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Article

A Study on the Advancement of Spatial Maps and the Improvement of the Legal System as a Key Tool for Sustainable National Landscape Planning: Case Study of South Korea

by
Hyun-Ju Cho
1,
Jin-Hyo Kim
2,* and
Eun-Jae Lee
3
1
Department of Landscape Architecture, Daegu University, Gyeongsan 38453, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Landscape Architecture, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
3
Department of Spatial Environment Lab, Daejeon Sejong Research Institute, Daejeon 34051, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Land 2023, 12(5), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12051044
Submission received: 12 April 2023 / Revised: 2 May 2023 / Accepted: 8 May 2023 / Published: 11 May 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban and Rural Land Use, Landscape and Sustainability)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
For sustainable, national landscape-planning, this study focused on land cover changes, landscape analysis methods from various perspectives on the landscape, legal system analysis related to landscape planning, and analysis of a basic spatial map for landscape planning. First of all, in Korea the focus is on the aesthetic aspect of the landscape, while foreign countries look at the landscape from multiple perspectives and tried to solve the problem of landscape damage on this basis. Next, looking at the changes in land cover, it was found that the urbanized area increased significantly, but the area of agricultural land and wetlands decreased significantly due to development plans. In addition, looking at the contents of the landscape plan in terms of the legal system, the legal system of the Republic of Korea included a multifunctional aspect of the landscape, but the contents were only at the level of policy suggestions. Finally, through a review of a basic spatial map for landscape planning, it was found that among various basic spatial maps, the biotope map is highly likely to be used when establishing national landscape plans. The results of this study are meaningful in that they have not only established the concept of landscape in terms of multifunctionality but also established improvement measures in terms of legal and institutional aspects and the basic spatial map.

1. Introduction

Due to rapid urbanization and reckless development over the past half-century, the phenomenon of landscape damage across the country, including urban, rural, and forest landscapes, is accelerating day by day. This phenomenon is becoming a serious social problem not only in Korea [1,2,3], but also in many foreign countries. Recently, discussions on the preservation of beautiful landscapes with a high preservation value and excellent identity and uniqueness have been continuously conducted in geographical space, and a great deal of social consensus has already been formed at home and abroad. In fact, many developed countries abroad have recognized the seriousness of the landscape damage problem and have continuously developed landscape planning research considering the multifunctional aspects of the landscape as an academic means to solve it more efficiently [4,5,6,7].
The European Landscape Convention, adopted in Florence on 20 October 2000, first provides a legal definition of landscape, stipulating that “it refers to the portion of territory recognized by residents with natural or artificial actions and characteristics as a result of their interactions.” This Convention aims to protect and manage the landscape based on a natural and cultural perspective throughout Europe, and also to meet growing needs, and can be seen as an agreement that has made a great contribution in terms of landscape management.
In addition to the legal and institutional aspects related to landscape planning, various landscape planning studies have been conducted. First of all, many countries are accelerating landscape-friendly land management by incorporating many basic studies on landscape, landscape ecology, and landscape planning into the national space plan [8,9,10,11,12,13,14]. Moreover, landscape research has been actively conducted in various aspects, such as research for preserving landscape and biodiversity based on land-use cover change [15,16,17,18], the evaluation of ecosystem services through conservation of landscape resources [19], construction of green networks based on the arrangement, shape, and size of green spaces [20], research on biological diversity [21,22,23], landscape structure analyzed by combining patch, corridor, and matrix [24], landscape ecological mechanisms and green networks [25], and landscape analysis based on GIS [26]. In addition, it can be classified into landscape plans in the national space plan [27,28,29,30,31,32].
Recently, research related to Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) technology has been actively conducted to effectively observe and evaluate changes in land use and land cover over a short period of time [33,34,35,36,37,38]. In addition, research that sought solutions through landscape change to cope with climate change is also actively being conducted around the world [39,40,41,42].
In Korea, the landscape has been seriously damaged not only in cities but also in rural and mountainous areas due to reckless development. As for the Korean environment, more than 60% of the entire country is composed of forests, and the side effects of the development plan are significant for natural spaces, such as forests and rivers [43,44]. In addition, as various changes in the climate change and disasters such as fine dust, heavy rain, and heat waves have occurred recently, the need to preserve the national landscape through sustainable development plans has increased [45,46].
Various efforts have been made to solve the problem of damage to the national landscape, and also in the Korean legal context, such as Article 5 of the Framework Act on National Territory (Environmentally Friendly National Territory Management) and the Framework Act on Environmental Policy (Responsibilities of the State and Local Governments). In addition, with the enactment of the Landscape Act in 2007, legal means have been prepared to consider landscape-related matters in various development projects. In addition, it is legally and institutionally supported to consider landscape issues even within the various scopes of the National Spatial Development Plan.
Along with these policy-level efforts, related studies have also been actively conducted. First of all, Joo and Im [47] presented a list of landscape adjectives suitable for Korea to systematically and reasonably evaluate the landscape that has been subjectively evaluated by researchers and planners. Reflecting the limitations of existing evaluation indicators for evaluating rural landscapes, Ban et al. [48] also proposed evaluation indicators to evaluate rural landscapes specifically and collectively. In addition, research on viewing points, which are important factors in evaluating the landscape, has been actively conducted [49]. As such, in Korea, it can be seen that many landscape planning studies based on visual and aesthetic aspects have traditionally been conducted.
However, despite these efforts, in the case of Korea, landscape research and empirical data in terms of integration are still very insufficient in terms of quality and quantity. In particular, it is true that in interpreting the landscape, it has not deviated much from the boundaries of biased views by related specialized fields. In addition, the definition of academic concepts on landscape and landscape planning, which is the most basic prerequisite for solving landscape problems, is causing confusion in related specialties. In addition, numerous basic space data have not been effectively linked to landscape planning in legal and institutional support for landscape planning and ways to utilize basic space data.
As a practical means of making national space more landscape-friendly, this study defined the academic concept of landscape in terms of integration, and examined the contents of landscape planning in the laws, systems, and basic spatial data related to landscape planning. Based on this, the focus was on exploring ways to upgrade landscape planning techniques that can create a more landscape-friendly national space.

2. Data and Methods

2.1. Scope of Research

This study focused on exploring methodologies for sustainable national landscape planning, and the spatial scope and content scope for this are as follows. First of all, the spatial scope was targeted throughout the Republic of Korea, and the distribution of administrative districts in Korea and the characteristics of each local government are shown in Figure 1 and Table 1. The Republic of Korea consists of one special city, six metropolitan cities, eight provinces, one special autonomous province, and one special autonomous city. In particular, six metropolitan cities, including Seoul, are suffering from serious environmental damage due to rapid urbanization, and recently, numerous developments are underway in satellite cities located on the outskirts, intensifying the environmental damage problem.
Next, the content scope is as follows. First of all, in the case of interpretation and approach to the landscape, studies conducted not only in Korea but also in Asia, Europe, and North America were mainly reviewed. However, the interpretation of the landscape is interpreted in various ways depending on the continent, country, region, and researcher. Therefore, in this study, the interpretation of the landscape was largely limited to geographical, aesthetical, and ecological aspects based on landscape law and spatial maps, such as a biotope map, which are an important part of domestic landscape planning. In order to identify problems with domestic landscape planning and derive improvement measures, this study set the scope of the study by analyzing legislative maps related to landscape planning and analyzing basic space data.

2.2. Procedure for Conducting the Study

The procedure for conducting this study was largely divided into five stages (Figure 2). First, we reviewed landscape-related studies conducted at home and abroad and examined the concept of landscape defined in the studies. Second, the changes in the national landscape of Korea over the past 30 years were examined using the large-class land cover map provided by the Environmental Space Information Service. During the analysis, quantitative changes in urbanized areas, which are representative artificial landscape types, and quantitative changes in natural areas such as forests and wetlands were examined. Third, the hierarchy of the national landscape plan and the related legal system were examined, and the contents of the landscape plan within the relevant legal system were examined. Fourth, we looked at what basic spatial data can be used directly for national landscape planning. Based on these analysis results, we sought improvement measures for sustainable national landscape development, and the specific research methods for each stage are shown in Figure 2.

2.3. Analysis of the Concept of Landscape

The definition of landscape has been interpreted from various perspectives by dividing it into researchers, organizations, and institutions with different academic roots. Landscape-related research has been actively conducted, especially in European countries suffering from serious landscape damage due to limited land area, high population density, and overcrowded development for the entire country.
Therefore, this study examined the definition of domestic and foreign studies on the concept of landscape as the first step for sustainable national landscape planning. In the analysis, we looked at the geographical interpretation of the landscape, the ecological interpretation, and the aesthetic interpretation of the landscape, and based on this, we looked at what is the appropriate interpretation and approach to the landscape required today.

2.4. Changes in Korea’s Landscape over the Past 30 Years

The established land cover map was used for analysis to analyze changes in the national landscape throughout Korea. The land cover change data used the large-class land cover map provided by the Environmental Space Information Service (https://egis.me.go.kr, accessed on 10 March 2023) [50], and the analysis was conducted based on the most recent land cover maps from 1988 and 2018. In particular, regarding Korea, there were only six cities with a population of 250,000 or more in the 1960s; however, rapid urbanization progressed, increasing the cities to 36 in 1985 and 55 in 1995. The large-class land cover map is divided into seven categories: urbanization, agricultural, forest, grassland, wetlands, barren, and water, and is prepared on a resolution of 30 m × 30 m, and the changes in the landscape of Korea over the past 30 years were examined (Figure 3).
The method of establishing a land cover map for the entire Republic of Korea is as follows (Figure 4). The QGIS program was used to analyze land cover changes, and data from the Environmental Space Information Service at the end of 1980 and land cover data at the end of 2010 were downloaded. In the case of the downloaded large-class land cover map, it was built in the form of a tif. These tif land cover materials incorporate the downloaded data using QGIS raster, other matters, and merge commands. The color standard for each land cover map classification code was constructed using the classification code and color standard specified in the land cover map preparation guidelines.
In addition, the purposes of analyzing changes in the national landscape using such a large-class land cover map are, first, to identify landscape elements that have been greatly affected by development plans among land cover changes over the past 30 years. Second, to determine whether various legal systems include the contents of the plan to effectively manage and regulate large-scale landscape elements. Third, to discover whether effective basic space data were established to guide landscape elements that were greatly affected by the development plan in a landscape-friendly manner.

2.5. Content of Landscape Planning within the Legal System Related to National Landscape Planning

In order to induce more landscape-friendly national development, it is most important to prepare conservation measures for landscape-value spaces in advance of the development plan stage, not after development. To this end, we focused on what is related to landscape planning within the laws and systems related to national landscape planning. The laws and systems used in the analysis include the Framework Act on National Territory, the Enforcement Decree of the same Act, the Landscape Act derived from the same Act, the Park Green Act derived from the same Act, the Natural Environment Conservation Act derived from the same Act. The hierarchy for interconnection between the national development plan and the national environmental plan is shown in Figure 5, and the national comprehensive plan is shown to be linked to the national environmental plan. On the other hand, in the case of district unit plans in urban management plans carried out at an urban level, no environmental plans have been established that can be directly linked.

2.6. Basic Spatial Maps Related to National Landscape Planning

Basic surveys play a very important role in establishing national landscape plans. Therefore, we looked at what various basic spatial data can be directly used in landscape planning and what are the contents of landscape planning presented by these basic spatial data within the legal system. As a result of reviewing the basic spatial data available for landscape planning, it was found that various basic spatial data, such as a geological map, a soil map, and a cadastral map, were established. However, regarding this study, the focus was on identifying basic space data directly applicable to inducing national development plans in a landscape-friendly manner, analyzing them, and seeking ways to improve them. Therefore, among the established basic space data, basic data that are widely used in research related to landscape planning and environmental planning were analyzed. There are a total of four elements of basic spatial data used in the analysis: the ecological nature map, the clinical map, the forest function map, and the biotope map.

3. Results

3.1. Analysis of the Concept of Landscape

The etymology of the German language word Landschaft is believed to be derived from the Latin word Regio (region, domain) into the Old German word Lantscaf before the 10th century. Since then, the meaning has expanded over a long period of time, and especially in the 15th and 18th centuries, when the term Landschaft became so common that it was often used in landscape and naturalist terminology. Since then, the German word Landschaft was translated into Landscape in North America and is still used today.
In the case of central European countries, landscape interpretation based on geographical fields has traditionally been the mainstream. First of all, in Germany, Humboldt [51] understands landscape very comprehensively as a “space unit formed by a combination of all visual, pictorial, and natural characteristics on Earth”, and explains that the combination of these characteristics creates a landscape unit that differentiates it from the surroundings. This concept was embodied more by Neef [52] and Berninger [53]. They say that, due to the functional, structural, and qualitative differences between geographical and ecological factors in the entire landscape on the surface, a landscape unit distinct from the surrounding area is formed due to the differentiation of human influence (historical, cultural, landscape usability, etc.). This can be seen as grasping the concept of landscape from a holistic perspective that encompasses geographical, ecological, and human factors, but there was a strong tendency to understand the landscape based on geographical factors.
On the other hand, the definition of the concept of landscape in terms of ecology has not been as old as in the field of geography. Of course, the concept of “ecology” has developed in the category of biology for a long time since Haeckel [54], but the focus has been on revealing microlife phenomena for biological communities, animals, and plants rather than landscapes. However, recently many studies on the spatial structure and function of the landscape in terms of ecology have been conducted in central Europe and North America. Sukop and Weiler [55] understand the spatial structure of the landscape as a biotope and type the shape of biotopes into point, line, and area biotopes to interpret the mechanism between them in terms of function. Jedicke [56] and Handke et al. [57] also proposed a planning model for the interconnection between biotopes by setting behavior radius and self-maintenance minimum habitat area standards for various species. Heydemann’s [58] green area network plan according to animal travel distance is also fundamentally centered on the analysis of the spatial structure and functional aspects of the landscape in terms of biological ecology. In addition, according to Forman [24], the landscape structure consists of a combination of patches, edges, corridors, and matrices (hereinafter referred to as the P-E-C-M model), and the quality of the landscape is determined by the ecological mechanism between them. Recently, various studies have been conducted on landscape mosaics, the relationship between patterns and species, the P-E-C-M network to promote biodiversity, and the ecological meaning of patches [59,60].
In addition, the view of the landscape in terms of aesthetics, that is, reflecting human psychology, is prominent. According to Yoshio [61], “a landscape is a view of the environment surrounding humans.” However, here, the view is not just a view, but an integrated meaning that encompasses objects that have a functional relationship with the environment of the living subject (human). According to Kim [46], landscape is defined as a human psychological phenomenon formed when the object is viewed as a whole. Eckbo [62] understood landscape as a relationship established between humans and the environment. It is said that the value of the landscape is not inherent in humans, but in the landscape itself, and is an object that changes at the same time as changes in human life in time and place. However, behind the landscape interpretation to be understood as a value-neutral complex formed between humans and nature, there is a strong intention to interpret the landscape from the micro-value center of the human subject.
In recent years, many landscape studies based on human psychological behavior and aesthetic aspects have been conducted in connection with landscape analysis centered on geographical aspects that have traditionally been common in central Europe. Tress [63] viewed the landscape as a complex space formed in the interaction system of psychological behavior, aesthetic, geographical, and ecological aspects. In addition, it is explained that among the various aspects, human psychological behavior and aesthetic aspects play an important role in landscape formation. However, in Korea, unlike recent overseas research trends, the main interest in landscape research is to improve the aesthetic function of landscapes centered on artificial landscapes (urban landscapes). Taken together, in Korea, there is a limitation in that the focus is on improving the shape, height, size, skyline, visual landscape, color, landmarks, and images of buildings, artificial structures, and outdoor advertisements.
As described above, the reason why there are various interpretations of the single term “landscape” can be seen as fundamentally due to different academic roots (Figure 6). Moreover, it can be seen that it is virtually impossible to combine these various interpretations into one and conclude that any one interpretation or concept definition is correct. Nevertheless, efforts to identify commonalities in the definition of the concept of landscape from different perspectives by country, region, and each specialized field can be seen as a more important task in the future.

3.2. Changes in Korea’s Landscape over the Past 30 Years

The landscape changes across the Republic of Korea and by each local government over the past 30 years are shown in Figure 7 and Table 2. First of all, the landscape changes throughout Korea are that among urban areas, agricultural land, forests, grasslands, wetlands, barren, and water areas, the type of quantitative increase was in urban areas. The area of cities has increased by more than 2000 km2 over the past 30 years. In addition, the forest area has also increased by more than 1500 km2 over the past 30 years. This is because cultivation activities, which had been carried out indiscriminately around forests in the past, were suspended, and restoration plans were carried out for spaces that were cultivated. In addition, the area of lowlands and water bodies also increased, but the increased area was not large compared to urban areas and forests. On the other hand, the area of agricultural land, grasslands, and wetlands decreased. In particular, in agricultural land, the area of more than 2490 km2 has decreased over the past 30 years. This decrease in agricultural land is due to the fact that most of the farmland has been converted into urbanized areas due to relatively flat land and low purchase costs.
The changes in land cover for each local government over the past 30 years are as follows. First of all, in Gyeonggi-do, the area of the urbanized area increased by about 480 km2, showing the highest quantitative increase among local governments. In addition, the area of agricultural land was reduced by about 290 km2, and the forest area was also reduced by about 255 km2. This result is due to the acceleration in suburbanization to Gyeonggi-do to solve the congestion phenomenon in Seoul that intensified in the late 1970s.
Looking at Incheon Metropolitan City as an example of metropolitan cities (Figure 8), it was found that the urbanized area increased, while the area of agricultural land, forests, wetlands, and water bodies decreased. In particular, wetlands with high ecological value are distributed adjacent to the coast, but due to large-scale reclamation projects that were carried out in the past, the area was reduced the most among metropolitan cities. Due to similar geographical characteristics, Jeonam province, where many coastal wetlands are distributed, has actually reduced the area of wetlands by about 340 km2 over the past 30 years, which is about 65% of the total wetland reduction area in Korea.
In Gyeongbuk province, which has the largest area among administrative districts, the urbanized area increased by 149 km2, while the agricultural land decreased by about 840 km2, the largest area among administrative districts. Taken together, the area of agricultural land, grasslands, and wetlands, which are natural landscape elements, was greatly reduced due to continuous development plans in Korea, and most of these areas are believed to have been converted to urbanized areas. On the other hand, the area of forests has increased, for reasons such as continuous forestation projects and restoration projects for cultivated land. In addition, the decrease in wetland area in Incheon Metropolitan City and Jeonnam province, located on the west coast where many coastal wetlands are distributed, is very large, so it is urgent to prepare conservation measures for wetlands in the future.

3.3. Content of Landscape Planning within the Legal System Related to National Landscape Planning

First of all, the Framework Act on National Territory, the highest legal system, refers to the efficient use and management of national resources such as land, water resources, and forests, and the preservation and improvement of the national environment for sustainable national development (Table 3). In particular, it stipulates that basic and long-term policy directions should be included for related matters when establishing such a plan, and suggests directions for establishing a sub-plan. Next, the contents of the urban basic plan should include matters related to environmental conservation and management, green areas, landscapes, climate change response, and energy conservation. The standards for establishing an urban management plan should be established in consideration of the good natural environment and excellent farmland such as green areas, ecosystems, forests, and landscapes. It also states that the organic relationship between planning and the environment should be enhanced by reviewing the environmental impact of urban development or infrastructure installation. Finally, it stipulates that sustainable urban development should be promoted through these efforts.
Next, the contents of the Landscape Act stipulate that long-term directions for natural scenery, history, cultural landscapes, rural, mountain villages, fishing village landscapes, and urban landscapes should be presented and contents to improve the quality of life should be reflected. The basic plan of the Natural Environment Conservation Act should include matters related to the preservation and management of landscapes, the establishment and promotion of ecological axes, the installation of ecological passages, and restoration of damaged land.
Taken together, it can be seen that various contents related to landscape plans within laws and systems related to national landscape plans are being revealed. For example, in addition to ecological aspects such as green spaces, ecosystems, and ecological channels, plans such as wind roads and energy conservation are also included to cope with climate change that has recently emerged worldwide. Therefore, if the contents of the landscape plan in the laws and systems are effectively applied to the actual national landscape plan, it is judged that it will be possible to establish a landscape plan that meets the definition of the landscape discussed above.

3.4. Basic Spatial Maps Related to National Landscape Planning

The analysis results of basic space data available for landscape planning are shown in Table 4 and Table 5, and Figure 9. Unlike basic drawings provided in other specialized fields, biotope maps have been prepared for the purpose of directly using them to establish environmental and landscape plans that are fundamentally established at the urban level. In particular, basic space data are highly likely to be used when establishing various environmental plans as they present ratings through surveys, analysis, and the quantitative value evaluation of ecological aspects. In addition, the biotope map basically uses a 1:5000 scale in drawing scale. However, if necessary, it can be used at a 1:25,000 level through biotope-type synthesis. In addition, it is believed that the maps can be widely used when establishing a differentiated development plan by space size as they can be more subdivided and vary the degree of detail at the 1:1000 level. However, to date, the establishment of biotope maps has been included in a limited manner around metropolitan cities and some local governments, showing limitations in the direct application when planning development for large-scale spaces. However, in the case of biotope maps, they are currently being prepared for all cities in accordance with Article 34-2 of the Natural Environment Conservation Act and include detailed ecological and natural information.
Next, ecological zoning maps, clinical maps, and forest function classification map are being prepared for the entire country, and the scale is based on 1:25,000, but it has recently been prepared at 1:5000 for higher resolution. However, while the previous biotope map was classified and evaluated for all spaces in the country, the three types of basic spatial data show the limitations of mapping only for forests. Therefore, in the case of the basic space data, it can be considered suitable for identifying changes in the landscape of forests at a large level, such as the basic national land plan or the comprehensive metropolitan and provincial plans. However, it is judged that there will be limitations in its direct application to relatively small-scale spatial plans, such as urban basic plans or urban management plans. In addition, in terms of the purpose of preparation and utilization, in particular, clinical maps and forest functional maps focus more on the creation and utilization of forest resources, so direct application to national landscape plans is inevitably limited.
Taken together, regarding basic spatial data for national landscape planning, different characteristics are shown in relation to the scale, scope of space, and presence or absence of value evaluation. Therefore, for landscape planning for the entire country, it is necessary to effectively respond to numerous development plans by preparing content integration or improvement measures for basic space data.

4. Discussion

The concept of landscape, changes in the national landscape of Korea, the contents of landscape planning within laws and systems, and basic spatial data that have been defined and interpreted in various aspects were examined. In order to create a more landscape-friendly national landscape plan through a comprehensive review of the analysis results, it is judged that efforts in the following aspects are needed.
First, a lot of effort should be made to effectively preserve natural landscape elements, such as wetlands, and cultural landscape elements, such as cultivated land. Looking at the changes in land cover over the past 30 years, it can be seen that the area of cultivated land and wetlands has decreased significantly. In particular, in the case of paddy wetlands that appear in cultivated land, they are a landscape resource with a high value in terms of ecosystem services as well as crop production [64,65,66,67]. For example, in the case of Chungcheongnam-do in Korea, the value of ecosystem services was evaluated by applying the alternative wetland creation ratio as a way to convert the economic value of rice paddy wetlands [68]. However, most of the paddy wetlands were small and difficult to mark on the existing spatial map, and many of them have disappeared due to development plans owing to a lack of legal and institutional support to preserve the paddy wetlands. Therefore, great efforts should be made to preserve paddy wetlands and various natural and cultural landscape elements, which can be seen as key landscape resources to respond to rapidly changing environmental changes.
Second, the content expansion of the landscape concept and the multifunctional aspect of the landscape based on it should be considered. In fact, most of the land space today is a mixture of various factors such as living things, inanimate objects, and artificial landscapes, so it is necessary to establish a landscape plan and effectively preserve and manage the landscape in consideration of these factors [69,70]. Based on domestic and foreign research trends, the concept of landscape is summarized as a value-neutral and multifunctional complex space formed by the interaction system of various factors such as animals and plants, topography, forests, rivers, and artifacts, as well as humans, and can be defined as a series of land-shape units distinguished from the surroundings in a hierarchical order of space size. In particular, considering that large-scale national space development plans are conducted for non-urban areas where natural landscapes such as cultivated land and forests dominate, sustainable national landscape planning can be defined as a planning tool that looks at the landscape in terms of ecology, geography, aesthetics, and climate, and reflects it in the contents of the actual development plan to guide the national landscape plan in a more sustainable direction (Figure 10).
Third, the contents of the landscape plan within the laws and systems related to landscape planning need to be more concrete than the current contents. Within each legal system, various contents related to landscape planning are included. However, it can be seen that most of the contents related to landscape planning stipulated in the legal system are comprehensive or abstract, such as presenting policy directions. On the other hand, legal and institutional contents for direct application to spatial plans corresponding to relatively small dimensions such as urban, administrative, and district levels among national landscape plans of substantially various sizes are still insufficient. Therefore, in order to establish a sustainable national landscape plan, it is necessary to make it mandatory to establish key basic space data, evaluate the landscape quantitatively, and improve it in detail in the legal system.
Fourth, the establishment of detailed basic spatial data must be preceded. For this, it is judged that the biotope map is appropriate as the core basic spatial data. In fact, in the case of forest functional classifications, ecological nature maps, and clinical maps, the range of space is limited to forests, so there is a limit to grasping the value rating of natural spaces such as cultivated land, wetlands, and grasslands. On the other hand, regarding biotope maps, maps are being prepared for all the types that appear within the spatial scope of landscape planning. In addition, it is judged that it is highly likely to be used when establishing a development plan as it presents grades by type through quantitative value evaluation. In fact, Seoul, the capital, was the first city to establish a biotope map, and as part of the preservation of urban ecology, the Seoul Metropolitan Government’s Urban Planning Ordinance strictly restricts development activities in the case of biotope Grade I. In addition, in the case of Chungcheongnam-do, they are used as basic data for re-adjusting the value rating for the birth year based on the results of the biotope evaluation. In addition, depending on the degree of proximity to the Grade I space of the biotope, the biotope map is actively used as key data for licensing environmental pollution facilities. However, in the case of cities where biotope maps are not established, various development plans such as golf courses are steadily underway around natural landscapes such as national parks due to difficulties in determining the value of natural landscape elements and lack of ordinance enactment [46]. As an example, according to Cho [71], a biotope evaluation was conducted on the planned district-unit development plan site before the biotope map was established in Daegu Metropolitan City (no legal binding force). As a result of examining the changes in the landscape before and after the development plan, it can be seen that the natural landscape (forest) evaluated as biotope Grade I and cultural landscape (agricultural land) has been transformed into an industrial area (Figure 11). Therefore, biotope maps, which are built for some cities, need to be established throughout Korea as soon as possible (Figure 12), and after establishment, legal binding power needs to be strengthened by enacting ordinances for each local government.
Fifth, it is necessary to consider the multifunctional aspects of the landscape. Currently, in biotope maps, the focus is on the ecological aspect, especially among the multifunctional aspects of the landscape. However, as with the concept of landscape discussed above, the landscape planning-related contents within various laws and systems include various aspects such as recreational, micro, and climatic aspects in addition to the ecological aspects. Therefore, regarding various basic spatial data, including biotope maps, it is necessary to develop them so that all of these multifunctional aspects of the landscape can be considered.
Finally, further improvements and policy support in terms of the legal and institutional aspects need to be carried out. The Natural Environment Conservation Plan under the Natural Environment Conservation Act focuses on the fields of biology and natural geography. The park green plan according to the Park Green Act focuses on the field of landscape architecture. Plans for urban forests under the Forest Resources Act are mainly studied in the field of forestry. Landscape planning under the Landscape Act focuses on the field of architecture, which focuses on improving artificial landscapes centered on buildings. In other words, the above matters related to the landscape are being promoted from different perspectives, laws, administrative organizations, and academic fields. This means that it is not mutually coordinated from a holistic, field-transcendent, complementary, and weight-centered mobility perspective. However, as previously discussed, rather than dividing the landscape as a complex into finer aspects and ultimately treating it as a separate area, it is more important than anything else to diagnose and solve the landscape problem by integrating and synthesizing it again as a complex.
Taken together, for sustainable national landscape planning, it is necessary to consider the multifunctional aspect of the landscape in terms of landscape planning within laws and systems. In addition, by establishing basic spatial data for concrete conversion, the contents of the landscape plan should be effectively linked to the development plan at the planning level in advance when establishing the development plan. In addition, each landscape plan that meets the various spatial sizes of the national land development plan must be established. In particular, unlike the existing legal system, a detailed urban landscape management plan based on a biotope map needs to be established when planning a small-scale development, such as an urban management plan (Figure 13).

5. Conclusions

It is clear that the phenomenon of landscape damage is accelerating due to the reckless development of national space throughout the country, from small unit spaces to large-scale urban and metropolitan spaces around the world. Efforts to solve this problem of landscape damage are also steadily progressing around the world. However, as we have seen so far, Korea still has many problems to solve, especially the problem of breaking away from the perspective of each specialized field, the creation of basic drawings considering the multifunctional aspects of the landscape, and the establishment of a model.
In particular, unlike recent research trends, domestic landscape-related research has traditionally focused on the psychological, behavioral, and aesthetic aspects based on human thinking, so it has not deviated from the human-centered perspective of a specific specialty. However, in Korea, it is important to consider the fact that more than 80% of the total area of the country consists of natural and cultural environments (forest and rural landscapes), and that natural and artificial elements coexist in all national spaces. Therefore, it can be seen that it is time for landscape research from a holistic perspective, going beyond the conceptual establishment and research methods in only a narrow aspect of the current landscape. When these efforts are materialized, the national landscape can be guided within a natural environment and a landscape-friendly manner.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.-H.K. and H.-J.C.; methodology, E.-J.L.; validation, J.-H.K. and E.-J.L.; formal analysis, E.-J.L.; investigation, J.-H.K. and H.-J.C.; resources, E.-J.L.; data curation, H.-J.C. and J.-H.K.; writing, J.-H.K. and H.-J.C.; supervision, J.-H.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by Daegu University Research Grant, 2020.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. The administrative division of Korea.
Figure 1. The administrative division of Korea.
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Figure 2. Research flow.
Figure 2. Research flow.
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Figure 3. The changes in in land cover of metropolitan area over 30 years.
Figure 3. The changes in in land cover of metropolitan area over 30 years.
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Figure 4. (a) Land-cover map merge result, (b) Classification system, (c) Land cover map with merge and classification result.
Figure 4. (a) Land-cover map merge result, (b) Classification system, (c) Land cover map with merge and classification result.
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Figure 5. The level of Korea’s spatial planning system.
Figure 5. The level of Korea’s spatial planning system.
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Figure 6. Perspective on the interpretation of the landscape.
Figure 6. Perspective on the interpretation of the landscape.
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Figure 7. Changes in land cover in Korea over the past 30 years.
Figure 7. Changes in land cover in Korea over the past 30 years.
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Figure 8. (a) 1988 land cover map of Incheon, (b) 2018 land cover map of Incheon, (c) legend of land cover.
Figure 8. (a) 1988 land cover map of Incheon, (b) 2018 land cover map of Incheon, (c) legend of land cover.
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Figure 9. (a) Biotope map, (b) Ecological zoning map, (c) Forest type map and (d) Forest function classification map.
Figure 9. (a) Biotope map, (b) Ecological zoning map, (c) Forest type map and (d) Forest function classification map.
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Figure 10. Conceptual diagram of national landscape planning.
Figure 10. Conceptual diagram of national landscape planning.
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Figure 11. (a) Location of Daegu, (b) Development site and map of biotope value assessment, (c) Landscape before development and red circles are the space evaluated as the I grade as a result of biotope value assessment, (d) Landscape after development.
Figure 11. (a) Location of Daegu, (b) Development site and map of biotope value assessment, (c) Landscape before development and red circles are the space evaluated as the I grade as a result of biotope value assessment, (d) Landscape after development.
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Figure 12. The status of biotope maps in Korea.
Figure 12. The status of biotope maps in Korea.
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Figure 13. The relationship between national spatial planning and landscape planning for landscape-friendly development.
Figure 13. The relationship between national spatial planning and landscape planning for landscape-friendly development.
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Table
Table 1. Characteristics of each local government.
Table 1. Characteristics of each local government.
DivisionArea (km2)PopulationRatio of Population to
Total Population (%)
Seoul (Capital of S. Korea)605.209,770,63818.85
Pusan metropolitan city 769.893,436,2306.63
Daegu metropolitan city883.572,458,1384.74
Incheon metropolitan city1062.602,956,0635.70
Kwangju metropolitan city501.241,459,2082.82
Daejeon metropolitan city539.351,487,6052.87
Ulsan metropolitan city1060.791,153,7352.23
Sejong special self-governing city467.87320,3260.62
Gyeonggi province10,183.4613,104,69625.28
Kwangwon province 16,875.031,540,4452.97
Chungpook province7407.291,598,8683.08
Chungnam province8226.142,125,3724.10
Jeonbook province8069.051,832,2273.54
Jeonnam province12,318.791,875,8623.62
Kyungpook province19,031.422,671,5875.15
Kyungnam province10,539.563,371,0166.50
Jeju special self-governing province1849.15667,5221.29
Total100,387.451,829,538100
Table
Table 2. Changes in land cover type area by each local government (2018–1988). Unit: km2.
Table 2. Changes in land cover type area by each local government (2018–1988). Unit: km2.
DivisionUrban AreaAgricultural LandForestGrassWet LandBarrenWater
Seoul3.54 (0.17%)−30.63 (1.23%)9.37 (0.62%)7.42 (−0.82%)−0.59 (0.11%)11.99 (3.31%)−1.02 (−1.98%)
Pusan 64.65 (3.19%)−37.47 (1.50%)−15.80 (−1.05%)−12.41 (1.37%)2.46 (−0.46%)12.24 (3.38%)−13.92 (−26.97%)
Daegu 32.56 (1.61%)−85.37 (3.42%)52.20 (3.46%)−22.79 (2.51%)0.13 (−0.02%)9.60 (2.65%)13.67 (26.48%)
Incheon66.99 (3.31%)−49.10 (1.97%)−14.17 (−0.94%)58.71 (−6.47%)−38.69 (7.22%)55.79 (15.39%)−78.85 (−152.81%)
Kwangju70.64 (3.49%)−91.68 (3.67%)23.00 (1.52%)1.05 (−0.12%)−0.26 (0.05%)−5.75 (−1.59%)3.01 (5.83%)
Daejeon42.22 (2.09%)−45.40 (1.82%)18.21 (1.21%)−3.39 (0.37%)−0.02 (0%)−11.29 (−3.12%)−0.32 (−0.62%)
Ulsan 64.02 (3.16%)−85.01 (3.41%)13.49 (0.89%)−12.34 (1.36%)0.52 (−0.10%)20.69 (5.71%)−1.31 (−2.54%)
Sejong 7.59 (0.38%)−12.14 (0.49%)9.24 (0.61%)−12.06(1.33%)0.13 (−0.02%)4.09 (1.13%)3.16 (6.13%)
Gyeonggi478.34 (23.63%)−291.31 (11.67%)−255.37 (−16.93%)−23.30 (2.57%)−14.30 (2.67%)151.63 (41.82%)−43.65 (−84.60%)
Kwangwon 122.90 (6.07%)−289.90 (11.62%)209.70 (13.90%)−33.57 (3.70%)−5.32 (0.99%)3.24 (0.89%)−6.67 (−12.92%)
Chungpook100.50 (4.97%)−128.50 (5.15%)29.06 (1.93%)11.04 (−1.22%)−0.11 (0.02%)−5.63 (−1.55%)−5.94 (−11.52%)
Chungnam 163.50 (8.08%)−50.45 (2.02%)162.08 (10.75%)−201.06 (22.15%)−104.78 (19.57%)51.60 (14.23%)−20.26 (−39.26%)
Jeonbook231.23 (11.42%)−92.58 (3.71%)−54.23 (−3.60%)−104.43 (11.50%)−28.46 (5.32%)21.18 (5.84%)27.83 (53.93%)
Jeonnam217.73 (10.76%)−389.47 (15.61%)572.21 (37.94%)−118.43 (13.04%)−345.98 (64.61%)−28.27 (−7.80%)92.69 (179.63%)
Kyungpook 149.00 (7.36%)−845.71 (33.89%)756.47 (50.16%)−152.63 (16.81%)4.04 (−0.75%)34.56 (9.53%)54.72 (106.05%)
Kyungnam 179.06 (8.85%)−411.17 (16.48%)268.79 (17.82%)−94.57 (10.42%)−3.84 (0.72%)29.29 (8.08%)33.89 (65.68%)
Jeju29.53 (1.46%)440.47 (−17.65%)−276.04 (−18.30%)−195.15 (21.49%)−0.44 (0.08%)7.59 (2.09%)−5.43 (−10.52%)
Total2024.00 (100%)−2495.42 (100%)1508.20 (100%)−907.90 (100%)−535.51 (100%)362.55 (100%)51.60 (100%)
Table
Table 3. Major contents of landscape planning by each law and system related to landscape planning.
Table 3. Major contents of landscape planning by each law and system related to landscape planning.
Legal SystemContents Related to Landscape Planning
The Framework Act on National Territory and its enforcement ordinanceSustainable development of the country shall be promoted based on the harmony of development and environment
The negative impact should be minimized by reviewing the impact on the natural environment in advance, and the damaged natural ecosystem should be restored
Matters concerning the efficient use and management of national land resources such as land, water resources, forests, etc., and long-term policy directions for the preservation of the national environment shall be included
Linkage with environmental plans shall be strengthened when formulating comprehensive plans for Do, comprehensive plans for Si, etc.
National Territory Planning Act and its enforcement ordinanceThe basic urban plan shall include policy directions for conservation of the environment, park green, landscape, response to climate change, and energy conservation
High-value natural landscape factors such as green areas, ecosystems, forests, and landscapes should be fully considered
The contents of the urban management plan shall include a review of the environmental impact in advance and the link between the development plan and the environmental plan to promote sustainable urban development
Building Act and its enforcement ordinanceWhen constructing on a land with an area of 200 square meters or more, green spaces, such as landscaping or rooftop greening, shall be secured
Landscape Act and its enforcement ordinanceExcellent landscapes shall be preserved, damaged landscapes improved and restored, and newly formed landscapes shall be encouraged to have unique elements
Long-term directions for natural scenery, historical and cultural landscapes, rural, mountain, fishing village landscapes, and urban landscapes should be presented
Originality and diversity should be secured by fully reflecting regional characteristics and needs
Parks and Greenery Act and its enforcement ordinanceComprehensive arrangement of park green areas, park green axes and networks, preservation, management and use of park green areas, and urban greening shall be included
Long-term development directions for the preservation, expansion, management, and use of park green areas shall be presented
Based on the basic survey of natural resources, the future of park green areas should be predicted and managed systematically and continuously
It shall be in accordance with the contents of the higher plan and shall be considered in harmony with the sectoral plan of the basic urban plan
Natural Environment Conservation Act and its enforcement ordinanceThe contents of the basic policy shall include matters concerning systematic conservation and management of the natural environment, protection of endangered species, restoration and restoration of damaged natural environment, and preservation of biodiversity
The contents of the master plan shall include matters concerning the establishment and promotion of ecological axes, the establishment of ecological passages, restoration of damaged land, etc.
In order to enhance the ecological soundness of the city, ecological natural road first-class areas, wetland protection areas, wildlife protection areas, etc., shall not be damaged
Matters related to the creation of green areas and small ecosystems to promote biodiversity, and ecological technology for energy management shall be included
Rural Development Act and its enforcement ordinancePlans for the management of rural landscapes shall include the goals and directions of landscape plans, matters concerning the investigation and evaluation of landscape resources, and matters for the management of each type, such as natural scenery, agricultural and fishery landscape, living landscape, etc.
Framework Act on Forestry and its enforcement ordinanceThe state and local governments must create, protect, and manage forests so that various functions such as preservation of the national land environment and promotion of forest welfare can be fully exercised
The head of the Korea Forest Service shall formulate a basic forest plan including the creation and promotion of forest resources, preservation and protection of forests, use and planning of forests, and promotion of forest welfare
Local governments shall formulate and implement local forest plans every 20 years in consideration of the specificity of forests
Forest Resources Act and its enforcement ordinanceEfforts should be made to create ecological forests and arboretums for the conservation and management of forest biodiversity
Conservation and management plans are established and managed for trees and forests that are deemed necessary to be specially protected in order to protect the ecology and landscape from damage caused by climate, air pollution, acid rain, or pests
Environmental Policy Framework Act and its enforcement ordinanceThe state and local governments should devise ways to connect with national land planning in accordance with the Framework Act on National Territory when establishing environmental plans to maintain a sustainable national land environment
When establishing or changing city/province environmental plans, mayors/provincial governors must manage spatial environment information on environmental changes by sector, such as water, air, and natural ecology
Table
Table 4. Characteristics of each basic spatial map.
Table 4. Characteristics of each basic spatial map.
DivisionSpatial RangeScalePresence of
Value Rating
Biotope mapAll space1:5000/1:1000O(I~V grade)
Ecological zoning mapForest1:25,000/1:5000O(I~III grade)
Forest type mapForest1:25,000/1:5000X
Forest function classification mapForest1:25,000/1:5000X
Table
Table 5. Basic spatial maps available for landscape planning and main contents related to landscape planning.
Table 5. Basic spatial maps available for landscape planning and main contents related to landscape planning.
CategoriesContents Related to Landscape Planning
Biotope mapThe mayors draw up biotope maps containing detailed ecological information on urban areas and rewrite them every five years to reflect changes in the urban environment
A biotope map shall be prepared on a scale of at least 1/5000
When land use and development plans are formulated, the mayors shall actively utilize biotope maps containing detailed ecological information of the relevant space
Mayors should give access to the biotope map to anyone
Ecological zoning mapThe Ecological zoning map shall be marked with a solid line on a map of at least 1/25,000
Level 1 area: Conservation and restoration of the natural environment; Level 2 area: Conservation of the natural environment and minimization of damage caused by development and use; Level 3 area: Systematic development and use
Forest type mapThe head of the Korea Forest Service shall draw up a plan (hereinafter referred to as “Forest type map”) that comprehensively displays the current state of forests, such as types, diameters, and ages of trees, for forests nationwide in order to utilize them for the efficient management of forests.
Forest type maps should be drawn up based on aerial photographs, satellite images, and on-site surveys, but with a scale of 1/25,000 or higher
Forest function classification mapIn order to efficiently create and foster forest resources, the head of the Korea Forest Service shall prepare a forest-function classification map in consideration of the location, location conditions, direction of use, etc., of forests
The functions of forests are classified watershed conservation forest, mountain disaster prevention forest, natural environment-preservation forest, timber production forest, forest recreation forest, living-environment preservation forest
Functional classification maps shall be prepared with a scale of at least 1/25,000
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Cho, H.-J.; Kim, J.-H.; Lee, E.-J. A Study on the Advancement of Spatial Maps and the Improvement of the Legal System as a Key Tool for Sustainable National Landscape Planning: Case Study of South Korea. Land 2023, 12, 1044. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12051044

AMA Style

Cho H-J, Kim J-H, Lee E-J. A Study on the Advancement of Spatial Maps and the Improvement of the Legal System as a Key Tool for Sustainable National Landscape Planning: Case Study of South Korea. Land. 2023; 12(5):1044. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12051044

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cho, Hyun-Ju, Jin-Hyo Kim, and Eun-Jae Lee. 2023. "A Study on the Advancement of Spatial Maps and the Improvement of the Legal System as a Key Tool for Sustainable National Landscape Planning: Case Study of South Korea" Land 12, no. 5: 1044. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12051044

APA Style

Cho, H. -J., Kim, J. -H., & Lee, E. -J. (2023). A Study on the Advancement of Spatial Maps and the Improvement of the Legal System as a Key Tool for Sustainable National Landscape Planning: Case Study of South Korea. Land, 12(5), 1044. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12051044

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