Water

1091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New System for Households in Spain to Evaluate and Reduce Their Water Consumption

by Alberto Gutierrez-Escolar, Ana Castillo-Martinez, Jose M. Gomez-Pulido, Jose-Maria Gutierrez-Martinez and Eva Garcia-Lopez

Water 2014, 6(1), 181-195; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010181 - 21 Jan 2014

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 8909

Abstract

The objective of this paper is to describe a developed model and its corresponding application, known as System to Evaluate the Water Consumption at Home (SEWAT). The aim is to create a new model to evaluate the efficiency of water consumption. Thanks to [...] Read more.

The objective of this paper is to describe a developed model and its corresponding application, known as System to Evaluate the Water Consumption at Home (SEWAT). The aim is to create a new model to evaluate the efficiency of water consumption. Thanks to the input of the water bills by users, the model allows them to check if water consumption is efficient, in order to give them an opportunity to evaluate their water usage. To succeed in it, several researches were tracked in order to establish consumer trends and to identify the most efficient value for this magnitude. Furthermore, a survey was conducted to obtain updated values to validate information from previous studies. However, the main aim of this model is to use the resources efficiently, so it has to be useful accordingly. Therefore, after the evaluation, the application has a section with recommendations for the users to reduce their water consumption through a range of different indications. This section is divided into four: bathroom, kitchen, new appliance and reusing water. Each section shows the expected benefits if the users follow the recommended options. The main result is a unique application in Spain, which includes a system of evaluation, comparison and a section of recommendations for the users. Eventually, the model will have a promising outcome, because it surely will change the awareness of citizens about this subject. Full article

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2318 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Water Quality of the River Enborne, UK: Observations from High-Frequency Monitoring in a Rural, Lowland River System

by Sarah J. Halliday, Richard A. Skeffington, Michael J. Bowes, Emma Gozzard, Jonathan R. Newman, Matthew Loewenthal, Elizabeth J. Palmer-Felgate, Helen P. Jarvie and Andrew J. Wade

Water 2014, 6(1), 150-180; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010150 - 17 Jan 2014

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 12459

Abstract

This paper reports the results of a 2-year study of water quality in the River Enborne, a rural river in lowland England. Concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus species and other chemical determinands were monitored both at high-frequency (hourly), using automated in situ instrumentation, [...] Read more.

This paper reports the results of a 2-year study of water quality in the River Enborne, a rural river in lowland England. Concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus species and other chemical determinands were monitored both at high-frequency (hourly), using automated in situ instrumentation, and by manual weekly sampling and laboratory analysis. The catchment land use is largely agricultural, with a population density of 123 persons km⁻². The river water is largely derived from calcareous groundwater, and there are high nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations. Agricultural fertiliser is the dominant source of annual loads of both nitrogen and phosphorus. However, the data show that sewage effluent discharges have a disproportionate effect on the river nitrogen and phosphorus dynamics. At least 38% of the catchment population use septic tank systems, but the effects are hard to quantify as only 6% are officially registered, and the characteristics of the others are unknown. Only 4% of the phosphorus input and 9% of the nitrogen input is exported from the catchment by the river, highlighting the importance of catchment process understanding in predicting nutrient concentrations. High-frequency monitoring will be a key to developing this vital process understanding. Full article

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911 KiB

Open AccessArticle

One-Year Surveillance of the Chemical and Microbial Quality of Drinking Water Shuttled to the Eolian Islands

by Antonio Proto, Ilaria Zarrella, Carmine Capacchione and Oriana Motta

Water 2014, 6(1), 139-149; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010139 - 17 Jan 2014

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5639

Abstract

This work presents the chemical and biological characteristics of drinking water shuttled from the main land (Naples, Campania, Italy) to the Eolian islands (situated off the north-eastern coast of Sicily). The data obtained from a one year surveillance program, (January to December, 2012) [...] Read more.

This work presents the chemical and biological characteristics of drinking water shuttled from the main land (Naples, Campania, Italy) to the Eolian islands (situated off the north-eastern coast of Sicily). The data obtained from a one year surveillance program, (January to December, 2012) indicate that the quality of the water delivered to the islands meets the drinking water quality standard year-round. During summer, when requests for drinking water increase with the increase of the islands population, the quality of the shipped water decreases, most likely due to the use of older vessels in addition to those used during the rest of the year. The results suggest an implementation of a monitoring program at the point-of-use in order to identify potential sources of contamination early in shipped drinking water and, therefore, to manage the potential risk of waterborne illness more effectively. Full article

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887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance of an Anaerobic Baffled Filter Reactor in the Treatment of Algae-Laden Water and the Contribution of Granular Sludge

by Yaqin Yu, Xiwu Lu and Yifeng Wu

Water 2014, 6(1), 122-138; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010122 - 7 Jan 2014

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8768

Abstract

This study investigated the performance and stability of an anaerobic baffled filter reactor in the treatment of algae-laden water from Taihu Lake at several organic loading rates. The study also evaluated the capability of soft filler to train granule sludge and improve the [...] Read more.

This study investigated the performance and stability of an anaerobic baffled filter reactor in the treatment of algae-laden water from Taihu Lake at several organic loading rates. The study also evaluated the capability of soft filler to train granule sludge and improve the anaerobic environment and sludge activity in the anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), thereby enhancing the treatment efficiency. The ABR consisted of five rectangular compartments, each of which was 120 cm long, 80 cm wide, 80 cm high, and packed with soft filler. The anaerobic baffled filter reactor was found to be an efficient reactor configuration for the treatment of algae-laden water. The reactor was operated at an organic loading rate of 1.5 kg chemical oxygen demand (COD)/(m³d) and an ambient temperature of 30 °C; under these conditions, the COD removal efficiency was 80% and the biogas production rate was 293 mL/(Ld). Moreover, the soft filler increased the biomass retention time and decreased the rate at which solids were washed out from the reactor, promoting an improved spatial distribution of the microbial communities within the compartments. Methanoregula, Methanobacteriaceae, Methanosaeta, Methanoculleu, and Thermogymnomonas were the dominant archaeal species in each compartment during an operational period of approximately 100 days. The protease activity in the reactor decreased longitudinally down the reactor from Compartments 1 to 5, whereas the activity of coenzyme F₄₂₀ increased. The soft filler played a key role in successfully treating algae-laden water with the anaerobic baffled filter reactor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in On-Site Wastewater Treatment and Technologies to Characterize the Fate and Transport of Wastewater Constituents)

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1953 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leopold’s Arboretum Needs Upstream Water Treatment to Restore Wetlands Downstream

by Joy B. Zedler, James M. Doherty and Isabel M. Rojas

Water 2014, 6(1), 104-121; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010104 - 2 Jan 2014

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 8125

Abstract

A case study has broad relevance for urban natural reserves. Aldo Leopold’s far-reaching vision to restore historical ecosystems at the UW-Madison Arboretum has been difficult to achieve despite ~80 years of restoration work. Wetlands (~1/4 of the 485-ha reserve) resist restoration, given urban [...] Read more.

A case study has broad relevance for urban natural reserves. Aldo Leopold’s far-reaching vision to restore historical ecosystems at the UW-Madison Arboretum has been difficult to achieve despite ~80 years of restoration work. Wetlands (~1/4 of the 485-ha reserve) resist restoration, given urban watersheds and inflows of low quality water. Current conditions favor aggressive invasive plants (cattails, reed canary grass, and buckthorn)—species that do not fulfill the 1934 vision. Today, urban runoff flows into remnant natural wetlands, degraded wetlands, the iconic Curtis Prairie, and constructed wetlands. Regulations for total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) have led local municipalities to expand pre-existing sediment- and nutrient-trapping ponds from 5.67 ha (14 ac) of Arboretum land to 9.3 ha (23 ac) to protect downstream lakes. Both the runoff and the treatment facilities (with invasive plants) limit the Arboretum’s ability to achieve pre-settlement vegetation. Consistent with Leopold’s vision, we endorse Arboretum principles that urban runoff be restored to pre-settlement quality, and we recommend shifting efforts to reduce TMDLs to upstream lands in order to protect the Arboretum. Given that invasive species will persist, Leopold’s Arboretum should be rededicated to research, education, and restoration, plus sustainable management of its waters and wetlands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wetlands and Sustainability)

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373 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of Extended Statistical Entropy Analysis to the Effluent Quality Index of the Benchmarking Simulation Model No. 2

by Alicja P. Sobańtka, Marie-Noëlle Pons, Matthias Zessner and Helmut Rechberger

Water 2014, 6(1), 86-103; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010086 - 2 Jan 2014

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7018

Abstract

Extended statistical entropy analysis (eSEA) is used to assess the nitrogen (N) removal performance of the wastewater treatment (WWT) simulation software, the Benchmarking Simulation Model No. 2 (BSM No. 2 ). Six simulations with three different types of wastewater are carried out, which [...] Read more.

Extended statistical entropy analysis (eSEA) is used to assess the nitrogen (N) removal performance of the wastewater treatment (WWT) simulation software, the Benchmarking Simulation Model No. 2 (BSM No. 2 ). Six simulations with three different types of wastewater are carried out, which vary in the dissolved oxygen concentration (O_2,diss.) during the aerobic treatment. N₂O emissions generated during denitrification are included in the model. The N-removal performance is expressed as reduction in statistical entropy, ΔH, compared to the hypothetical reference situation of direct discharge of the wastewater into the river. The parameters chemical and biological oxygen demand (COD, BOD) and suspended solids (SS) are analogously expressed in terms of reduction of COD, BOD, and SS, compared to a direct discharge of the wastewater to the river (ΔEQ_rest). The cleaning performance is expressed as ΔEQ_new, the weighted average of ΔH and ΔEQ_rest. The results show that ΔEQ_new is a more comprehensive indicator of the cleaning performance because, in contrast to the traditional effluent quality index (EQ), it considers the characteristics of the wastewater, includes all N-compounds and their distribution in the effluent, the off-gas, and the sludge. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that realistically expectable N₂O emissions have only a moderate impact on ΔEQ_new. Full article

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1136 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Assessment of Groundwater Quality Monitoring Wells Using Indicator Kriging and Risk Mapping, Amol-Babol Plain, Iran

by Tahoora Sheikhy Narany, Mohammad Firuz Ramli, Ahmad Zaharin Aris, Wan Nor Azmin Sulaiman and Kazem Fakharian

Water 2014, 6(1), 68-85; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010068 - 31 Dec 2013

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 11147

Abstract

The main aim of monitoring wells is to assess the conditions of groundwater quality in the aquifer system. An inappropriate distribution of sampling wells could produce insufficient or redundant data concerning groundwater quality. An optimal selection of representative monitoring well locations can be [...] Read more.

The main aim of monitoring wells is to assess the conditions of groundwater quality in the aquifer system. An inappropriate distribution of sampling wells could produce insufficient or redundant data concerning groundwater quality. An optimal selection of representative monitoring well locations can be obtained by considering the natural and anthropogenic potential of pollution sources; the hydrogeological setting; and assessment of any existing data regarding monitoring networks. The main objective of this paper was to develop a new approach to identifying areas with a high risk of nitrate pollution for the Amol-Babol Plain, Iran. The indicator kriging method was applied to identify regions with a high probability of nitrate contamination using data obtained from 147 monitoring wells. The US-EPA DRASTIC method was then used in a GIS environment to assess groundwater vulnerability to nitrate contamination, and combined with data concerning the distribution of sources to produce a risk map. In the study area, around 3% of the total area has a strong probability of exceeding the nitrate threshold and a high–moderate risk of pollution, but is not covered adequately by sampling wells. However, the number of monitoring wells could be reduced in most parts of the study area to minimize redundant data and the cost of monitoring. Full article

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258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resistance of Two Mediterranean Cold-Water Coral Species to Low-pH Conditions

by Juancho Movilla, Andrea Gori, Eva Calvo, Covadonga Orejas, Àngel López-Sanz, Carlos Domínguez-Carrió, Jordi Grinyó and Carles Pelejero

Water 2014, 6(1), 59-67; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010059 - 31 Dec 2013

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 9476

Abstract

Deep-water ecosystems are characterized by relatively low carbonate concentration values and, due to ocean acidification (OA), these habitats might be among the first to be exposed to undersaturated conditions in the forthcoming years. However, until now, very few studies have been conducted to [...] Read more.

Deep-water ecosystems are characterized by relatively low carbonate concentration values and, due to ocean acidification (OA), these habitats might be among the first to be exposed to undersaturated conditions in the forthcoming years. However, until now, very few studies have been conducted to test how cold-water coral (CWC) species react to such changes in the seawater chemistry. The present work aims to investigate the mid-term effect of decreased pH on calcification of the two branching CWC species most widely distributed in the Mediterranean, Lophelia pertusa and Madrepora oculata. No significant effects were observed in the skeletal growth rate, microdensity and porosity of both species after 6 months of exposure. However, while the calcification rate of M. oculata was similar for all colony fragments, a heterogeneous skeletal growth pattern was observed in L. pertusa, the younger nubbins showing higher growth rates than the older ones. A higher energy demand is expected in these young, fast-growing fragments and, therefore, a reduction in calcification might be noticed earlier during long-term exposure to acidified conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Ocean Acidification on Marine Organisms—Unifying Principles and New Paradigms)

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658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inter-Event Time Definition Setting Procedure for Urban Drainage Systems

by Jingul Joo, Jungho Lee, Joong Hoon Kim, Hwandon Jun and Deokjun Jo

Water 2014, 6(1), 45-58; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010045 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 12422

Abstract

Traditional inter-event time definition (IETD) estimate methodologies generally take into account only rainfall characteristics and not drainage basin characteristics. Therefore, they may not succeed in providing an appropriate value of IETD for any sort of application to the design of urban drainage system [...] Read more.

Traditional inter-event time definition (IETD) estimate methodologies generally take into account only rainfall characteristics and not drainage basin characteristics. Therefore, they may not succeed in providing an appropriate value of IETD for any sort of application to the design of urban drainage system devices. To overcome this limitation, this study presents a method of IETD determination that considers basin characteristics. The suggested definition of IETD is the time period from the end of a rainfall event to the end of a direct runoff. The suggested method can identify the independent events that are suitable for the statistical analysis of the recorded rainfall. Using the suggested IETD, the IETD of the Joong-Rang drainage system was determined and the area-IETD relation curve was drawn. The resulting regression curve can be used to determinate the IETD of ungauged urban drainage systems, with areas ranging between 40 and 4400 ha. Using the regression curve, the IETDs and time distribution of the design rainfall for four drainage systems in Korea were determined and rainfall-runoff simulations were performed with the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). The results were compared with those from Huff's method which assumed a six-hour IETD. The peak flow rates obtained by the suggested method were 11%~15% greater than those obtained by Huff’s method. The suggested IETD determination method can identify independent events that are suitable for the statistical analysis of the recorded rainfall aimed at the design of urban drainage system devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flood Estimation and Analysis in a Variable and Changing Environment)

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1848 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Version-7 TRMM Multi-Satellite Precipitation Analysis Product during the Beijing Extreme Heavy Rainfall Event of 21 July 2012

by Yong Huang, Sheng Chen, Qing Cao, Yang Hong, Biwen Wu, Mengyu Huang, Lei Qiao, Zengxin Zhang, Zhe Li, Weiyue Li and Xiuqin Yang

Water 2014, 6(1), 32-44; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010032 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 75 | Viewed by 10862

Abstract

The latest Version-7 (V7) Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA) products were released by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in December of 2012. Their performance on different climatology, locations, and precipitation types is of great interest to the [...] Read more.

The latest Version-7 (V7) Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA) products were released by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in December of 2012. Their performance on different climatology, locations, and precipitation types is of great interest to the satellite-based precipitation community. This paper presents a study of TMPA precipitation products (3B42RT and 3B42V7) for an extreme precipitation event in Beijing and its adjacent regions (from 00:00 UTC 21 July 2012 to 00:00 UTC 22 July 2012). Measurements from a dense rain gauge network were used as the ground truth to evaluate the latest TMPA products. Results are summarized as follows. Compared to rain gauge measurements, both 3B42RT and 3B42V7 generally captured the rainfall spatial and temporal pattern, having a moderate spatial correlation coefficient (CC, 0.6) and high CC values (0.88) over the broader Hebei, Beijing and Tianjin (HBT) regions, but the rainfall peak is 6 h ahead of gauge observations. Overall, 3B42RT showed higher estimation than 3B42V7 over both HBT and Beijing. At the storm center, both 3B42RT and 3B42V7 presented a relatively large deviation from the temporal variation of rainfall and underestimated the storm by 29.02% and 36.07%, respectively. The current study suggests that the latest TMPA products still have limitations in terms of resolution and accuracy, especially for this type of extreme event within a latitude area on the edge of coverage of TRMM precipitation radar and microwave imager. Therefore, TMPA users should be cautious when 3B42RT and 3B42V7 are used to model, monitor, and forecast both flooding hazards in the Beijing urban area and landslides in the mountainous west and north of Beijing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flood Estimation and Analysis in a Variable and Changing Environment)

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509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of Water Environment Management with a Focus on Water Recycling

by Nan Xiang, Jinghua Sha, Jingjing Yan and Feng Xu

Water 2014, 6(1), 17-31; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010017 - 20 Dec 2013

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 9249

Abstract

An integrated water environment management system is necessary in improving water quality, properly allocating water resources, and supporting socio-economic development. Specifically, dynamic modeling can be an efficient approach to accomplish this system. This paper aims to construct a dynamic linear optimization model to [...] Read more.

An integrated water environment management system is necessary in improving water quality, properly allocating water resources, and supporting socio-economic development. Specifically, dynamic modeling can be an efficient approach to accomplish this system. This paper aims to construct a dynamic linear optimization model to reflect a water environment management system which includes three sub-models with consideration of their interrelationships (a socio-economic model based on dynamic Input-Output model, a water resources cycle model, and a water pollutants flow model). Based on simulation, the model can precisely estimate trends of water utilization, water quality, and economic development under certain management targets, and propose an optimal plan. Taking Tianjin as a target area, this study utilized the model to analyze the potential of using reclaimed water to accomplish local water environment management and sustainable development plan while exploring the applicable approaches. This study indicates that the constructed water environment management system can be effective and easily adopted to assess water resources and environment while improving the trade-off between economic and environment development, as well as formulate regional development plan. Full article

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256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Humans and the Water Environment: The Need for Coordinated Data Collection

by John B. Braden, Maria Christina Jolejole-Foreman and Daniel W. Schneider

Water 2014, 6(1), 1-16; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6010001 - 19 Dec 2013

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7250

Abstract

Efforts to observe humans in relation to nature over time and at large scale are few and disjointed in ways that impede progress in building scientific foundations for sustainability. Two water-oriented national-scale case studies highlight the challenges of integrating existing natural system and [...] Read more.

Efforts to observe humans in relation to nature over time and at large scale are few and disjointed in ways that impede progress in building scientific foundations for sustainability. Two water-oriented national-scale case studies highlight the challenges of integrating existing natural system and social system data: one concerns the influence of environmental attitudes and water quality on water conservation efforts; the other explores relationships between environmental attitudes, water quality and recreation behavior. The case studies show that coupled research conducted at large scale can yield new insights, but uncoordinated data limit meaningful inference. We propose salient features of a coordinated observation program for water. Full article

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Water, Volume 6, Issue 1 (January 2014) – 12 articles , Pages 1-195

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