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Article

Production of High-Quality Seeds in Eryngium foetidum: Optimizing Post-Harvest Resting Conditions for Sustainable Unconventional Food Systems

by
Laura Monteiro Pedrosa
*,
Isabelle Caroline Bailosa do Rosário
,
Giovanna de Castro
and
Cibele Chalita Martins
College of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Jaboticabal 14884-900, SP, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2025, 15(1), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010185
Submission received: 16 December 2024 / Revised: 10 January 2025 / Accepted: 11 January 2025 / Published: 14 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seed Production and Technology)
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Abstract

:
Eryngium foetidum is a promising crop for diversifying agriculture and supporting sustainable development through nutrient-rich unconventional foods. However, limited knowledge about its seed viability and post-harvest management hinders its commercial scalability. This study explored the effects of post-harvest resting treatments on seed quality and vigor, assessing seeds from whole plants, aerial parts, floral spikes, and umbels after 7 and 14 days of resting. Key metrics included seed yield, purity, moisture content, germination, and vigor were assessed. Results showed that seeds retained on whole plants achieved the highest physical purity (72.2%). Seeds that rested for 7 days exhibited higher germination rates (59%), faster germination (mean germination time of 17 days), and improved seedling establishment (70% emergence) compared to seeds that rested for longer durations. These outcomes highlight the importance of specific post-harvest conditions for optimizing assimilate redistribution enhancing seed quality and seedling performance. This research bridges a critical gap in post-harvest management knowledge for E. foetidum, offering practical insights to improve cultivation practices and promote its adoption as a strategic crop. The findings align with global efforts to advance sustainable and innovative agroecosystems. Further studies under diverse environmental conditions and harvest times are recommended to validate these results and support large-scale implementation.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Eryngium foetidum (L.) is an aromatic herb from the Apiaceae family native to Central and Latin America. It is primarily cultivated in tropical regions of Africa, southern Asia, the warmer areas of southern Europe, and the Pacific Islands. Additionally, it is grown in Costa Rica and Puerto Rico for both local consumption and export, particularly to the United States [1]. In Brazil, its cultivation is predominantly concentrated in the northern states of Acre, Amazonas, Amapá, Pará, Rondônia, and Roraima [2,3,4]. In other regions of the country, it is mainly grown in small vegetable gardens and family farms [5]. This species represents a promising non-conventional food crop with substantial potential for agricultural diversification and sustainable food production.
The leaves of E. foetidum, which constitute its primary edible and commercializable component, are characterized by a unique nutritional composition, including high levels of vitamins (e.g., A, B-complex, and C), minerals (e.g., calcium, iron, and potassium), and antioxidant compounds [2,6]. These attributes position E. foetidum as a viable alternative food source that could enhance dietary diversity and nutritional security, particularly in regions experiencing challenges in traditional crop production due to the adverse effects of climate change [7].
The adaptability of E. foetidum to suboptimal environmental conditions, including its tolerance to marginal soils and resistance to certain pests and diseases, underscores its utility as a climate-resilient crop [2]. Integrating E. foetidum into agricultural systems offers the dual benefit of increasing the resilience of food production systems while providing farmers with additional economic opportunities through its commercial value [8,9]. Despite these advantages, the adoption of E. foetidum in large-scale agriculture remains limited, primarily due to the absence of standardized methodologies for seed production and post-harvest management, which are critical for ensuring consistent seedling establishment and crop yields.
A key limitation in the commercial scalability of E. foetidum arises from its indeterminate growth habit, whereby reproductive structures develop continuously over an extended period [10,11]. This characteristic leads to significant variability in the physiological maturity of seeds on the same plant, complicating efforts to standardize harvest timing and achieve uniform seed quality [12,13]. The optimization of post-harvest management practices, particularly the duration and conditions of seed resting, plays a crucial role in addressing this variability. Post-harvest resting is known to facilitate critical physiological processes, including moisture equilibration, nutrient redistribution, and the completion of seed metabolic adjustments, which collectively influence seed viability, germination, and vigor [14].
Optimal resting durations balance the need for physiological maturation with the avoidance of seed deterioration due to over-maturation or prolonged storage. Short resting periods may allow rapid germination if essential physiological changes have been completed, while extended durations may support comprehensive seed maturation processes [15]. Excessively long resting periods, however, could introduce risks of seed quality decline [16]. The influence of resting on seed quality may further depend on the specific plant structures included in the post-harvest treatment. For example, resting seeds attached to the entire plant may maintain physiological interactions that support development [17], while isolating seeds with only aerial parts, floral spikes, or umbels allows for an assessment of the contributions of these structures to seed maturation.
Although post-harvest management practices have been extensively studied for conventional crops [18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25], the unique physiological and growth characteristics of E. foetidum necessitate specialized approaches. Current research on the effects of post-harvest resting durations and plant-part-specific treatments on seed quality in E. foetidum is limited, presenting a critical knowledge gap. Understanding the relationships between these factors and key seed quality indicators, including germination rates and seedling vigor, is essential to inform practices that enhance the scalability of this crop for commercial production.
The present study aims to evaluate the effects of varying post-harvest resting durations and plant-part-specific treatments on seed quality and seedling establishment in E. foetidum. By addressing the challenges associated with seed physiological variability and indeterminate growth, this research seeks to identify strategies that optimize seed quality. The findings will contribute to the development of standardized seed production protocols, facilitating the integration of E. foetidum into sustainable agricultural systems as a nutrient-dense, climate-resilient crop with significant potential for commercialization.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Seed Collection

Seed collection was performed at the Horticulture Section of the Federal Rural University of Amazonia (UFRA), Pará, Brazil (1°11′26.82″ S; 47°09′36.31″ O; 25-m altitude), during the physiological maturation phase. The maturation phase was determined by visible physiological markers, such as the dark brown coloration of the seeds [26] and increased firmness, indicative of full seed development. Only seeds exhibiting complete physiological maturation were harvested to ensure optimal germinability. The harvesting process involved manual collection of the seeds, followed by thorough cleaning to remove extraneous plant material, thereby minimizing mechanical injury. The seeds were then air-dried in a controlled laboratory environment, where temperature and relative humidity were regulated to be maintained at a temperature of 20 ± 2 °C and a relative humidity of 30%. Moisture content was monitored continuously using the oven-drying method until it reached 8–10%. After achieving the desired moisture level, the seeds were stored in hermetically sealed containers at 15–20 °C, under dark and dry conditions, to preserve their viability for subsequent experimental use.

2.2. Seedling Production

Seedling production was conducted under controlled greenhouse conditions at São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Paulo, Brazil, in September 2022. The greenhouse environment was maintained at a constant temperature of 25 ± 2 °C and relative humidity of 60 ± 3%, based on preliminary evaluations indicating that these parameters optimize seed germination and early seedling development. Sowing was carried out in polyethylene trays containing 128 individual cells, with three to four seeds sown per cell to enhance germination success rates. The sowing medium consisted of a 5:1:1:½ (v/v) mixture of sieved local soil, commercial Bioplant© substrate, coconut fiber, and earthworm humus, selected to provide optimal moisture retention and aeration for seedling growth. Prior to sowing, the medium was uniformly pre-moistened to achieve consistent hydration. A controlled application of N-P-K fertilizer (10-25-7) was incorporated into the medium to facilitate initial seedling growth. The trays were positioned in the greenhouse and monitored regularly to maintain the established environmental conditions. Irrigation was managed manually, with adjustments made based on seedling growth stages to prevent water stress or excess moisture. Thinning was performed as seedlings emerged, ensuring that only the most vigorous seedlings remained, thus reducing intraspecific competition for light and nutrients. Once the first true leaf fully expanded, seedlings were spaced to optimize light exposure and air circulation, reducing the potential for disease and promoting robust growth.

2.3. Seedling Transplanting

Seedlings were transplanted into the field at the Horticulture and Medicinal Aromatic Plants sector of UNESP in January 2023, 82 days after sowing, once they had developed their third true leaf. Prior to transplanting, a soil fertility analysis was conducted on the top 0–20 cm soil layer to assess the nutrient profile. The results revealed a slightly acidic pH (5.3), moderate organic matter content (10 g dm−3), and adequate levels of macronutrients for crop growth. Based on these findings, the field was prepared through plowing and harrowing, followed by the creation of raised planting beds to enhance drainage and promote root development. These raised beds also facilitated proper soil aeration, reducing the likelihood of waterlogging. Basal fertilization with N-P-K fertilizer (4-14-8) was applied to promote seedling establishment. The seedlings were transplanted into the prepared beds spaced 20 cm apart within rows to ensure adequate spacing for growth and minimize intraspecific competition. Each seedling was carefully removed from the tray to minimize root disturbance and transplanted into the field beds. Immediately after transplanting, the seedlings were irrigated to alleviate transplant shock. Environmental conditions in the field were monitored regularly to ensure that temperature, humidity, and irrigation levels remained within the optimal range for seedling growth.

2.4. Experimental Design and Harvesting

The experimental design was based on a completely randomized design (CRD) with a 4 × 2 factorial arrangement. The four plant resting conditions were whole plant with basal leaves and root system, aerial part, floral spikes, and umbels (Figure 1), while the two resting periods were 7 and 14 days. Plants were monitored weekly for floral spike development, starting with the emergence of floral scapes. Harvesting was synchronized with the physiological maturity of the seeds, indicated by the dark brown coloration of the seeds [26]. The eighth order of umbels was identified as the optimal harvesting stage, and manual harvesting occurred once seed maturation was complete, which ranged from 150 to 240 days after transplanting, from June to September 2023. A staggered harvesting approach was employed to account for the asynchronous flowering and seed maturation observed among plants. Following harvest, plants were cut at the base and placed in plastic bags to minimize mechanical injury. The harvested material was transported to the Seed Analysis Laboratory at UNESP for processing, where they were placed to rest on Kraft paper on a laboratory bench in an air-conditioned environment at a constant temperature of 20 ± 2 °C and relative humidity of 30%. The experimental units were replicated four times, yielding a total of 32 experimental units for the study.

2.5. Seed Quality and Seedling Performance Assessment

Seed quality and seedling performance were evaluated following standard procedures outlined in the Seed Analysis Manual of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Food Supply [27].

2.5.1. Seed Yield

Seed yield was determined by manually extracting seeds from the umbels. Following extraction, seeds were separated from inert materials using a series of sieves (2 mm, 1 mm, and 0.7 mm). The final sample was sieved through a 0.7 mm mesh to remove any remaining debris. The total raw seed weight was recorded using a semi-analytical balance with a precision of 0.001 g (Marte AD500 model). After cleaning, the purified seed weight was also recorded. Seed productivity was calculated based on the total weight of purified seeds per plant or treatment, providing an index of seed production efficiency.

2.5.2. Seed Physical Purity

Physical purity was assessed by manually sorting seeds under a stereomicroscope at 5× magnification to remove impurities, such as unfertilized ovules, dust, and other foreign materials. After the purification process, the weight of the clean seeds was measured, and the purity percentage was calculated as the ratio of the pure seed weight to the total raw seed weight, expressed as a percentage.

2.5.3. Seed Moisture Content

Seed moisture content was determined using the oven-drying method. Two 1-g sub-samples from each treatment were weighed and placed in an oven set at 105 ± 3 °C for 24 h. After drying, the seed samples were re-weighed, and the percentage of water content was calculated based on the difference in weight before and after drying.

2.5.4. Germination Test

Germination tests were conducted with four replications of 50 seeds per treatment (four resting conditions—whole plant, aerial part, floral spikes, and umbels and two resting periods—7 and 14 days), following established protocols. Seeds were placed on two sheets of moistened germination paper, with a water-to-substrate ratio of 2.5:1. The seeds were then placed in transparent acrylic germination boxes (11 × 11 × 3.5 cm), which were sealed in plastic bags to maintain moisture levels. The boxes were kept in a biological oxygen demand (B.O.D.) growth chamber at 25 °C with an 8-h photoperiod, and germination was recorded when the radicle reached a length of 2 mm. The first germination count was made on day 21, with subsequent counts continuing until germination rates stabilized on the 45th day. Germination rates were quantified using the mean germination time (MGT) and germination speed index (GSI), calculated as described by Labouriau (1983) and Maguire (1962), respectively [28,29].

2.5.5. Emergence Test

The emergence test was conducted with four replications of 50 seeds per treatment (four resting conditions—whole plant, aerial part, floral spikes, and umbels and two resting periods—7 and 14 days), sown in autoclaved sand moistened to 60% of its water retention capacity. The test was performed in a greenhouse at 26 ± 2 °C and 60 ± 3% relative humidity for 30 days. The first emergence count was recorded on day 17, and subsequent counts were made until all seedlings had emerged. The mean emergence time and emergence speed index were calculated as described by Labouriau (1983) and Maguire (1962), respectively [28,29]. Seedling vigor was also assessed, with normal seedlings classified as strong or weak based on development, following the criteria of Krzyzanowski et al. (2020) [30].

2.6. Statistical Data Analysis

Data were tested for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test and for homogeneity of variances using Bartlett’s test. If the assumptions were satisfied, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to evaluate the effects of resting conditions and periods. Significant differences were identified using Tukey’s test at a 5% probability level (p ≤ 0.05). Additionally, a correlation analysis was conducted to identify significant relationships between seed quality indicators and the post-harvest resting treatments. All statistical analyses were performed using R statistical software (version 4.3.2; R Core Team, 2023) [31].

3. Results

3.1. Seed Yield and Physical Purity

No significant differences were observed in seed yield, indicating that this indicator is not influenced by post-harvest resting conditions or durations. In contrast, seed purity was significantly affected by the resting conditions. Seeds subjected to the whole plant resting condition exhibited the highest purity (72.2%) compared to those exposed to other resting treatments (Figure 2).

3.2. Seed Moisture Content

Seed moisture content, measured at the time of plant separation for resting, was initially 12 ± 2%. After seven days, it ranged between 8 ± 2%, and after fourteen days, it was between 9 ± 2%. Seeds rested under the whole plant condition for seven days exhibited the lowest water content (8.9%). After fourteen days, the lowest water content was observed in seeds under the floral spikes resting condition (9.5%).

3.3. Seed Germination Potential

Significant differences were observed in germination based on the resting conditions and periods (Table 1). Seeds exposed to the resting conditions of the entire plant, aerial part, and umbels did not differ significantly from each other after seven days, exhibiting the highest germination rates (59%). However, seeds subjected to the resting condition of the floral spikes showed a reduction in germination percentage (36%). In contrast, when comparing the seven-day resting period to fourteen days, a decrease in germination rates was observed for seeds subjected to the aerial part (38%), floral spikes (36%), and umbels (33%) after fourteen days of resting. For the first germination count, seeds subjected to the umbel resting method for seven days exhibited the highest germination percentages (26%), although no significant difference was observed compared to seeds exposed to the entire plant and aerial part resting conditions during the same period (24% and 23%, respectively). Seeds rested on the umbels for seven days exhibited the highest germination speed index (2.5). However, this result was not significantly different from those obtained after resting seeds on the whole plant (2.3) or the aerial part (2.2). For the fourteen-day resting period, seeds left on the whole plant achieved a higher germination speed index (2.4), while other methods, including resting on umbels or aerial parts, resulted in reduced germination speeds. Seeds subjected to a fourteen-day resting period showed lower values for all harvesting methods compared to the seven-day resting period.
The mean germination time of E. foetidum seeds was significantly influenced by the resting conditions. Seeds rested on umbels germinated the fastest, achieving a mean time of 14 days, while other methods showed no significant differences in germination time (Figure 3). Notably, resting seeds on umbels resulted in faster germination regardless of the resting period. However, a seven-day rest period proved particularly beneficial, yielding the best germination outcomes across all methods, including resting on umbels, the whole plant, and the aerial part. This highlights the combined importance of optimal resting conditions and duration in enhancing seed germination efficiency.

3.4. Seedling Emergence and Vigor

Significant independent effects were observed for the resting conditions and periods on seedling emergence, first emergence count, and emergency speed index (Figure 4). Post-harvest resting conditions revealed that seeds germinated the fastest (14 days) under the umbel resting condition. The other methods did not differ significantly in germination time. While the umbel resting condition consistently resulted in faster germination regardless of the resting period, combining it with the seven-day resting period produced more favorable outcomes for germination, both for seeds rested under the umbel condition and those subjected to the entire plant and aerial part resting conditions. Resting seeds for seven days resulted in the highest emergence percentages in sand (70%), first emergence count (22%), and emergence velocity (2.10).
For the mean emergence time, seeds rested for seven days under the whole plant condition exhibited the shortest emergence time (17 days) (Figure 5). No significant differences were found between resting conditions for the fourteen-day period, with emergence times ranging from 17 to 22 days. Additionally, the highest seedling vigor was observed for seeds that rested for seven days under the entire plant condition (51%). When subjected to the fourteen-day resting period, seedling vigor significantly decreased for all conditions compared to the seven-day resting period (Table 1).

4. Discussion

4.1. Key Learnings from Experimental Post-Harvest Management

The results of this study provide valuable explanatory insights into how post-harvest management conditions impact seed quality, particularly with respect to seed purity, moisture content, germination rates, and seedling vigor.
An important learning from this study is that seed yield appeared to be independent of the post-harvest resting conditions, as expected. This indicates that factors prior to harvest, including genotype–environment interactions, play a more significant role in determining seed yield [32]. This highlights the importance of pre-harvest management strategies, where environmental factors and genetic traits have a greater influence on seed yield outcomes, regardless of post-harvest resting treatments [33].
Another key learning is the significance of the whole plant resting condition for achieving the highest seed purity. Seeds left attached to the whole plant benefit from the protective barrier of plant structures such as leaves, stems, and roots. These barriers shield the seeds from contaminants like dust, soil, and debris, reducing the risk of contamination. In contrast, seeds rested on the aerial part, while still somewhat protected, showed a slight decrease in purity due to greater exposure [34]. Seeds rested on the floral spikes were the most vulnerable, showing the lowest purity levels, likely due to their increased exposure to airborne contaminants. This highlights the importance of the whole plant resting condition for maintaining seed purity, particularly in environments with high contamination risks.
An important finding concerns seed moisture content, which plays a critical role in seed viability. Seeds rested on the whole plant showed the lowest moisture content after seven days, suggesting that this condition is most effective at shedding excess moisture and reducing the risk of fungal contamination or deterioration. In contrast, seeds rested on the umbel exhibited slightly higher moisture content, indicating that the separation of seeds from the plant affects moisture retention. The study also found that the resting period itself influences moisture content, with seeds rested for fourteen days showing higher moisture content than those rested for seven days. This indicates that prolonged resting periods may lead to moisture reabsorption, compromising seed quality. The reduction in the water content of the seeds during the post-harvest rest periods acts as a natural survival strategy by reducing the seed’s metabolic activity, preserving its accumulated reserves, and maintaining vigor [35]. The results underscore the importance of managing moisture content, as optimal moisture levels are necessary for successful germination [36]. Seeds rested on the whole plant demonstrated the best balance between moisture reduction and seed viability, supporting higher germination rates. Seeds rested on the aerial parts or umbels showed moderate germination potential, while seeds rested on floral spikes exhibited significantly lower germination rates, likely due to exposure to environmental stressors [37].
Seedling vigor, a key indicator of healthy plant establishment, was highest in seeds rested on the whole plant and umbels. This suggests that the whole plant resting condition supports optimal moisture regulation and biochemical integrity, which in turn promotes seedling development [14]. Conversely, seeds rested on floral spikes exhibited reduced seedling vigor, likely due to prolonged moisture exposure and associated biochemical disruptions. Extended resting periods (14 days) also led to a decline in seedling vigor, particularly under conditions where moisture retention was less regulated, further emphasizing the importance of moisture control.

4.2. Actionable Insights for Practical Protocols

For seed producers and stakeholders, the study’s findings offer several actionable insights. First, the whole plant resting condition should be prioritized for optimal seed purity and viability, especially in environments with higher contamination risks. When it is not feasible to rest seeds on the whole plant, the umbel resting condition could be considered as an alternative, though it may require additional measures to protect seeds from contaminants. Managing seed moisture content is crucial for maintaining seed quality. Stakeholders should focus on controlling environmental conditions, particularly humidity and temperature, during the resting period. For example, investing in controlled storage or drying facilities can help prevent moisture-related degradation, especially for seeds rested on umbels or floral spikes. Moisture sensors and humidity control devices could help monitor and regulate moisture levels, ensuring that seeds do not retain excessive moisture or reabsorb it during longer resting periods [38]. For regions with high humidity or variable climates, additional protective measures should be implemented. These could include covering seeds with breathable materials, using drying agents, or storing seeds in facilities where moisture and temperature can be consistently regulated [39]. Furthermore, stakeholders should consider these findings when developing best practices for seed production, particularly in regions where environmental stressors such as temperature fluctuations or excessive rainfall could impact seed quality. Additionally, these results may have broader applications across various crops. While this study focused on a specific crop, similar principles could be applied to other agricultural systems. However, further research would be necessary to evaluate how these findings translate across different crop species, as seed structure and environmental interactions can vary widely.

4.3. Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

While the study provides valuable insights into seed quality and plant nutritional management, several limitations need to be addressed in future research. One of the main limitations is the range of quality indicators used in this study, which focused on seed purity, moisture content, germination rates, and seedling emergence and vigor. These indicators offer important insights, but additional factors, such as biochemical markers, long-term seed storage performance, and stress-resilience indicators, should be considered in future studies. Expanding the scope of analysis will provide a more comprehensive understanding of how resting conditions influence overall plant and seed health. The study’s environmental scope was also limited, as it was conducted under controlled conditions. Real-world agricultural practices, including varying soil types and local cultivation practices, can significantly influence seed and plant tissue quality [40]. Future research should include field-based experiments that take these variables into account, providing a more accurate representation of how resting conditions affect seed and plant performance in diverse environments. This would help to refine best management practices and ensure that the findings are applicable across different farming systems. Additionally, the study of climatic conditions and harvest timing represents a crucial avenue for future research. Variations in harvest timing and environmental factors, such as temperature and humidity, are well-documented for their influence on seed quality. Future studies should investigate these variables over extended periods, incorporating detailed climate data to provide a deeper understanding of their effects on seed performance and to inform optimized production practices. Another limitation is the narrow geographical scope of the study. The research was conducted using a specific set of samples, which may not be representative of seeds or plant material from different regions. Future research should include a wider range of seed samples from various geographical locations, which would increase the generalisability of the findings and help develop region-specific recommendations. Moreover, future studies should also focus on the long-term impact of resting conditions on not only seed quality but also on the nutritional composition of plant tissues, especially the leaves, which could be especially relevant for agricultural systems focusing on nutrition-sensitive crops.

5. Conclusions

This study provides significant insights into the post-harvest management of E. foetidum, highlighting the importance of specific resting conditions and durations on seed quality and seedling performance. The findings demonstrate that seeds retained on the whole plant for seven days exhibit the highest physical purity, optimal moisture content, superior germination rates, and seedling vigor. These results underscore the critical role of post-harvest resting conditions in enhancing seed quality, which is essential for the successful commercialization and scalability of E. foetidum as a sustainable crop. By addressing the knowledge gap in post-harvest management practices, this research contributes to the development of standardized protocols that can improve seed production efficiency and crop yields. The study’s actionable insights provide a foundation for seed producers and stakeholders to optimize post-harvest treatments, ensuring high-quality seed production. Future research should expand on these findings by exploring additional quality indicators, such as biochemical markers and long-term storage performance, and by conducting field-based experiments across various geographical locations. This will help to validate the results and develop region-specific recommendations, further supporting the integration of E. foetidum into sustainable agricultural systems. Overall, this research enhances the understanding of post-harvest management in E. foetidum, offering practical solutions to enhance food security and sustainability in innovative agroecosystems.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.M.P.; methodology, L.M.P., I.C.B.d.R., and C.C.M.; validation, L.M.P., I.C.B.d.R., and G.d.C.; formal analysis, L.M.P.; investigation, L.M.P., I.C.B.d.R., and G.d.C.; data curation, L.M.P., and C.C.M.; writing—original draft preparation, L.M.P.; writing—review and editing, L.M.P., and I.C.B.d.R.; visualization, L.M.P., I.C.B.d.R., G.d.C., and C.C.M.; supervision, C.C.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Coordination of Improvement of Higher Education Personnel—Brazil (CAPES, Financial Code No. 001).

Data Availability Statement

The data supporting this study’s findings are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge the funding sponsors of this work.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Post-harvest resting conditions of the Eryngium foetidum plant: whole plant with basal leaves and root system (A); aerial part (B); floral spikes (C); umbels (D).
Figure 1. Post-harvest resting conditions of the Eryngium foetidum plant: whole plant with basal leaves and root system (A); aerial part (B); floral spikes (C); umbels (D).
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Figure 2. Physical purity of Eryngium foetidum seeds as influenced by post-harvest resting conditions. Means followed by the same letter do not differ significantly according to Tukey’s test at the 5% probability level.
Figure 2. Physical purity of Eryngium foetidum seeds as influenced by post-harvest resting conditions. Means followed by the same letter do not differ significantly according to Tukey’s test at the 5% probability level.
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Figure 3. Mean germination time of Eryngium foetidum seeds as influenced by post-harvest resting conditions. Means followed by the same letter do not differ significantly according to Tukey’s test at the 5% probability level.
Figure 3. Mean germination time of Eryngium foetidum seeds as influenced by post-harvest resting conditions. Means followed by the same letter do not differ significantly according to Tukey’s test at the 5% probability level.
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Figure 4. Seedling emergence, first emergence count, and emergence speed index of Eryngium foetidum as influenced by post-harvest resting periods. Means followed by the same letter do not differ significantly according to Tukey’s test at the 5% probability level.
Figure 4. Seedling emergence, first emergence count, and emergence speed index of Eryngium foetidum as influenced by post-harvest resting periods. Means followed by the same letter do not differ significantly according to Tukey’s test at the 5% probability level.
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Figure 5. Mean emergence time of Eryngium foetidum seedlings as influenced by post-harvest resting conditions and durations. Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to Tukey’s test at the 5% probability level.
Figure 5. Mean emergence time of Eryngium foetidum seedlings as influenced by post-harvest resting conditions and durations. Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to Tukey’s test at the 5% probability level.
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Table 1. Germination, first germination count, germination speed index, and seedling vigor of Eryngium foetidum seeds as influenced by post-harvest resting conditions and periods.
Table 1. Germination, first germination count, germination speed index, and seedling vigor of Eryngium foetidum seeds as influenced by post-harvest resting conditions and periods.
Post-Harvest Rest ConditionsGermination Rate (%)First Germination Count (%)Germination Speed IndexSeedling Vigor (%)
Post-Harvest Rest Periods (days)
714714714714
Whole plant59 Aa58 Aa24 Aa25 Aa2.3 Aa2.4 Aa51 Aa29 Ab
Aerial part59 Aa38 Bb23 Aa16 Bb2.2 Aa1.5 Bb25 Ba17 Bb
Floral spikes36 Bb48 Ab16 Ab17 Bb1.5 Ba1.6 Ba17 Ba15 Ba
Umbels59 Aa33 Bb26 Aa15 Bb2.5 Aa1.5 Bb25 Ba14 Bb
F RC0.01 *0.002 *0.001 *0.00005 *
F RP0.01 *0.009 *0.005 *0.00005 *
F RC × RP0.00 *0.01 *0.007 *0.00324 *
CV%17.919.818.219.8
Averages followed by the same letter do not differ according to Tukey’s test at a 5% probability level. Lowercase letters group means within columns, while uppercase letters compare means across rows. * Significant at the 5% probability level according to the F-test. F RC: F-test for resting conditions; F RP: F-test for resting periods; F RC × RP: F-test for the statistical interaction between resting conditions and resting periods; CV: coefficient of variation.
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Pedrosa, L.M.; Rosário, I.C.B.d.; de Castro, G.; Martins, C.C. Production of High-Quality Seeds in Eryngium foetidum: Optimizing Post-Harvest Resting Conditions for Sustainable Unconventional Food Systems. Agronomy 2025, 15, 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010185

AMA Style

Pedrosa LM, Rosário ICBd, de Castro G, Martins CC. Production of High-Quality Seeds in Eryngium foetidum: Optimizing Post-Harvest Resting Conditions for Sustainable Unconventional Food Systems. Agronomy. 2025; 15(1):185. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010185

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pedrosa, Laura Monteiro, Isabelle Caroline Bailosa do Rosário, Giovanna de Castro, and Cibele Chalita Martins. 2025. "Production of High-Quality Seeds in Eryngium foetidum: Optimizing Post-Harvest Resting Conditions for Sustainable Unconventional Food Systems" Agronomy 15, no. 1: 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010185

APA Style

Pedrosa, L. M., Rosário, I. C. B. d., de Castro, G., & Martins, C. C. (2025). Production of High-Quality Seeds in Eryngium foetidum: Optimizing Post-Harvest Resting Conditions for Sustainable Unconventional Food Systems. Agronomy, 15(1), 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010185

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