Can Sustainable Food from Edible Insects Become the Food of the Future? Exploring Poland’s Generation Z

Abstract

This study addresses a research gap by examining the attitudes and interest of young Polish consumers in new foods containing insects. The results of the survey, which are presented in this article, were obtained as part of an inter-university project conducted at five Polish higher education institutions (N = 1063). The survey was conducted using the indirect interview method via an online platform (CAWI). This study aimed to assess attitudes, behaviours and intentions to purchasing insect foods, as well as factors influencing the selection of new foods containing insects and product preferences for such foods. The analysis revealed no statistically significant differentiation in consumer behaviour and declared intentions towards insect foods based on gender or place of residence (p > 0.001). Our results revealed correlations between the level of neophobia and negative attitudes among young consumers towards insect products, albeit weak in nature. The exploratory factor analysis suggested that the assessment of factors influencing the purchase of insect products may be based on a small number of dimensions, which were not found to be correlated, as follows: “Health and Environmental Concern”, “Organoleptic Attributes” and “Circumstantial Influences”.

1. Introduction

The practice of consuming insects, or entomophagy, is a phenomenon that has been documented in numerous regions across the globe [1,2,3,4]. The practice of entomophagy is regarded as a potential solution to the global challenge of feeding the growing human population in the coming years. As evidenced in the literature, approximately 2000 insect species are regarded as edible. The most commonly consumed insects are beetles, caterpillars, bees, wasps, ants, grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, cicadas, termites, dragonflies and flies [5]. It is currently estimated that insects are part of the diet of more than 2 billion people [6]. However, this figure is likely to be an overestimate [7]. They are most commonly consumed by people in Australia, Latin America, Africa and parts of Asia (e.g., Thailand) [8,9,10,11]. Despite the widespread use of some insect-produced products, such as honey and bee products, and cochineal [12,13,14], entomophagy is not a popular phenomenon in European countries. The reasons for the lack of a tradition of consuming insects in Europe are numerous [14,15,16,17]. One such factor is the highly developed agricultural sector, which includes animal husbandry. Another potential reason is the negative perception of insects by farmers, who may view them as a potential threat to crop yields and food production [18]. In Europe, insects are often associated with food that is perceived as being of a rather primitive nature, which can elicit feelings of disgust [14]. Conversely, in tropical countries, the practice of consuming insects is both historical and contemporary. This is likely facilitated by their prevalence and accessibility [7].

Insect farming can directly or indirectly contribute to several of the Sustainable Development Goals, such as SDG 2, end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture; SDG 9, build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation; SDG 12, ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns; SDG 13, take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts; SDG 15, protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss; and SDG 16, promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels [19]. Edible insects can be obtained by three means: wild harvesting; semi-domestication (habitat manipulation to increase production); and farming, which can be carried out on a small, cage-like scale as in a large factory [20]. However, it should be stressed that harvesting insects from their natural habitat can be disadvantageous on the grounds that organisms foraging in agricultural areas can periodically contain pesticides that pose a risk to humans, and their ability to accumulate heavy metals raises a further problem from the point of view of both food security and potential participation in the world market [21]. Insects collected in the wild are also sometimes infected with pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa) [22]. Considering only the human consumption of edible insects, wild harvesting accounts for about 92%, while partially domesticated insects account for only 6%. Only 2% of edible insects are currently farmed [23]. Therefore, industrial-scale insect production, supported by sustainable insect breeding, farming and processing technologies, can alleviate the limitations of insect availability and reduce the selling price of edible insects [6,20]. However, there is still a lack of action to globalize the breeding of edible insects to create an industry with a reliable and consistent supply chain, concerned about the image of the products and developing quality standards to increase its credibility in the marketplace. A prerequisite for the spread of insects as a valuable and profitable raw material for the food industry is to increase and automate their breeding and processing. Ensuring optimal methods for their preservation will also be a key factor [24]. Therefore, global agricultural organizations such as the FAO are trying to introduce the concept of breeding edible insects in a defined area, under controlled conditions, with controlled feed quality and in complete isolation. Currently, the largest number of crickets (domesticated species: Gryllus bimaculatus or Acheta domesticus) are farmed for food purposes worldwide. Most of the farms are located outside Europe—in Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam or the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. In Europe, they are farmed in Belgium, France, Finland and the Netherlands, among other countries [25,26].

In many societies, insects are not perceived as a normal food product, and therefore there is a lack of appropriate legislation recognizing their use as food ingredients. For the development of food products with edible insects, it is important to develop new regulations, including the assessment of their safety before marketing. In Europe, insects are classified as ‘farmed animals’ under Regulation (EC) No. 1069/20091. Both whole and processed insects are food within the definition of Article 2 of Regulation (EC) No. 178/20022 and, like other animals intended for human consumption, are subject to international and national food safety regulations. Therefore, the processing and storage of insects and products derived from them must comply with the health and sanitary regulations to which conventional foodstuffs are subjected. Furthermore, as no evidence of significant human consumption of insects has been found in the European Union prior to 15 May 1997, according to Regulation (EU) No. 2015/2283 adopted on 25 November 2015, it was established that all insect-based products (including insect parts or extracts, but also whole insects and their preparations) fall under the category of ‘Novel Food’. Therefore, the placement on the market of edible insect-based products requires the prior approval of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).

Currently, there are only four insect species approved for human consumption in the European Union (EU) that comply with the Novel Food Regulations [27]. These are the larvae of the mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.), the house cricket (Acheta domestica L.), the locust beetle (Locusta migratoria) and, as of 5 March 2023, the larvae of the buffalo worm (Alphitobius diaperinus P). In addition, an EU list of novel foods was established by Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470 of 30 December 2017, which provides information on the status of individual ingredients.

Notwithstanding the current legislative restrictions and difficulties related to insects as food ingredients, global markets are witnessing an increase in products with insects or products derived from insects (e.g., protein preparations or meals) and scientific work related to the use of insects or insect products in food production. Examples of such products include bread [28,29,30,31,32], gluten-free bread [33], biscuits [34], muffins [35], pancakes [36], snacks [37], extrudates [38], bars [39] and even a meat substitute for hamburgers [40].

Review of the Literature

Insect farming has advantages over slaughter animal farming. Insects are characterized by much better feed conversion (i.e., the ability to convert feed components into own weight gain expressed in kg of feed per kg of insect weight). For example, the production of 1 kg of crickets requires only 1.7 kg of feed, while this is about 2.5 kg for poultry, about 5 kg for pork and as much as 10 kg for beef [41,42]. Considering the amount of edible parts of reared animals obtained, insects also compare favourably. As much as 80% of the body weight of crickets is edible and digestible, compared to 55% for chickens, 70% for pigs and only 40% for cattle [6].

In addition, insects emit less greenhouse gasses and ammonia than pigs or cattle [43]. It has been calculated that the greenhouse gas emissions associated with raising edible insects such as crickets, locusts and whitefly larvae are approximately 100 times lower compared to cattle and pigs [44]. Additionally, insect farming requires much less land and water than cattle farming. Land productivity is critically dependent on water. The ever-increasing demand for water will threaten biodiversity, agricultural production and food production worldwide. Approximately 70% of freshwater is used worldwide for agriculture [45]. Meat production in particular requires large amounts of it. It is estimated that producing 1 kg of meat requires 2300 L of water for chicken, 3500 L for pork and 22,000–43,000 L for beef [45,46]. Estimates of the amount of water required to produce 1 kg of edible insects are not fully understood, but are nevertheless believed to be much lower [6,44,45].

To summarize the above-discussed issues, edible insects may therefore provide a number of economic and environmental benefits, as they appear to be a more sustainable and environmentally friendly source of nutrients than other animals [19,47,48,49]. If food production continues in its current form, deforestation, environmental degradation and significantly increased greenhouse gas emissions are to be expected. In particular, livestock farming, which accounts for about 70% of global agricultural land use, will exacerbate environmental problems [50].

According to much of the literature data, human activities, both in the production and consumption spheres, have a negative impact on climate change, resulting in reduced food security [51,52]. The European Parliament Report [53] suggests that the proportion of alternative protein sources in the human diet will increase by 2050, due to the insufficiency of its conventional origin. Therefore, more developed societies, e.g., Western countries, among which the consumption of animal protein is significant, should review their habits and start trying new alternative sources of this nutrient, such as insects.

The value of the edible insect market is expected to grow by more than 47% CAGR (compound annual growth rate) between 2023 and 2032, due to an increase in the global population’s demand for protein sources. Traditional protein production methods face challenges such as resource scarcity and environmental degradation. Edible insects therefore represent a highly efficient and sustainable solution requiring minimal land, feed and water compared to traditional livestock [54].

A review of consumer research on edible insects from 2015 to 2024 was conducted by searching the Direct Sciences database. The following keywords were used to search for all relevant articles in this area: insect foods consumer attitudes intentions ‘insect protein’ consumption. Analysis of the data shows that the number of papers focusing on the consumer in the insect food market as of 2021 had more than doubled (148 items) compared to 2015–2020 (64 items). Most of the studies were carried out in Europe [55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62], where the idea of eating insects is very distant from the dominant food tradition and culture. Researchers have been primarily concerned with identifying and analyzing factors that may or may not prevent consumers from accepting, trying and consuming this new category of novel foods. Valesi et al. [63] reviewed the literature on barriers and facilitating and motivational factors influencing consumer responses to insect-based foods. Aversion related to repulsion and neophobia have been identified as major barriers to insect consumption [64,65]. In addition, numerous works have used model concepts to explain attitudes and behaviours towards insect foods [66,67,68]. A study by Merlino et al. [55] used the attitude–intention–eating model as an innovative approach to investigate consumer behaviour towards insect products. The results show that people who are more concerned about environmental and ethical sustainability are more open to consuming insects, especially if the insects are treated ethically.

It has been found that the typical insect food consumer may be driven to consume insect food by curiosity (related to the dimension of neophilia) and, on the other hand, by a sense of environmental responsibility. In contrast, other researchers have shown that positive health beliefs have a stronger impact on behavioural intentions compared to environmental beliefs [57,58,69]. In the literature, one can also find acceptability studies of insect foods that take into account product images or product/prototype testing opportunities. Tan et al. [70] used eight photos of mealworm products to assess product appropriateness, sensory expectations and willingness to purchase and to try. The presented products with mealworm were not acceptable to the evaluators.

Acceptance depended mainly on the perceived legitimacy of the use of insects as food and the perceived legitimacy of the use of a particular combination of products.

A study by Castro-Alijja et al. [71] among Spanish residents found that older participants expressed reluctance to consume insects but showed openness in survival scenarios. In comparison, among younger participants, the authors found a greater willingness to try insects, influenced by factors such as education and previous experience. According to a study by Detilleux et al. [72] among different age groups of consumers conducted with 409 urban dwellers from Belgium (191 males; 218 females) and 412 urban dwellers from Gabon (219 males; 193 females) in terms of consumption of products with insects, it was shown that more than 90% of respondents from both countries were familiar with edible insects. However, acceptance of entomophagy was lower in Gabonese than in Belgian respondents. Cross-cultural differences were also found between Gabonese ethnic groups. The majority of respondents who accepted entomophagy were willing to eat baked goods with insects as well and an insect-based burger. Willingness to pay varied between countries and insect-based foods. In Belgium, the average prices of comparable conventional foods (i.e., the same food but without insects) were lower than the average willingness to pay for insect-based food. In Gabon, respondents were not willing to pay more for insect-based foods. Setting an appropriate price for insect-based foods is a necessary step to promote more frequent consumption of insects. Based on the study by Guiné et al. [73], four groups of factors influencing decisions to consume insect-based products were revealed in surveys conducted in 14 countries among different age groups (from 18 to 51 years), focusing on knowledge: one related to nutritional composition, one related to participants’ negative perceptions and possible risks associated with them, one related to the safety and benefits of consumption and one related to the possible presence of contaminants and harmful ingredients.

Knowledge of the use of whitefly larvae in food played a relatively minor role in influencing the willingness to try the presented food. In a subsequent study [74], organoleptic evaluations were conducted on beef burgers, one of which contained the addition of whitefly larvae. It was noted that positive sensory experiences play a necessary role in the learning of new tastes, but are insufficient when foods that are unusual and not culturally appropriate are involved. Menozzi et al. [75] carried out consumer tasting of a chocolate chip biscuit with an edible insect ingredient (10% cricket flour) and assessed behaviour based on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). Attitude and perceived behavioural control (PBC) were statistically significant predictors of intention, while intention and PBC were predictors of behaviour. Beliefs that consuming an insect-based food product has a positive impact on health and the environment significantly affected attitudes and intentions. The main barriers preventing the consumption of food products containing insect flour were feelings of disgust due to the sight of insects, incompatibility with local food culture and a lack of products on sale. Consumers in countries with an entomophagic tradition behave very differently from those without [76]. Numerous studies on attitudes towards entomophagy are being conducted in Western countries [77]. Given the business potential of the insect food market in EU countries, our study focuses on young consumers from the Eastern European region to fill a gap in the existing literature.

This study evaluated the interest among young Polish consumers in new foods containing insects. In particular, the aims of the study were to do the following:

-

Assess which attitudes and behaviours towards new foods containing insects are exhibited by people from Generation Z and whether selected variables related to the profile of the respondents (gender, place of residence and level of neophobia) differentiate them;

-

Identify significant determinants of choice of novel insect products among those displaying positive attitudes towards these foods;

-

Identify the most preferred product range/forms among those displaying positive attitudes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Subjects

This research was approved by the University Ethics Committee for Research at the Cracow University of Economics No. KEBN/71/0044/D24/2023. The survey results presented in this article were conducted as part of an inter-university project at five Polish higher education providers. The subject of our research was students belonging to the group of young consumers—Generation Z. Demographically, consumers can be divided into distinct groups by age. Commonly recognized age classifications include the baby boomer generation, born between 1946 and 1964; Generation X, born between 1965 and 1979; Generation Y, also known as Millennials, born between 1980 and 1994; and Generation Z, born after 1995, often referred to as Generation C (‘connected’) or the post-millennial generation [78]. Our study involved people aged 19 to 26.

The empirical survey was conducted among students, using a specially designed questionnaire, by the indirect interview method via an online platform (CAWI) between February and October 2023. The students were asked to participate in this study during tutorials and lectures held at various universities. The respondents gave informed and voluntary consent to participate in this study and confirmed that they were aware of the risk factors associated with participation in the CAWI survey. This study used a non-probabilistic sampling technique—purposive sampling. Individuals who were vegetarians, vegans or on a flexitarian diet were excluded from participation in this study. The participants in this study declared that they eat all foods, without restricting their consumption of meat or animal products. In the study procedure, 1087 survey questionnaires were collected, after which incomplete and incorrectly completed questionnaires were eliminated (N = 24). The structure of the study sample (N = 1063 respondents) by gender, place of residence and level of neophobia is shown in

Table 1. Characteristics of respondents (N = 1063).

Variables	N	% of Total
Gender
Male	414	38.95
Female	649	61.05
Place of residence
Village	389	36.59
City with population up to 50,000	197	18.53
City with population between 50,000 and 150,000	169	15.91
City with population over 150,000	308	28.97
Neophobia
Low level	563	52.96
Medium	339	31.89
High level	161	15.15

.

Approximately 61% of the people surveyed were women. The vast majority of respondents were residents of cities, including those with more than 150,000 inhabitants (28.97% of respondents), 50 to 150,000 inhabitants (15.91% of respondents) and towns with up to 50,000 inhabitants (18.53%). The level of neophobia of the subjects was determined using the Pliner and Hobden (1992) scale. The study population was dominated by people with low to moderate levels of food neophobia (74.75%).

2.2. Questionnaire and Data Analysis

In preparing the questionnaire, a set of statements adapted from other authors’ studies/papers was used. The survey questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first included metric variables: gender, place of residence and verifying the level of neophobia: 10 items [79].

Part two referred to an assessment of the following:

-

Attitudes towards insect food: 4 items [80];

-

Behaviours and intentions to purchase insect food: 5 items [81,82];

-

Selection factors for new foods containing insects in their composition: 13 items [81];

-

Product preferences of new foods containing insects.

During the survey, the respondent expressed his or her level of approval or disapproval of all items included, using a 5-point Likert scale, where the value of 1 means definitely no, 2 means no, 3 means I do not know, or I have no opinion, 4 means yes and 5 means definitely yes [83]. The collected empirical material obtained from this study was subjected to statistical analysis using the following methods:

-

Descriptive statistics: % of indications, median, mean values and standard deviation. These were used to assess attitudes and behaviours towards new foods containing insects.

-

The chi-squared test was used to assess whether gender and place of residence differentiate attitudes and behaviours.

-

Spearman’s correlation coefficient was used to determine whether the level of neophobia differentiates attitudes and behaviours [84].

-

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA), with the orthogonal rotation method Varimax [85], was used to classify the significant determinants influencing the choice of new insect-containing products [86,87].

The results were statistically analyzed using Statistica version 13.3.

3. Results

Table 2. Attitudes of young consumers toward new foods containing insects with respect to characteristics of the respondents.

Attitudes	No [%]	Neutral [%]	Yes [%]	Median	Mean	SD	Gender	Residence	Neophobia
I find buying novel food containing insects a good idea	41.11	35.47	23.42	2.00	1.86	0.83	Chi2 = 1.84; df = 2; p = 0.40	Chi2 = 13.05; df = 6; p = 0.04	Chi2 = 76.49; df = 4; p < 0.01
I find buying novel food containing insects a wise choice	39.90	60.11	20.89	2.00	1.85	0.81	Chi2 = 7.75; df = 2; p = 0.02	Chi2 = 17.71; df = 6; p = 0.01	Chi2 = 67.52; df = 4; p < 0.01
I like the idea of buying novel, innovative food containing insects	50.14	26.53	23.33	2.00	1.77	0.86	Chi2 = 3.56; df = 2; p = 0.17	Chi2 = 13.46; df = 6; p = 0.04	Chi2 = 81.02; df = 4; p < 0.01
Buying novel, innovative food containing insects would be nice	54.75	33.58	11.67	1.00	1.60	0.74	Chi2 = 0.63; df = 2; p = 0.73	Chi2 = 16.19; df = 6; p = 0.01	Chi2 = 57.99; df = 4; p < 0.01

presents the attitudes of young consumers towards novel food products containing insects. Approximately 20% of respondents exhibit positive attitudes towards these products. About 23% perceive the purchase of novel food containing insects as a beneficial idea and express an interest in acquiring innovative food products that incorporate insects. Furthermore, 21% of participants consider purchasing insect-based products to be a prudent choice, while 12% believe that acquiring new innovative food containing insects would be enjoyable. Gender and geographic location were not found to statistically significantly differentiate the attitudes of young consumers towards insect-based food (p > 0.001). However, statistically significant differences were identified in relation to the level of neophobia exhibited (p < 0.001).

As shown in

Table 3. Impact of neophobia on young consumers’ attitudes toward foods containing insects.

Variables	Level of Neophobia	I Find Buying Novel Food Containing Insects a Good Idea	I Find Buying Novel Food Containing Insects a Wise Choice	I Like the Idea of Buying Novel, Innovative Food Containing Insects	Buying Novel, Innovative Food Containing Insects Would Be Nice
Median	low	2.00	2.00	2.00	2.00
	medium	1.00	2.00	1.00	1.00
	high	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00
Mean	low	2.05 c	2.02 c	1.97 c	1.73 c
	medium	1.70 b	1.72 b	1.60 b	1.52 b
	high	1.54 a	1.53 a	1.42 a	1.32 a
SD	low	0.83	0.80	0.89	0.76
	medium	0.81	0.79	0.80	0.71
	high	0.72	0.73	0.70	0.61
Correlation coefficient		−0.25	−0.23	−0.25	−0.21

Note—^a,b,c statistically significantly different, p < 0.05; bold values in the table are statistically significant, p < 0.05.

, an increase in neophobia was associated with more negative attitudes towards insect products across all assessed statements. While these relationships were significant, they were found to be weak, with correlation coefficients ranging from −0.21 to 0.25.

Table 4. Intentions of young consumers toward foods containing insects with respect to characteristics of the respondents.

Intentions	No %	Neutral %	Yes %	Median	Mean	SD	Gender	Residence	Neophobia
If a “novel innovative food” appears on the market containing edible insects, I will be willing to buy it	56.16	14.89	29.35	1.00	1.73	0.89	Chi2 = 0.91; df = 2; p = 0.63	Chi2 = 13.66; df = 6; p = 0.03	Chi2 = 74.38; df = 4; p < 0.01
I am willing to buy new food containing edible insects	58.61	15.43	25.96	1.00	1.67	0.86	Chi2 = 0.46; df = 2; p = 0.79	Chi2 = 6.42; df = 6; p = 0.38	Chi2 = 66.02; df = 4; p < 0.01
I will make an effort to buy foods containing insect protein in the near future	71.50	17.59	10.91	1.00	1.39	0.67	Chi2 = 6.84; df = 2; p = 0.03	Chi2 = 6.85; df = 6; p = 0.34	Chi2 = 36.81; df = 4; p < 0.01
I would try dishes made from insects or with insect ingredients if I had the opportunity	60.30	9.88	29.82	1.00	1.70	0.90	Chi2 = 0.74; df = 2; p = 0.69	Chi2 = 8.97; df = 6; p = 0.17	Chi2 = 110.89; df = 4; p < 0.01
I am interested in eating dishes or food/food products made from insects in the near future	67.45	14.02	18.53	1.00	1.51	0.79	Chi2 = 0.58; df = 2; p = 0.75	Chi2 = 10.22; df = 6; p = 0.12	Chi2 = 68.01; df = 4; p < 0.01

delineates the behaviours and intentions regarding novel food containing insects. Approximately 29% of respondents indicated a willingness to purchase new innovative food products containing edible insects if such products were made available on the market. About 30% expressed a desire to try dishes that include insects or insect-derived ingredients. Conversely, around 19% showed interest in consuming insect-based dishes or food/products in the near future, while only 11% were prepared to make an effort to purchase food containing insect protein soon. The analysis revealed that gender and geographic location did not statistically significantly differentiate consumer behaviours and declared intentions regarding insect food (p > 0.001).

Statistically significant differences, however, were observed concerning the level of neophobia (Table 4). The level of neophobia was found to differentiate respondents in terms of their declared behaviours towards insect products (p < 0.001), mirroring the results obtained regarding consumer attitudes. Correlation coefficients ranging from −0.17 to −0.31 (

Table 5. Impact of neophobia on young consumers’ intentions toward foods containing insects.

Variables	Level of Neophobia	If a “Novel Innovative Food” Appears on the Market Containing Edible Insects, I Will Be Willing to Buy It	I Am Willing to Buy New Food Containing Edible Insects	I Will Make an Effort to Buy Foods Containing Insect Protein in the Near Future	I Would Try Dishes Made from Insects or with Insect Ingredients If I Had the Opportunity	I Am Interested in Eating Dishes or Food/Food Products Made from Insects in the Near Future
Median	low	2.00	2.00	1.00	2.00	1.00
	medium	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00
	high	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00
Mean	low	1.93 c	1.85 c	1.49 c	1.95 c	1.66 c
	medium	1.59 b	1.56 b	1.35 b	1.48 b	1.42 b
	high	1.34 a	1.30 a	1.16 a	1.25 a	1.18 a
SD	low	0.92	0.91	0.73	0.95	0.84
	high	0.82	0.79	0.65	0.79	0.74
	low	0.68	0.65	0.46	0.62	0.53
Correlation coefficient		−0.26	−0.24	−0.17	−0.31	−0.22

Note—^a,b,c statistically significantly different, p < 0.05; bold values in the table are statistically significant, p < 0.05.

) indicate that the relationships, although statistically significant, were weak. Individuals expressing a willingness to purchase new products exhibited lower levels of neophobia, thereby displaying more neophilic attitudes.

In subsequent phases of the study, individuals demonstrating positive attitudes towards “new innovative food” containing edible insects (N = 312) were identified, and the factors that would incentivize their purchase were determined. Thirteen items were included in the analysis of factors influencing product choice. The results indicated (

Table 6. Determinants of the choice of new insect food among people with positive attitudes (N = 312).

Variables	No	Neutral	Yes	Mean	SD
Attractive taste	4.16	3.53	92.31	2.88	0.43
Attractive aroma	7.69	6.41	85.90	2.78	0.57
Attractive appearance	8.01	9.94	82.05	2.74	0.59
High nutritional value	6.73	7.37	85.90	2.79	0.55
Various assortment and availability in retail	6.41	9.62	83.97	2.78	0.55
Popularity (fashion)	41.99	18.27	39.74	1.98	0.91
Affordable price	3.21	3.85	92.94	2.90	0.40
Package size and attractiveness	22.11	16.99	60.90	2.39	0.83
Convenience of use	7.05	7.05	85.90	2.79	0.56
Health claims	11.86	13.78	74.36	2.63	0.69
Nutritional claims	11.86	12.82	75.32	2.63	0.69
Reducing CO2 emissions	20.84	14.42	64.74	2.44	0.82
Availability of recipes on blogs and websites	16.99	14.10	68.91	2.52	0.77

) that in the hierarchy of factors influencing the choice of insect products, the most highly rated factors included affordability (2.90 ± 0.40), appealing taste (2.88 ± 0.43), high nutritional value (2.79 ± 0.55), convenience of use (2.79 ± 0.56), appealing aroma (2.78 ± 0.57), diverse assortment and availability (2.78 ± 0.55) and attractive presentation (2.74 ± 0.59). Additionally, for the majority of respondents, the determinants of choice for new insect products included nutritional claims (75.32%), health claims (74.36%) and the availability of recipes on blogs and websites (68.91%). Approximately 65% of respondents would consider purchasing insect products due to their potential to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Furthermore, the size and attractiveness of product packaging would be important for 60.90% of participants. It was established that the popularity and trendiness of insect consumption had a minimal impact on the choice of insect products.

To classify significant determinants (attributes) influencing the choice of new products containing insects, factor analysis was conducted, and it identified three uncorrelated dimensions (Figure 1 and Figure 2). The factor analysis suggests that the assessment of determinants influencing the purchase of insect products can be based on a reduced number of factors representing correlated variables. The eigenvalues of the extracted principal components ranged from 1.22 to 4.46. Factor I (explaining 29% of the variance) was associated with variables related to health and environmental concerns, specifically nutritional claims (0.89), health claims (0.88), high nutritional value (0.62) and reduction in CO2 emissions (0.62). This factor was termed “Health and Environmental Concern”. Factor II (explaining 28% of the variance) centred around the following variables: taste (0.90), aroma (0.83) and appearance (0.68). It was named “Organoleptic Attributes”, and it was also associated with affordability (0.57). Meanwhile, high values for Factor III (explaining 18% of the variance) were represented by variables related to popularity/trendiness (0.72), the size and attractiveness of packaging (0.59) and the availability of recipes on blogs and websites (0.58). This factor was termed “Circumstantial Influences”.

Table 7. Willingness to consume various forms of edible insects among people declaring positive attitudes towards these products (N = 312).

Products	No	Neutral	Yes	Mean	SD
Hamburgers, meat products and processed products	18.59	8.33	73.08	2.54	0.79
Ready meals: soups, pasta, pancakes, sauces, etc.	13.78	9.29	76.93	2.63	0.71
Bread, rolls, pizza, other bakery products	13.78	8.97	77.24	2.63	0.71
Cakes, cookies, chocolate-coated insects, other pastry and confectionery products	23.40	8.97	67.63	2.44	0.85
Bars, crisps, other snacks	15.71	9.29	75.00	2.59	0.75
Post-workout drinks, supplements for people with high protein requirements	19.55	12.50	67.95	2.48	0.80
Cottage cheese, yoghurts and other fermented milk products	32.05	12.18	55.77	2.24	0.91
Sauces, mayonnaises	29.17	12.18	58.65	2.29	0.89
Crickets (frozen, dried or powdered)	39.74	15.38	44.88	2.05	0.92
Mealworms (frozen, dried or powdered)	43.91	16.99	39.10	1.95	0.91
Locusts (frozen, dried or powdered)	43.27	16.99	39.74	1.96	0.91

presents the preferred forms of consumption of “novel food” containing edible insects as reported by respondents. Among the types of food indicated for consumption, baked goods (77.24% of respondents), ready-made meals such as soups, pasta, pancakes and sauces (76.93%), snack bars, crisps and other snacks (75% of respondents) and hamburgers and processed meat products (73.08%) were predominant. Furthermore, approximately 68% of respondents expressed a willingness to consume insects in the form of confectionery products and desserts, as well as post-workout beverages and supplements designed for individuals with high protein requirements. Interest in incorporating insects into sauces and mayonnaise was indicated by around 59% of respondents, while approximately 56% were open to consuming cottage cheese, yoghurt, and other fermented dairy products.

4. Discussion

Contemporary research on attitudes and behaviours regarding entomophagy presents a novel perspective by recognizing that consumers should not be treated as a homogeneous group. Instead, it emphasizes the importance of considering various consumer segments and their dietary practises when analyzing differences in attitudes and acceptance [56]. While Western consumers are generally perceived as reluctant to adopt entomophagy, treating them as a singular culinary culture is inadequate. Consequently, our study focused on a specific demographic: young consumers representing Generation Z in Poland. Consumers of insect products are often characterized as seekers of diversity and adventure, particularly among young adult males [56,88,89,90]. Segmentation studies conducted in Hungary indicated that among individuals who accepted insect-based foods, a significant majority were men aged 18 to 39 years (49.3%). However, positive attitudes towards such foods were less prevalent among women [61]. In contrast, our findings revealed that gender did not significantly influence attitudes towards insect-based food. Within Generation Z in Poland, approximately one in five individuals express interest in consuming insects.

A review of the acceptability of edible insects across Europe suggests [57] that Northern countries exhibit higher tolerance than Central, Mediterranean, or Western countries, largely due to the earlier introduction of edible insects into their markets. It was reported [66] that consumers from Finland and Sweden (Scandinavian countries) showed greater willingness to purchase and possess a more positive attitude towards insects as food compared to consumers from Germany and the Czech Republic (Central Europe). Moreover, regional cultural differences within the same country significantly influence perceptions of entomophagy. For instance, substantial variation has been documented [91] in the willingness to consume insect-containing foods among different states in the USA. Similarly, individuals from the northern and midwestern regions of Brazil, influenced by indigenous cultural factors, expressed more favourable views on consuming insects than those from the northeastern, southeastern and southern regions, which have been notably shaped by European colonization [92]. Insect-based food is increasingly recognized as an innovative alternative to traditional animal protein, particularly in regions with a longstanding history of insect consumption [93].

According to a study by Ranga et al. [94] in France and Ireland, it was shown that adolescents studying in France (43.7%) had a positive opinion of entomophagy compared to participants in Ireland (21.3%), and after being informed about the approval of insects as a new food in Europe, students in France were significantly more likely to consume insects than students in Ireland. For both groups, food neophobia and disgust were barriers to entomophagy. In addition, men over 30 years of age enrolled in engineering courses, not following to a specific diet, more interested in the environment and health, and less interested in knowledge, culture and religion, were the most likely to consume insects. Participants in France and Ireland were more likely to eat insects if they were tasty or hidden (invisible) in another product, rather than if they were presented in their usual form (‘whole’). It is shown that the acceptance of entomophagy is influenced by product characteristics, food neophobia, disgust and consumers’ food choice motives, while the influence of information on regulation is country-specific. These findings could provide a starting point for the development of insect-based foods that are acceptable to consumers in Europe. Research conducted by Szlachciuk and Żakowska-Biemas [95] has shown that Polish consumers are very sceptical about products with added insects (in the case of people with neophobia, up to 85% of respondents would not try the product), and those declaring a willing to try these products represent less than 20% of the respondents. According to the authors’ research, the positive aspects of using insects are that they take up much less space, are more efficient and cause less pollution than the farming of conventional livestock farming.

Our results revealed correlations between the level of neophobia and negative attitudes among young consumers towards insect products, albeit weak in nature. Prior research conducted by our team [68] confirmed the existence of negative correlational relationships between neophobia levels and attitudes and intentions towards insect-based foods; however, it did not establish that neophobic attitudes among young consumers significantly explain positive attitudes and intentions to purchase insect products. This may suggest that Generation Z in Poland does not exhibit a pronounced natural aversion to insects as food. Nevertheless, the majority of studies indicate that consumers generally react with inherent reluctance towards insects as food. Alternative protein sources, such as insects or cultured meat, may evoke neophobic reactions among specific consumer segments, whereas plant-based proteins are typically more accepted [96]. Research conducted among students in Thailand [97] revealed that food neophobia, along with levels of disgust or fear towards insects, had a substantial impact on respondents’ willingness and intention to consume insects. Processed insect products were regarded as more acceptable, yet simultaneously perceived as riskier and less appealing to consumers with lower levels of innovation. A high level of dietary neophobia is associated with a low propensity to try new foods, while low levels indicate diversity or a pursuit of novelty among neophilic food consumers [56]. It has been observed that initial reactions of European consumers to insects as food are neither enthusiastic nor open. The emotion of disgust plays a significant role in shaping how many Western consumers classify insects as food [98,99,100].

Understanding consumer attitudes towards insects as a food source necessitates a more detailed analysis of the factors influencing their purchasing decisions. Contemporary research indicates that environmental awareness and concerns regarding sustainability do not necessarily translate into a positive disposition towards the consumption of insects. Consumers often express uncertainty about how insects affect their health and food safety, which may contribute to scepticism and resistance to acceptance [101]. In our study, three categories of factors encouraging consumers to consume insect-based foods were identified: “health and environmental concerns”, “organoleptic attributes” and “circumstantial influences”. Modifying the factors that influence consumer choice may facilitate a shift in attitudes towards the product. A deficiency in awareness and precise information regarding the health and environmental benefits associated with insect consumption may serve as a deterrent for consumers. Consequently, producers and manufacturers of insect-based foods should integrate these considerations into their marketing strategies. Effective communication of such information can assist in overcoming existing barriers and enhancing acceptance of insects as a viable food source. There is a pressing need to augment awareness regarding entomophagy and to foster a willingness to explore insects as food options [102,103].

Our research revealed that forms of insects prepared for direct consumption (such as crickets, mealworm larvae, and migratory locusts) were less favoured among young consumers. The existing literature indicates [100] that the initial approach to introducing insects as edible food involved marketing whole insects, often fried and intended for snacking. This approach has evolved over time. The consumption of whole insects may appeal primarily to culinary adventurers [104]. Our findings suggest that young consumers exhibit a significantly higher interest in dishes utilizing processed insects compared to whole insect consumption. Market strategies should prioritize the development of palatable and familiar dishes featuring processed insects [56]. This is predicated on the observation that Western consumers are more likely to accept insect-derived foods when they are familiarized through highly processed products containing insects in crushed or powdered forms [56]. The transformation of insects into recognizable food products fosters acceptance by integrating them into traditional culinary contexts. Presenting edible insects to Western consumers in familiar forms or preparations (e.g., pizza incorporating insect flour) or utilizing well-known flavours and complementary ingredients may mitigate neophobic responses [55]. Furthermore, innovative marketing strategies, such as collaborations with influencers, tasting events, and advertising campaigns that depict edible insects as trendy and modern dietary solutions, could facilitate a shift in perception and enhance societal acceptance of such products.

5. Conclusions

This research provides a range of critical findings that can be employed in designing product assortments tailored to specific consumer segments, as well as in developing communication strategies for insect-based foods. On one hand, the sensory attributes of these products can serve as valuable indicators for producers regarding the expectations of young consumers. The inclusion of nutritional and health claims on the labels of insect-containing products, along with effective communication of their nutritional benefits, is vital for fostering consumer trust in the manufacturers of such foods. Conversely, efforts by companies engaged in insect food production should also emphasize the environmental advantages associated with this type of food. In this context, targeted messaging can play a pivotal role in shaping pro-environmental attitudes among consumers. Promoting insect-based foods by referencing the environmental benefits linked to their production is crucial for enhancing consumer awareness in this regard. The development of the insect food sector is consistent with the EU’s sustainable food economy strategy, which advocates for a transformation in food production and consumption methods to mitigate environmental impacts and contribute to climate change mitigation.

Limitations, Implications, and Prospects

There are some limitations to the present study. This study concerns a narrow group within Generation Z (university students), so the obtained results cannot be generalized to the entire Generation Z population in Poland. The scope of our research is also limited, as it focuses on selected determinants of consumer attitudes and intentions. Further research in this area could be aimed at identifying other factors, such as cultural or psychological barriers to insect consumption.

Despite the substantial volume of compelling research regarding the attitudes and behaviours of consumers in industrialized countries towards insect-based foods, further exploration in this domain appears essential due to rapidly evolving preferences, tastes and purchasing decisions. Our study contributes to the existing body of knowledge and addresses a research gap concerning the selection of new, innovative products containing insects among individuals belonging to Generation Z in Poland. The insights obtained are significant not only from a scientific perspective, but also for practical applications within the food industry and among policymakers focused on the development of the alternative food market.

The results of the factor analysis presented in our paper identify three main dimensions of the determinants that influence the choice of insect-based foods. Companies can use these findings to develop marketing strategies that better meet consumer needs and expectations. Future activities may include developing products with attractive sensory attributes, promoting health and environmental benefits and adapting offerings to changing market trends. Insect producers should focus on promoting these aspects to counteract food neophobia and increase acceptance of their products. Consumer education, the gradual introduction of new products and flavour innovation and convenience can play a key role in the future success of insect products.

The present article delineates a segment of the research derived from a comprehensive project investigating Polish consumers’ attitudes towards insect-based foods. However, it is important to note that our study was conducted with a narrow subject focus. A limitation of this work is its exclusive concentration on students representing the young consumer segment of the population. Future research endeavours should aim to encompass a broader demographic, focusing on different generational cohorts. Additionally, further studies are planned with a more in-depth subject focus, including a thorough characterization of consumers interested in insect-based foods based on segmentation models that incorporate psychosocial characteristics, social structural influences, and factors influencing the selection of these products, and the identification of factors that condition and restrict demand for this category of food. Conducting research in this area is both pertinent and beneficial, as it supports the advancement of alternative animal protein production while adhering to the principles of sustainable development in both economic and environmental dimensions.