierenberg et al. stressed the importance of initiatives to enhance resilience to HAB events, highlighting the need for improved coordination, trust, and consistency within local communities [66].

Similarly, Ekstrom [67] asserted that political and socioeconomic factors are pivotal concerns linked to HABs and their potential impact on some populations. Ekstrom [67] surveyed residents in California and Oregon to assess perceptions of extensive marine HAB occurrences from 2014 to 2016. Residents in Oregon primarily obtained information from newspapers and their state fish and wildlife agencies, while California residents relied on local television news and newspapers [67]. This study also described how HABs affected fishery-dependent and associated sectors in the United States West Coast communities. Moore et al. [68] identified that individuals who endured greater absolute income losses were exposed to longer fishery closures, were employed in the fishing industry, and were more dependent on shellfish as a source of income. Moore et al. suggests that income diversification and adaptive actions, including increased advertising, obtaining a side job, and alternate fishing, could improve resilience to HAB events [68]. Fishery practitioners expressed skepticism, suggesting an exaggeration of risks and indicating a lack of trust in the public health threshold. Such research stresses the importance of incorporating input from regional institutions and local stakeholders with social science findings to influence how we effectively address HABs and public perception [67]. The collected data can contribute to advancing preparedness efforts, aiding in recovery, and mitigating the socioeconomic impacts of future HAB occurrences [67].

Another example includes the previously degraded wetlands of the Bahia Grande (southeastern Cameron County, TX, USA), which became a dust bowl due to man-made alterations to this environment [69,70]. The implications of this adversely affected communities in Cameron County, Texas, which is already considered one of the most vulnerable counties in the United States [69,71,72]. Issues associated with the degradation of this ecosystem raised numerous concerns about its implications on the physical well-being and livelihoods of communities surrounding the Bahia Grande [69,70,72].

Regarding these concerns, restoration efforts in the Bahia Grande, like the construction of the Carl “Joe” Gayman channel, were supported by numerous partners. Since then, further research and restoration efforts have occurred to improve the quality of the initial restoration efforts. Preliminary studies conducted in this area provide valuable information regarding the status and effects of these restoration efforts [73]. These efforts have attempted to advance the ecological understanding of the basin’s health. The implications of this research can be used to better inform researchers and organizations on the effects of these restoration efforts on local communities. Disseminating environmental knowledge and developing our understanding of the impact of Bahia Grande restoration efforts on local communities requires further investigation.

4. Local Livelihoods

As coastal and marine ecosystems are critically linked to environmental quality, this interaction is also tied to economic benefits and local livelihoods. Although coastal communities have tremendous value in a sustainable blue economy, existing power imbalances, fragmented decision-making, and an underappreciation of local and indigenous knowledge are some major barriers to progress [34]. Previous research documents concerns that stakeholders from local and underrepresented communities are marginally included in critical decision-making related to the blue economy [34,74,75,76]. Thus, an opportunity is lost when communities are excluded from conservation decisions as communities are strong defenders of places linked to their livelihoods [77]. For instance, place-based conservation can reinforce local values and institutions to support biodiversity and livelihoods [78]. Place-based conservation can also align with initiatives that support the blue economy by protecting coastal areas of cultural heritage as well as supporting recreation, tourism, and our economy [79].

The potential benefits were observed in previous studies. Local fishermen can provide valuable insight into marine debris, which can inform potential pollution patterns and solutions for implementation. A case study on marine pollution in Argentina found that the combination of the FEK ecological framework with scientific knowledge highlighted parallels, exposed gaps in knowledge, suggested sources of pollution, and identified changes in ecosystem composition [44]. Incorporating knowledge from underrepresented communities allows for new ways of thinking while also developing social equity and relationships with local residents that are often overlooked [80]. When coastal practitioners include local conservation measures, they also foster inclusive resilience, encourage co-development and community ownership, and increase socio-ecological values. Shifting from one-size-fits-all approaches to locally adapted solutions will best inform management and sustainable conservation.

Community involvement and local insight can facilitate community-based monitoring and enforcement efforts, enhancing the effectiveness of conservation measures on the ground. For instance, fisherfolk can lend insight into the spawning grounds of a particular species or the presence of vulnerable habitats, guiding the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) or seasonal fishing closures [81]. Regional knowledge of traditional fishing techniques and sustainable practices can inform the development of alternative livelihood opportunities, reducing pressure on marine resources while supporting the economic well-being of coastal communities [82]. Local communities possess crucial knowledge of marine ecosystems, including species behavior, migration patterns, and ecological interdependencies, which may not be fully captured by scientific research alone [82].

Furthermore, involving communities in decision-making processes is important, especially regarding the socioeconomic implications that these processes can have [32]). For example, in the Virgin Islands (e.g., St. Thomas and St. John), dissatisfaction among fishermen regarding their role in the decision-making process underscores the need for community engagement and prioritization of their perspectives in management strategies [83]. This is further emphasized by Edelenbos et al. [84], who state that stakeholders who are relevant but are excluded from participating will often feel dissatisfied with decision-making processes [84]. While these coastal practitioners come from different backgrounds with varying cultures, values, and fishing practices, they are all intrinsically linked to the fishing industry through commercial involvement or subsistence fishing. Their coastal communities’ social and economic dependence on the fish stock surrounding the Virgin Islands has led to dissatisfaction with regulations and area closures [83].

The lack of community engagement indicates a need to engage community stakeholders in site-specific demands for fish stock. These research findings conclude that dissatisfaction will persist until locals’ needs are considered and prioritized in the decision-making process [83]. Moreover, the frustration of local fishermen extends to research carried out by external agencies and entities instead of local studies [83]. Involving fishermen before developing and initiating management strategies will allow local perspectives, knowledge, needs, and experiences to shape coastal conservation while promoting best practices. These initiatives enhance ecosystem resilience and biodiversity and empower communities, encouraging active roles to preserve their natural resources and cultural heritage. By recognizing the importance of place-specific insights and engaging with diverse stakeholders, coastal practitioners can develop more sustainable and equitable conservation solutions that benefit both people and the environment. When shifting towards locally tailored solutions, coastal practitioners promote inclusive resilience, community ownership, and socio-ecological values.

For coastal communities to maintain economic and cultural connections, equitable adaptation approaches should address the relationship between ecosystems, communities, and governance [9]. For example, the federal government has emphasized the need for “locally-tailored, community-driven” resilience strategies in its National Climate Resilience Framework [24]. This is particularly important as ecosystems, economically distressed coastal practitioners, and socially disadvantaged populations become increasingly vulnerable to climate variability. Place-based conservation strategies consider broader sociocultural factors that acknowledge the interconnection between community prosperity and cultural identity. Initiatives that promote sustainable tourism while protecting fragile ecosystems safeguard biodiversity, support local economies, and preserve cultural heritage sites [85]. For example, the rich heritage of the Gullah/Geechee people has attracted many tourists to their communities and can potentially aid in the development of sustainable heritage tourism within Gullah/Geechee communities [86]. Overall, increasing inclusive decision-making with underrepresented stakeholders is critical for equitable partnerships that support a strong blue economy [34]. Likewise, knowledge from place-based conservation can inform inclusive strategies that benefit underrepresented communities that are crucial to a sustainable blue economy.

5. Culturally Relevant Coastal and Marine Conservation

Incorporating community perspectives can increase our understanding of how we address issues of environmental justice and fair adaptation within coastal communities [87]. Public participation, engagement, equity, and a supportive local context can be considered predictors and outcomes of assessing community-based conservation [12], and these factors can be linked to cultural practices. Authentic participation processes, community-based participatory research, and other empowerment approaches are some strategies to enhance community capacity [88] and potentially address environmental and justice concerns [89]. Researchers have explored how the dimensions of justice (e.g., distributional and procedural) are linked to the merit, equality, and needs of coastal management issues [87]. Strand et al. acknowledged the importance of embedding community perspectives through Indigenous and local knowledge systems (ILKSs) [40]. Strand et al. noted that ILKSs can be a solution to addressing issues associated with the inclusion of sociocultural dimensions and identifying social sustainability [40]. Thus, ILKSs can serve to increase the representation of various knowledge systems in ocean management practices [41]. Despite this emphasis on the importance of engaging communities, Stand et al.‘s findings highlight a deficiency in opportunities for people to participate in knowledge co-creation efforts, especially regarding ocean management practices [40]. These findings demonstrate the need for better engagement opportunities for individuals to participate in and contribute to these management practices.

A community’s cultural beliefs and institutions can be an important aspect of project success in community-based conservation (Brooks et al., 2013) [12] and the valuation of related ecosystem services [90]. The cultural services from coastal ecosystems can relate to tribally designated sites, recreational opportunities, species richness, perceptions of ecosystem health, and educational opportunities [11]. Quality blue spaces and coastal communities can support leisure activities, health, and well-being, especially in distressed communities [91]. For example, the availability of cultural ecosystem services can enhance social cohesion by developing place attachment, belonging, a sense of community, and empowerment [92]. Moreover, activities that cultivate a sense of community, enhance citizen participation, and align with community interests (e.g., history, values, and power) can strengthen multiple dimensions of community capacity [89]. Also, access to coastal resources is linked to outputs such as recreational activities (e.g., fishing), shoreline protection, and interactions between wildlife and marine debris [11].

Underrepresented communities are often subjected to disproportionate burdens due to systemic social and environmental disparities [93,94]. As such, there is a need to improve community engagement to address these injustices. This is emphasized in the NOAA Fisheries Equity and Environmental Justice (EEJ) strategy, highlighting the need to engage and collaborate meaningfully with underserved and overburdened communities [95]. Improving this engagement would be essential in enhancing these communities’ adaptability and resiliency and addressing adverse environmental conditions [95]. Specifically, a place-based conservation approach can mitigate these disproportionate burdens and alleviate community-specific issues by engaging these communities in culturally appropriate and region-specific contexts [8]. Integrating community-geared approaches can potentially increase trust in research and management practices by establishing solidarity and integrating community values in management practices [96]. For instance, Morales et al. [96] assert the importance of considering the cultural communication styles and accessible language of communities to improve engagement. This reinforces the significance of cultural values in scientific processes and avoids stereotypes [96]. Utilizing and implementing place-based conservation approaches can contribute to a more equitable distribution of benefits and promote engagement within underserved communities. Existing efforts aimed at improving engagement with these communities highlight the importance of culturally appropriate and localized approaches and the need to incorporate communities in science.

Efforts such as community-based monitoring (CBM) provide opportunities for communities to learn and adapt to environmental stressors [35]. This approach is an attempt to allow multiple stakeholders, like concerned citizens and individuals from academia, an opportunity to collaborate and respond to issues of concern [35]. Research on the importance of CBM has highlighted an opportunity for communities to have direct control over social–ecological monitoring [35]. These opportunities are crucial in improving the engagement of communities in scientific processes and can serve as a tool to engage and learn from communities better [35]. Concerning marine stewardship efforts, research demonstrates the value associated with locally driven efforts to manage and protect coastal and marine resources and habitats [27,35]. These efforts have often been attributed to long-standing practices attributed to traditional knowledge and cultural beliefs but are usually not formally recognized or supported [27,30]. The impacts of this have garnered attention regarding how to improve and implement CBM and local knowledge in management practices [27,35].

6. Challenges and Place-Based Conservation

Community engagement is critical to support place-based conservation; however, challenges can develop in the related process and outcomes. For example, research on the biodiversity of coral reefs in southern Caribbean marine protected areas found a mostly unilateral relationship between the marine protected areas (MPAs) staff and community members [97]. Although MPA staff were interviewed and listed collaborators including those in the community, the program did not materialize [97]. Additionally, while 60% of local stakeholders did participate in conservation park activities, no direct channels for the promotion of joint work existed [97]. Another study on community involvement in natural resource management found that limited local capacity, variability of stakeholder input as well as restrictions in funding and time hindered community engagement in decision-making [98]. However, other challenges can develop in the collaboration process between communities and other entities. During the site selection process for a marine conservation zone (MCZ) project in the United Kingdom, communities experienced challenges with the anticipated number of MCZs being designated due to the government’s budgetary and evidence-related issues [99]. Study findings indicate the need for improved communication, transparency, and commitment from the government in participatory processes to restore public confidence and effectively meet environmental goals [99]. Another study found similar challenges (e.g., limited community participation) related to the management of marine protected areas in Guatemala [100].

A study on participants’ perceptions of coastal and marine resource management processes by Dalton [101] further reveals the need for more effective stakeholder involvement. Through semi-structured interviews, participants emphasized the importance of various participatory elements such as decision influence, information exchange, and transparent decision-making [101]. They also identified underexplored aspects such as hosting meetings at different scales, acknowledging differences within interest groups, and considering the broader context of the process [101]. A case study on the Northeast Ocean Planning initiative in the U.S. highlights issues of exclusion, fragmented governance, and a lack of clear benefits for participants [102]. The observations from the case study indicate the need to better account for socio-spatial complexities and facilitate more meaningful participation [102]. Such interpersonal challenges can lead to conflict, strained collaborations, and ineffective governance [103]. Others express that localism can diminish institutional authority in the decision-making process, which can exacerbate unbalanced power dynamics and worsen social inequality [104]. Other criticisms of the tyranny related to participation include the following: masking current power structures and approaches to encourage community participation, limitations on transforming bureaucratic organizations, politicizing spaces created for open feedback, and a rhetoric of empowerment [105].

Barriers to place-based conservation can exclude residents and communities from participating in resource management. A study on place-based group participation in watershed conservation in Portland, Oregon, found a lack of representation in participants, whose voices typically reflected current management decisions [106]. This lack of diverse community input highlights the struggle to incentivize non-involved participants. Some reasons for a lack of community participation can include the following: perceptions on unequal power and the opposition of conservation efforts as well as mistrust in science and management by natural resource organizations [107,108].

The Sea Grant agency recommends ways to prevent and overcome poor practices when it comes to involving community input in conservation science and management strategies. In the Sea Grant’s 2018 Traditional and Local Knowledge report, focus areas and ways to achieve respectful community co-production included the following: recognize, understand, value, support, and integrate [109]. Within each goal area are suggested pathways for programming, personnel, and partnership, which are helpful to establish community trust and build relationships for good communication with natural resource managers and policymakers [109].

7. Concluding Thoughts

Upholding local values and incorporating community perspectives is important in effective coastal management for a sustainable future. By involving and empowering community members in decision-making processes and empowering them with responsibilities for resource management and conservation initiatives, communities can become more sustainable and resilient in the long term. This sense of ownership incentivizes locals to actively participate in conservation efforts, leading to increased compliance with regulations and greater adherence to sustainable fishing practices [82]. By integrating various knowledge systems, such as TEK, FEK, and CBC, into conservation planning, management projects can benefit from centuries of accumulated knowledge on sustainable resource use and ecosystem management. More so, acknowledging and valuing indigenous peoples’ mastery of skills, systems, and projects can promote social justice and empower marginalized communities, ensuring that conservation benefits are equitably distributed [81]. This approach not only strengthens social cohesion within and across communities but also fosters more significant support for conservation initiatives among diverse stakeholder groups [12]. This collaborative approach promotes mutual learning and respect between scientists and local communities, fostering partnerships based on shared goals and values of community-based conservation.

Community-centered climate adaptation plans that incorporate the voices of underrepresented populations are needed to address the various coastal and marine hazards marginalized coastal communities face [13,14,15,26]. Important drivers for community-based adaptation require trustworthy partnerships between local authorities and other stakeholders [26]. Place-based conservation can allow for the sharing of different knowledge between underrepresented coastal communities, scientists, and other stakeholders, thus enabling “locally-tailored, community-driven” resilience strategies [24]. Restoring and conserving ecological spaces in the context of various ecosystem services and great cultural significance can contribute to the long-term sustainability of coastal populations.

Participatory engagement, research, and governance at the community level are essential to support and promote the health and resilience of marine and coastal ecosystems [4]. Failing to acknowledge and respond to evidence of shifts in demographics, inequality, migration, and vulnerability can intensify climate and environmental issues [22]. A lack of participation from underrepresented communities can hinder monitoring and citizen science efforts [21]. We can enhance ecosystem management, coastal resilience, and adaptation by working with communities to provide co-developed, inclusive products and services [29]. Ocean justice provides a framework to enhance the well-being of coastal communities and communities dependent on and linked to the oceans [110]. Coastal communities are hotspots for economic development and crucial ecosystem services while experiencing rapid growth and resource exploitation. This creates a precarious balance between development needs and environmental sustainability. To avoid impending coastal development, adaptive place-based conservation plans must focus on the key community factors to establish clear objectives and effectively manage these dynamic ecosystems. Collectively, this insight can support community engagement and the vision of sustainable environmental management.