Strategies for the Regeneration of Rural Settlements Facing Depopulation: Analysis Methodology and Case Studies

Abstract

Based on the analysis of bibliographical sources, official governance documents, expert interviews and fieldwork on the phenomenon of depopulation in the United Kingdom, this text identifies the different geographical, historical, economic and political factors influencing different fields, including territory, agriculture, urbanism, rural settlements, traditional architecture, population and society. The set of factors and fields of action was recorded in a multifactor matrix that enabled the analysis of cases applied in the United Kingdom to identify strategies and actions aimed at guaranteeing the conservation of vernacular settlements and architecture. The study was subsequently expanded with detailed research in four areas: the regions of the Cotswolds (Oxfordshire) and Cornwall in England, Mid West Wales and the Isle of Skye in Scotland. The aim of this study, applied to the case of the United Kingdom, is to extract guidelines, strategies and actions that can be applied to other contexts where tangible and intangible vernacular heritage is to be safeguarded.

1. Introduction

According to the European Parliament’s “Report on reversing demographic trends in EU regions using cohesion policy instruments” [1], 78% of the European population lives in urban areas and thus benefits from higher-quality facilities, transport and connectivity. In addition to the migration cycles seen at different points in history, there is currently a clear correlation between the areas experiencing a continuous population loss and a lack of services, transport, education, work opportunities, connectivity, etc. These areas, which tend to be peripheral, mountainous or insular, suffer negative social and economic effects due to their unfavourable geographical conditions [2]. The depopulation (real loss of population) experienced in rural areas is due to social changes or “social modernisation” as some term this social transformation, especially noticeable from the 1960s to 1980s [3]. However, it is also the result of the current need for geographical connection, transport and digital connectivity [4,5,6]. According to EU data, in 2021, while rural regions accounted for 45% of the territory, only 21% of the population resided there [7]. Furthermore, the continuous decrease in population in these areas has been identified as a major threat to both the cultural values and economy of the EU. Depopulation, linked to historic migrations and combined with an ageing population, entails the gradual abandonment of rural settlements, neglect of buildings and their ruin due to lack of maintenance, and the consequent physical, cultural, and economic deterioration of rural settlements.

This led to the launch in 2021 of the European Parliament’s Rural Pact, which offers a framework for cooperation between public administrations, civil society, the business sector and citizens at local, regional and European levels [8]. The objectives of this action are to promote territorial cohesion and create new opportunities to attract innovative companies; to facilitate access to high-quality jobs; to promote new improved competencies; to guarantee better infrastructures and services; and to make the best possible use of the role of sustainable agriculture and diverse economic activities [9]. In contrast, the loss of population due both to migration and natural demographic change (comparison between births and deaths) is heightened in rural areas of Mediterranean Europe [10]. Therefore, attempts are made to establish specific lines of action: improving the provision of basic services (online access to databases, health assistance, social welfare services, education and policy processes); improving economic appeal (creating opportunities based on specific local resources and promoting a transition to a circular economy with low carbon emissions); and strengthening territorial planning and territorial governance at regional and national levels [10]. In this regard, a holistic approach must be ensured, taking into consideration historical, cultural, architectural, urban, landscape and economic factors, as well as others relating to production and tourism, always from a transnational perspective [10].

Faced with this context of depopulation of rural areas in the Mediterranean and southern Europe and the subsequent abandonment and ruin of traditional settlements and architecture, for decades, the United Kingdom has been at the forefront of the study, enhancement and recovery of vernacular heritage in Europe, with the regeneration and establishment of population in vernacular rural settlements [11]. This research aims to expand on the knowledge of strategies for the revitalisation and maintenance of local populations in vernacular settlements, implemented in the UK and used to extract guidelines applicable to other contexts.

2. Materials and Methods

This research arose from the objective of finding the mechanisms that have allowed traditional architecture and rural settlements in the United Kingdom to be preserved and maintained throughout history despite the progressive depopulation of rural areas. In order to do so, it was necessary to analyse the context from different perspectives (historical, territorial, urban, social, etc.) and to identify the mechanisms, strategies and actions put in place to mitigate the impact of depopulation on the conservation of traditional architecture. The identification of the mechanisms and action strategies implemented in the United Kingdom may serve as an example for other countries and territories with similar problems.

The research was carried out in five stages. Due to the complexity and breadth of the topic, different sources and methodologies were used in this research: collection of bibliographical information, interviews with experts, information classification and analysis, analysis of case studies and fieldwork, discussion and proposals of strategies. First of all, interviews were conducted with experts from Oxford Brookes University, the ICOMOS-CIAV international committee for English Heritage, Historic England and SPAB and conservation consultants on architectural heritage with the aim of gathering direct information from the different actors involved in the protection and safeguarding of vernacular heritage in rural areas. At the same time, extensive bibliographical consultation was carried out at the library at Oxford Brookes University, particularly the sections on Rural Studies and the Paul Oliver Vernacular Architecture Library (POVAL), as well as online and library repositories, especially the institutional repositories of the governments of the United Kingdom, Wales and Scotland. The specific bibliography and expert interviews were used to identify the key mechanisms, both past and present, impacting UK population distribution; that is to say, territorial, agricultural and urbanistic policies and social and economic changes. This information was then divided into two major categories: 1. Territory, agriculture and economy; 2. Population and society. Secondly, once these two main thematic groups had been established, a second phase of a more specific information search was carried out and data were collected to identify the geographical, historical, economic and political context.

Thirdly, all the information collected (bibliography, legislation documents, associations webpages, guidelines, etc.) was analysed to ascertain which factors have impacted the containment of depopulation of rural nuclei in the United Kingdom. This analysis took into consideration the influence of geographical, historical, economic and political factors in relation to different fields such as territory, agriculture, urbanism, rural settlements, traditional architecture, population and society (referred to in this research as fields of action). Through the analysis of factors and fields of action, it was possible to identify the specific strategies and actions that have been proposed and put into action in the United Kingdom over the last two centuries, especially since the end of the Second World War. This set of factors, fields of action and strategies is displayed in a summary outline (Figure 1).

Fourth, four geographic areas with low population densities and a high presence of vernacular architecture and settlements were selected as case studies to deepen the actual strategies and actions implemented to preserve the traditional architecture and face the phenomenon of depopulation: the Cotswolds (Oxfordshire) and Cornwall in England, Mid West Wales, and the Isle of Skye in the Highlands in Scotland. Considering the factors and fields of action previously identified, these cases were studied with a view to identifying the specific policies for the traditional architecture and rural population in each area. In order to develop this work phase, official documents made available by local administrations were consulted and extensive fieldwork was carried out for direct data collection. This was made possible thanks to visits to organisations and associations, centres for the conservation and dissemination of vernacular architecture and other institutions. Finally, all the strategies and actions identified in both the general analysis of the UK and the detailed case study analyses were collated. This joint analysis made it possible to extract some strategies and actions to contain depopulation in rural areas and to preserve the built heritage of traditional settlements, which are summarised in a complex multifactor table described in detail in the Section 5.

3. Study of Fields of Action and Analysis of Strategies Used

This section presents the study of the different factors and fields of action guiding the definition of strategies to counter depopulation of rural areas and implemented in the United Kingdom. These strategies incorporate the management of territory, agriculture and economy on the one hand, and population and society on the other. Five blocks were considered for the study: territorial management policies (including the establishment of green belts and the protection of natural areas); agricultural and territorial policies (throughout history until the present); a brief reflection on rural economy; the relationship between rural economy and the conservation of vernacular settlements and architecture; and a section devoted to population and society.

3.1. Territorial Management Policies

The changes in production, society and economy, which began in the early nineteenth century and continued until the Second World War, led to the extensive development of major industrial cities, especially the capital, London. This gave rise to a loss of quality of life in dwellings and impoverished working-class neighbourhoods. At the same time, in 1942, the Scott Report was published on the situation IN rural areas, revealing the need to protect those at risk from the pressures of urbanization [12]. As a result of this, in 1947, the Town and Country Planning Act (1947) was passed, establishing measures to contain urban sprawl, protect rural areas and construct New Towns [13] in order to relieve congestion in cities and provide decent housing for the entire population. Since then, these territorial policies have extensively defined the landscape, territory, development and economy, as well as including social aspirations. According to the report from the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government (2021), only 8% of the English territory is dedicated to urban development, while 37% is protected, adding and superimposing different protection mechanisms such as Green Belts, National Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs) and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). To fully understand these categories for the protection of the territory, the territorial policies set out by the British government in documents such as the “National Planning Policy Framework” (2021) should be analysed.

3.1.1. Green Belt

The concept of the green belt is a British urbanism policy established to control the indiscriminate growth of urban areas. Green belts are defined as the surroundings of a city where the territory is to be dedicated to agriculture, forests or open-air leisure activities [14,15]. The five objectives set out for this norm are to control the uncontrolled expansion of major urban areas, to prevent towns that are close together from merging, to safeguard the country from intrusion, to preserve surroundings and the special character of historic cities, and to favour urban regeneration, promoting the occupation of abandoned land as well as other urban land [15]. Areas included in green belts will only allow the construction of buildings for agricultural and forest use, open-air leisure infrastructures or other necessary services, limiting any extensions of existing buildings. Existing buildings can be replaced with similar ones with the same characteristics and limited operations carried out to fill rural nuclei or build any social housing needed by the local community when justifiable [14].

The first green belt was set up around London in 1935. From 1947, the Town and Country Planning Act allowed local authorities to set up green belts around all cities, a policy widely promoted by the Ministry of Housing. There are currently 14 green belts in England, 10 in Scotland and 2 in Wales [16]. Green belts have been considered a positive experience and a control model in relation to uncontrolled urbanisation, as well as a conservation model for the relation between English cities and their territory and landscape, an essential tool for conserving the natural and agricultural landscape to guarantee the proximity of citizens to nature [17,18]. However, this green belt policy was also criticised as it limited the expansion of cities and was a primary cause of the housing shortage and a disproportionate rise in prices, forcing a complex network of time-consuming daily travel to reach the workplace [17]. In the case of Oxford, the green belt was proposed in 1958 but passed in 1975, spreading over 66,868 hectares, accounting for 13% of the entire district. According to a report in 2010 [19], in the city of Oxford, 99% of the character of the historic landscape has been conserved. In contrast, it should be noted that the price of housing in Oxford is among the highest in England, although these exorbitant prices for dwellings cannot be solely blamed on the existence of strict urban regulations, as there are different factors which combine to make housing prices practically unaffordable in the city [20].

3.1.2. Conservation and Improvement of Natural Surroundings

According to the National Planning Policy Framework [21], urban and territorial policies must contribute to and improve natural surroundings, establishing specific forms of territorial management to guarantee the “conservation and improvement of natural surroundings”. National Parks are areas of landscape interest with limited urban development, incorporating human settlements closely linked to the landscape.

The same document [21] addresses the urbanism policies aimed at the conservation of rural areas of landscape interest. As regards dwellings in rural settings, in order to promote sustainable development in rural areas, housing should be located where it improves or maintains the vitality of rural communities, supporting local services and establishing a service network between smaller towns. Moreover, planning policies and decisions must avoid the development of isolated dwellings in the countryside, unless special circumstances apply. Secondly, planning policies and decisions must benefit the rural economy, allowing growth and sustainable development with all types of businesses in rural areas, diversification of agriculture, rural tourism and leisure respecting the natural landscape and the retention and development of accessible local services and community facilities (local shops, meeting spaces, sports facilities, open spaces, cultural buildings, bars and places of worship). Finally, it must ensure the development of spaces in a manner sensitive to surroundings, while satisfying local commercial and community needs.

3.2. Agricultural and Territorial Policies

In order to understand current UK rural policies, it is important to consider certain past events that led to the restructuring of rural territories into their current situation. England has a long tradition of agricultural land management that was developed through “English country houses”, mansions together with land that were owned by wealthy families involved in the management of large estates [22]. Many staff worked both outside and inside these houses, a fact which ultimately made these an important source of employment and livelihood in rural communities. From the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the rise in taxes sped up the end of traditional ways of life and the territorial, social and economic structure embodied by English country houses. The higher taxes and the effects of the First World War led to the demolition of hundreds of homes. From 1970, these houses began to be transformed into hotels, schools, hospitals, prisons, etc., although many remain in ruins.

British agriculture did not fully recover from this Great Depression until after the Second World War [23,24]. As in most European countries, from the early twentieth century, there was a major population exodus from rural settings to industrial cities. In the interwar period, the socioeconomic crisis of English agriculture was at its height, with cultivation being abandoned and the population migrating to the city. As Howkins described this [25]: “The spectre of the ‘deserted village’ with its cottages tumbled, its shops and pubs gone, and its great house closed up and shuttered was as much a picture of the 1920s and 1930s as it had been of the 1880s and 1890s”. However, from the 1930s, this drop in population started to slow down in some rural areas. This was the case in areas outside London, which began to accommodate workers from the city in search of better living conditions in rural areas. The 1930s also saw the birth of the phenomenon of holidays in the country [25].

After the Second World War, lines of support were established with the 1947 Agriculture Act and Access to the Countryside Act (1949). These legislations have established major lines of action defining territorial use and management until today. From the Second World War, territorial policy was steeped in the conviction that rural surroundings had to protect the quality of landscape and agricultural areas and contain urban development [11]. These ideas were originally the result of two specific schools of thought: on the one hand, the idea of the countryside as a source of agricultural self-sufficiency and on the other, the protection of an idyllic rural space, born from the vision promoted by Patrick Abercrombie in his book The Preservation of Rural England (1926). However, the post-war development of rural areas in the United Kingdom cannot be understood without considering the Report of the Scott Committee on Land Utilisation in Rural Areas (1942). The report recommended controlling construction in rural areas, protecting agricultural land around the city, limiting expansion and controlling the position of industrial sites to limit their impact on rural settings, while also attempting to provide rural areas with services such as electricity, gas and drinking water. This report clearly alerted the need for strict conservation of rural settings, an idea that defined rural territorial management policies for decades [12].

From the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, this vision has been expanded with new contributions geared towards the management of a rural environment not as a mere setting to be protected, but as a more complex organism [11]. In this regard, it is important to mention some specific events that have defined rural development policies until the present day [26]. Firstly, the use of European Structural Funds for rural development from the late 1990s led to the publication of the white paper “Rural England: A Nation Committed to a Living Countryside” [27], recognising the need for a “more holistic transversal approach” to guide the development of rural locations. This led to the creation of Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) to support development in English rural areas (1997) and of the Countryside Agency (1999). These actions were followed by the publication of another white paper, “Our Countryside: The Future-A Fair Deal for Rural England” [28], establishing a series of actions for rural development: generating pilot projects to ensure real impact from policies; creating a Rural Advocate to ensure the representation and defence of the rural population at the highest levels of government; drafting an annual report on rural development indicators; introducing a Rural Services Standard; establishing a Fund for Community Services; and offering a 50% tax cut for village shops, pubs and garages. In 2001, with the change of government, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) was established but, despite expectations, “wider rural economic development lost ground within government to the renewed emphasis on the sustainability of the food chain and a preoccupation with a farming industry that represented an ever diminishing economic force in the countryside” [26]. Finally, from 2007 to 2010, and especially with the Taylor Review, recommendations were made focusing on the planning system and the possibility of expanding the land available for affordable housing in rural areas and promoting the development of new businesses, especially linked to the promotion of remote work. However, with the 2008 financial crisis, attention shifted to the recovery of the country, with a major reduction in local development agencies, staff involved in this type of work and government investment in the sector [26].

3.3. A Brief Note on Rural Economy in the United Kingdom

There is a long tradition of attention to small businesses in rural areas since 1921 when the Rural Industries Bureau was set up. From 2006, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs attempted to promote the rural economy based on agriculture and livestock. However, in a study attempting to understand the basis of the rural economy [29], data from official sources were analysed, showing that over 80% of the rural population was employed in activities of distribution, hotels and restaurants, public administration, education and health, production and manufacturing, banking and finance and insurance, while only 16% worked in agriculture and fishing. Therefore, the agricultural sector is still in need of major public investment and is not a buoyant sector for rural development [29]. Parallel to this, the idea of “city regions” has been gradually reinforced. This concept was already addressed more than a century ago by Patrick Geddes (1854–1932) in relation to conurbations, and later by the Redcliffe-Maud Commission (1966–1969) in relation to the urban growth of the 1960s, both linked to the widespread use of the car for transport. This viewpoint, which is currently particularly linked to the development of telecommunications enabling remote work and entrepreneurship in almost all locations, was reflected in the Northern Way Growth Strategy (2004). According to this initiative, which focused on the development of urban regions in northern England (Liverpool, Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, Central Lancashire, Hull and the Humber Ports, Tees Valley and Tyne and Wear), the new potential for development of urban regions could benefit the development of rural areas as areas for expansion and work, landscape and heritage, relaxation, etc. [30].

At present, data analysis [29] suggests that rural areas may present potential for development linked to the development of nearby urban regions, and also be areas appealing to the implementation and development of business activities. This perspective is offered by two specific initiatives: the Market Towns Initiative and Planning Policy Statement 7 (PPS 7), known as “Sustainable Development in Rural Areas” [31]. The Market Towns Initiative [32] involved over 200 Market Towns or smaller cities with a population of between 2000 and 20,000 inhabitants in England (Figure 2). It aimed to provide a web tool to help citizens and public administration access and manage health services, grants for local development plans and a national educational network. A collaboration network between cities was also created, providing eligible candidates with financial support and different types of funding.

In addition, the PPS “Sustainable Development in Rural Areas” was a document of great interest, as its objectives included improving the quality of life in rural areas, the promotion of a sustainable development path in rural areas, improving economic potential and the promotion of a sustainable, diverse and adaptable agriculture [31]. These objectives were to be reached thanks to the development of the following strategic lines: to generate small expansion near rural settlements (to one or more villages at a time) to building both accessible housing and services that can be reached cycling or on foot, as well as to establish small business initiatives; to provide support to a wide range of economic activities by providing assistance with permits and proceedings; to guarantee all the necessary services at a limited distance that can be reached on foot or cycling and, if necessary, to identify empty buildings or opportunities for the location of multi-purpose buildings; to guarantee equal access to housing, if necessary, even building new housing with limited expansion; to protect the character of the settlement at all times, controlling the characteristics of new constructions; to support sustainable and diverse agricultural enterprises; to promote the rehabilitation of isolated buildings; to promote diversification in agriculture and livestock; to develop activities connected with horse riding; to foresee the management and sustainable operation of forests; to promote sustainable tourism that benefits the local economy by supporting new businesses, establishing accommodation, building services for tourists, etc.

Warn [29] holds that it is not possible to separate the rural economy from the urban economy as transport and telecommunications have recently created an interconnection between economy and movement. When writing in 2006, Warn stated that the average daily work commute was 8 km in 1950 and 40 km in 1990 and is forecast to reach 100 km by 2025. In this regard, the author put forward the premise that it was essential to enforce a territorial rather than local approach, while it was also necessary to act from the stance that the development of rural surroundings is linked to its economy and cannot depend on external factors. Rural areas must be able to create their own jobs and prosperous economy and have to present themselves as areas that are more convenient for developing business activities.

Some studies provide data on how the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic affected commuter transport in the UK. According to research carried out in 2020 [33], before COVID-19, 72.4% of commuters completing the survey travelled by car and 27.6% by public transport. Studies of the impact of the pandemic on daily transport are quite clear [34]: weekday road traffic in England stabilised at around 10% below pre-pandemic levels, although traffic increased on weekends; before the pandemic, remote work was resorted to only 11.6% of the time, but post-pandemic, this figure has risen to 41%. In addition, the real estate market shows that the buying and selling of housing has dropped more in cities than in the countryside, while rental prices have also dropped in major cities but increased in rural areas [34]. These two factors suggest that there is currently a growing opportunity for the development of rural areas, offering a clear alternative for remote work along with healthier living conditions that are perceived when living surrounded by nature.

On the other hand, from the outset, it was understood that Brexit could have a significant impact on small and medium-sized enterprises based in rural areas due to the lack of market, labour networks and skilled labour [35] and that it would therefore be necessary to implement a series of measures to counteract the possible consequences [36]. The sustainable development of rural communities has already been addressed in a specific document [31] and is further developed in the document ‘National Planning Policy Framework’, published by the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government in 2021 [21]; however, it does not clearly identify a change in direction or a significant development that can be related to Brexit.

3.4. The Relationship Between Conservation of Rural Areas and Vernacular Architecture

The idea of conservation or conservative repair in the UK dates back to authors such as Ruskin and Morris and the consolidation of their doctrine through the activity of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings since its foundation in 1877 [37]. Particular attention should be paid to the connection between the conservation of the territory in rural areas and the conservation of the traditional settlements and architecture found within it [38]. This point brings to mind the vision described by Patrick Abercrombie in his book The Preservation of Rural England (1926). Abercrombie, who developed the Greater London Plan (1943), provides a comparison of built heritage conservation and the conservation of the English countryside: “We speak eloquently of the obligation that is on us to preserve and save from destruction the ancient monuments of this land, visible signs of our history (…). But we are apt to forget that the greatest historical monument that we possess, the most essential thing which is England, is the Countryside, the Market Town, the Village, the Hedgerow Trees, the Lanes, the Copses, the Streams and the Farmsteads” [39]. The economic, social and productive changes glimpsed prompted Abercrombie to hold a strict conservationist stance in relation to rural environments as cultural heritage. It is also interesting to note Abercrombie’s opinion on the funding of rural housing in relation to the need for conservation of old housing: “The building of new cottages is helped by money grants administered by the local authorities: but as yet nothing is available for the repair and renewing of existing cottages; and although generally a new house, even with Government Grant, may cost more than an old one renovated without it, there is a natural human inclination to make use of a grant. The tendency is therefore for old houses to be left until their repairs are so extensive that it is cheaper to pull them down, to the great loss architecturally and in general interest to the village and countryside. The new cottages are rarely as beautiful nor in many cases are they as roomy and comfortable as would be the old ones thoroughly repaired to meet all modern requirements. Rural Housing therefore, if pursued courageously and consistently on present financial methods, would in time entirely alter the character of our villages” [39].

In his book, he identifies the elements to be conserved in rural areas, from settlements to houses, including the countryside, agricultural land and natural terrain, forests, rivers, pathways, etc. On the conservation of rural settlements, he states: “These are clearly subject to change: there are indeed certain villages so exquisite in their buildings, trees and gardens that one would like to preserve them absolutely intact. But it must never be forgotten that modern lives are being lived in them and that what appears delightful to the eye of the outsider may be less attractive for the household”. He also recommends the search for harmony in the construction of new buildings that should avoid both the extreme of new Brutalism and that of antiquarian replicas [39]. According to the author, the character and appeal of British villages lie in their harmony, relationship to the natural environment and proportion between constructions and private gardens, etc.

Furthermore, in terms of regulations for the conservation and restoration of rural settlements, it should be remembered that the first legislation for the protection of monuments, the Ancient Monuments Protection Act, dating from 1882, was the first protection system for historic buildings in England [40]. It initially included 50 prehistoric monuments, but subsequent modifications (in 1900 and 1913) led to the inclusion of later monuments, and different levels of protection, criteria and fines for the prevention of damage. Cataloguing buildings of particular historic and artistic relevance, The List (from which the term “listed” was coined to denote protected buildings), was introduced with the 1944 and 1947 Town and Country Planning Acts. From that point on and over a period of 25 years, around 120,000 buildings (mostly vernacular churches and dwellings built between the Middle Ages and 1750) were catalogued [40]. Due to the intense urban remodelling of the 1960s, a further cataloguing campaign was launched and was specifically conducted from 1968 in 39 historic cities and towns at particular risk from urban development. The 1980s marked the start of a new stage for protection and cataloguing linked to the creation of English Heritage (National Heritage Act, 1983), later Historic England (2005). English Heritage has worked on the management of national heritage listed buildings, and since 2015, its competencies have been divided between two different bodies. On the one hand, English Heritage, currently a foundation run on mixed public and private capital, is in charge of the conservation and management of over 400 national heritage buildings and collections. On the other, Historic England is in charge of the protection of buildings and heritage assets and intervention criteria.

As well as the catalogue of listed buildings, Historic England sets out the criteria and modes of intervention in historic buildings, historic centres, complexes, cultural landscapes, etc. In this regard, the document “Conservation Principles, Policies and Guidance” [41] is of particular importance. This document defines the values and principles of conservation as well as their compatibility with the retrofitting of buildings [41].

In addition to regulations, there are other means to promote and encourage the conservation of historic and vernacular architecture. These include the role of technical and informative publications. There is a long tradition of British manuals for maintenance, conservation and restoration interventions in rural buildings. These types of documents, guides and manuals for maintenance and conservation have been widely used since William Morris founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) in 1877 [42]. These eminently practical books suggest methods, techniques and processes for repairing and maintaining traditional buildings using traditional crafts following the concept of “conservative repair” [43]. Among them, we must remember the following: Repair of Ancient Building by A. R. Powys (1881–1936), published by SPAB [44], and a recent version of this published in 2008 with the enticing title Old House Handbook. A practical guide to care and repair [45]; Restored to glory. A guide to renovating your period home [46], published by the BBC, where the television series of the same name was broadcast, is an example of how technical content can be brought closer to the population to increase awareness of the restoration of their own homes; in addition to the volumes of Practical Building Conservation [47] and the second revised edition, expanded by English Heritage (2004), there are specific manuals dedicated to the restoration of rural buildings [48].

SPAB also regularly publishes short manuals, almost information leaflets, known as “technical pamphlets”, on specific processes and crafts.

3.5. Population and Society

Fundamental aspects for understanding the dynamics of rural areas in the UK include the distribution of the population and social expectations. These aspects are linked to the history, geography and economy of the country, and also to cultural factors that should be taken into consideration in the global analysis of the strategies implemented and their results.

3.5.1. Urban and Rural Populations

According to UN data, in 2020, the population of the United Kingdom stood at 67,886,011. Almost a third of the population lives in southeast England and is predominantly urban and suburban. About 7.8 million people live in the capital, London, with a population density of just under 13,000 inhabitants per square mile [49], being one of the most populated countries in Europe, characterised by a certain closeness between urban centres [50]. The phenomenon of population loss in rural areas and increased concentration in urban areas is linked to the Industrial Revolution, as is the case in most countries. From 1801 to 1971, the population of England and Wales went from 34.8% urban population and 65.2% rural population in 1801 to 78.2% urban population and 21.8% rural population in 1971 [51].

Furthermore, since 1970, in large urban nuclei in England and Wales, there has been a countertrend to concentrations that continues to this day. This is a staggered migratory movement where the population gradually moves from large metropolitan areas to more scattered rural nuclei. This staggered movement displaces the population in segments from more urbanised to less urbanised areas following the 13 levels defined by Champion 1996 [52]. This staggered counterurbanisation movement especially affects the population aged over 30 (and children up to the age of 16) while at the employment level, those most affected are freelance professionals, retired individuals and, to a certain degree, employees. The main factors benefiting this phenomenon are [52] the decentralisation of manufacturing employment, the role of the public sector in supporting rural activities (agriculture, forests, tourism and defence), the improvement of education and other infrastructures in rural areas, the appearance of diseconomies of scale and social issues in large cities, the growing proportion of older people with no need to access urban employment, the expansion of displacement areas around employment centres and the development of transport and communication technology. In addition to these factors, since 1970, employment has noticeably increased in rural areas compared to central London, and homeowners also show higher levels of satisfaction in small cities or rural areas than in large metropolitan cities. Furthermore, in addition to these factors, which can be identified in several countries worldwide, there are two more featuring in the United Kingdom: urban sprawl control policies and a love for life in the countryside [52].

As seen in the previous section, control of urban growth began with the Scott Report (1942) and came into effect following the Town and Country Planning Act (1947) [12]. The policies for containing urban expansion have favoured the delocalisation of people and jobs throughout the country, preventing excessive concentration in overpopulated cities. Furthermore, other factors have changed the housing panorama in recent decades [52]. Firstly, the higher numbers of young, middle-aged and older people living alone due to social changes (work, single-parent families, unmarried or single people, etc.) have created the need for more housing, even when the population remains the same, as well as for small or at least smaller housing than in the past. Secondly, immigration, particularly from developing countries, has led to major population increases in large cities.

3.5.2. Life in the Countryside as a Social Point of Reference

The second factor unique to the United Kingdom is a love for country living that is characteristic of the British population [52]. Champion holds that the data provided in 1997 by the Countryside Commission reveal how, among residents in English cities, 43% of suburban residents and 51% of urban residents have expressed a desire to live in a village or rural setting. Throughout England, 54% of the population would prefer to live in a rural setting, a figure over double the population actually living there (24%) in 1997. If we also factor in those who would prefer to live in small cities, the percentage of people who would like to live outside large cities is 69%; this proportion is even higher than that calculated in 1939 (61%) [53]. Reasons given by British people as to why they prefer to live in the country include the “setting” (50%), “way of life” (32%), quality of surroundings (59%) and quality of social environment (59%) [54,55]. Keywords appearing in the description of why life in a rural environment is preferable include natural setting, tranquillity, less traffic, space, fewer people, far from everything, slower pace of life, more of a community atmosphere, escape from the “rat race”, safer at night and better for raising children [55]. Therefore, for interviewees, the image—idyllic or not—of rural life is one of a more natural, calmer, peaceful setting offering better physical and social quality and more safety. On top of this, the price of housing is more affordable in rural settings, as the policies for containing urban development have increased the price of housing, and life in the countryside is associated with achieving a certain social status, so it becomes evident that in this context rural life is synonymous with “quality of life”, viewed as a destination.

In this context, it is important to note how for decades the spirit of an idyllic life in the countryside [56] has been transmitted through literature (Jane Austen, Elisabeth Gaskell, etc.), films, magazines or television series. This is the case of Country Life magazine [57], which was founded in 1897 and for over 125 years has been promoting an image of life in the countryside as something aspirational in terms of economy and health, a social and status target destination. The magazine was set up by Edward Burgess Hudson (1854–1936) along with the publisher George Newnes Ltd. Edward Hudson was the owner of Lindisfarne Castle and many other mansions designed by the British architect Sir Edwin Landseer Lutyens (1869–1944). The magazine was initially called Country Life Illustrated, with the subtitle “A journal for all interested in country life and country pursuits, with which is incorporated Racing Illustrated”. In the first few years of its existence, the magazine was called Country Life Illustrated, because it was one of the first to include large format photographs with good resolution. These images, compiled over 125 years, currently constitute a large photographic archive as well as documentary evidence of social aspirations and taste [58] (Figure 3).

The model of “rural life” that it aims to transmit is clearly seen on its covers, where a “country house” and dazzling car remind the public of the social status they can achieve by acquiring these rural properties, clearly making them an object of desire for middle and upper classes.

A television series worth mentioning is the BBC’s “Escape to the Country”, which has been on air since 2002, with 655 episodes to date. In each episode, potential buyers (usually Londoners) visit three dwellings in the rural setting (including a “mystery property”) in the designated area with the idea of buying the house of their dreams. After visiting all three houses, they have to guess the seller’s asking price. Each episode of this search for the ideal home is accompanied by an account of the history of the cities and villages, characteristics and interests, as well as the potential homebuyer’s motivation for house-hunting in the country. The series, which has had great success for the last 20 years, contributes to the promotion of idyllic “country life” as an aspiration to be achieved.

The idyllic image of calm rural life is also backed by different data relating to safety in small cities and rural nuclei and to the containment of noise in rural areas. The definition of “Quiet Area” as an area with no agglomerations (with a population under 1000,000 inhabitants and a density of less than 500 people/km²) refers especially to the amount of noise in the area. Based on the Environmental Noise (England) Regulations (2006) DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) has asked local authorities to request this designation for small and medium settlements to be recognised as beneficial for the population.

4. Brief Description of Case Studies

Following the literature search and expert interviews, three key factors were considered for the selection of the case studies: low population density (Figure 4); the presence of an extensive heritage of vernacular architecture [38]; the presence of action plans and strategies for the protection of vernacular architecture and settlements and the improvement of the living conditions of the local population (see detailed description of the cases). Based on the combination of these three factors, four case studies have been chosen. Moreover, according to data from the Office for National Statistics, these are districts with low population densities either due to depopulation processes or due to low population densities throughout history. The selected cases are (Figure 5) Cotswold, with a density of 78/km² (among the lowest in England); Cornwall, with a population density of 161/km²; the central and north Wales area, with densities between 26/Km² in Powys, 40/km² in Ceredigion and 46/km² in Gwynedd; and the Highland area and particularly the Isle of Skye, with a density of 9/km².

4.1. Cotswolds

The Cotswolds area, located in central southeast England and with an extension of 2038 km², covers part of different districts (mostly Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire, as well as parts of Wiltshire, Somerset, Worcestershire and Warwickshire). In 1966, it was designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), making it the third largest after the Lake District and Yorkshire Dales national parks. This area is particularly renowned for its landscape as well as for its inhabited nuclei (Figure 6), preindustrial buildings (Figure 7) and dry stone architecture. It is no coincidence that William Morris himself had his private home, Kelmscott Manor [59,60], in this district, a fact that has actively contributed to the protection of the area [42].

According to a report from 2015 [61], in 2014, the population of the Cotswolds was 84,600, representing an increase of 2837 people since 2004 (equivalent to 3.5%). However, within this increase, the population in the 0–19 age range had fallen by 4.4%, while the 20–64 age range had decreased by 1.1%. In contrast, the population aged 65 and over had increased by 25.5%, a percentage noticeably higher than in the rest of England and Wales (19.6%). According to the same report, demographic projections until 2037 reflect that this tendency will continue to increase progressively. Furthermore, these statistics show that most of the new inhabitants are the result of internal migration within the United Kingdom, and only 7% have immigrated from other countries, mostly from Eastern Europe. In addition, the Cotswolds, a region with very low poverty levels, also boasts a very good quality of life. The highest poverty levels are due to the inaccessibility of housing and services. In 2011, most homes were occupied by their owners (65.7%), a percentage slightly lower than in 2001 (67.9%), while private rentals had increased from 12% to 15.4%. A 2021 study by the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government [62] showed that there were 2448 empty homes in the Cotswolds compared to 2375 in 2020. Of these empty homes, 709 were temporary residences that remained empty for more than half the year, while 1739 were second homes. The study concluded that 5.5% of dwellings were empty, representing one of the highest proportions in the United Kingdom.

Interestingly enough, The Cotswolds National Landscape Management Plan 2023–2025 [63] does not examine any topics relating to population and housing. This document focuses only on the values, character and heritage of the area, as well as its potential as a place for leisure and enjoyment: “A distinctive, unique, accessible living landscape treasured for its diversity which is recognised by all for its wide open views, dry stone walls, intimate valleys, flower rich grasslands, ancient woodlands, dark skies, tranquillity, archaeology, historic and cultural heritage and distinctive Cotswolds stone architecture”.

However, the document “Sustainable Community Strategy 2008–2012”, drafted by the Cotswolds Local Strategic Partnership [64] as an association of different institutions involved in the management of the area, provides a detailed examination of a series of strategies for targeting issues in the district: loss of the young population and a major increase in the elderly population; a major increase in housing prices due to demand for second and holiday homes; although the area is quite safe, attempts are made to provide reassurance regarding lack of safety, strengthening the feeling of community; conserving natural and built heritage adapted to current needs; and improving and strengthening local and circular economies to avoid dependence on external tourism or immigration. The document is based on strategic axes and concrete actions of great interest that may be applied to other contexts: Children and Young People (providing training and job opportunities; improving transport facilities and access to services; involving young people in all consultation work; providing more things for young people to do locally); Healthier Communities and Older People (increasing access to services in rural areas, particularly for older people; improving independence and health and wellbeing for older people; implementing the countywide obesity strategy; reducing the harm caused by drugs and alcohol; and addressing carers’ needs); Housing (addressing the affordable housing needs of the local communities; improving private sector stock conditions; meeting the needs of the homeless; understanding the housing market and the needs of the local communities; improving marketing of shared ownership; promoting energy efficient and affordable homes); Safer and Stronger Communities (reducing the fear of crime in local communities; engaging with young people, youth organisations, parish councils and extended services to reduce the impact of crime on their lives and other people’s lives; supporting local communities to keep their local facilities; empowering local people to have a greater choice and influence over local decision-making and over service delivery and increasing the capacity of communities to take voluntary action in order to create more vibrant and thriving communities); Natural and Built Environment (improving energy efficiency; developing more sustainable buildings and developments; preventing and mitigating the impact of climate change; encouraging the reduction, reuse and recycling of domestic and commercial waste); Economy and Skills (encouraging people to buy locally; increasing access to appropriate skills training; improving the affordability and availability of business premises; improving understanding of community and business skill needs; developing specific sectors within the economy, including promotion of tourism and arts and crafts).

4.2. Cornwall

The economy of Cornwall has mostly been linked to agriculture and mining (Figure 8). The changes in the fortunes of these two sectors have guided the ups and downs in this part of the United Kingdom throughout its history [65,66]. In 2020, the population of the county of Cornwall stood at 576,000, with a density of 162 people per square kilometre. The average population age was 44.6. The population had increased by 13.6% since 2002, while for the same period, the mean age also increased, in this case 2.3 years. Official census data showed 2.31 residents per home in the year 2011, the last year in which this data was updated [67].

According to a report from 2018, a quarter of the county’s population was aged over 65 and projections for 2036 suggest that this age range will make up a third of the population. The ageing population is also accompanied by a significant increase in the number of second homes, according to local government data [68]. To some extent, both factors are due firstly to the fact that the area is one of the poorest in the UK, so a large part of the population has had to migrate to other regions [69]. Secondly, it is on the southern coast of the UK and is considered welcoming, with a good climate pleasant for older people, as well as being a safe area where house prices and cost of living are among the lowest in the country [69]. According to a government report [70], although the exact number of second homes is not known, a series of parameters can help give an approximate estimation. Second homes are a positive factor in the conservation of historic buildings, contributing to the conservation of the landscape and character of the region (Figure 9). At the same time, holiday occupancy of these second homes partly helps the local economy, especially the tourism and hospitality sector, although the benefits are minimal if throughout the year these homes are occupied for very short periods. In contrast, a series of issues arise from major imbalances between first and second homes. These include the erosion of community, seasonality, the underoccupancy of existing homes and reduced affordability. Moreover, an increase in the number of second homes leads to a rise in both property and rental prices.

In the case of Cornwall, there are some areas where the number of second homes peaks, accounting for over 40% of total housing. Along the coast, especially, a high percentage of dwellings are not first homes. In 2021, a series of parishes (17 of 2013) implemented policies restricting the construction of new dwellings that were not going to be occupied as principal residences (Principal Residence Policy in their Neighbourhood Development Plan). The impact of these policies is not yet known, but it is expected to at least enforce the rehabilitation of existing buildings. The objective of these measures is two-fold, linked to strengthening the local community. On the one hand, it aims to ensure that any citizens wishing to live there permanently may find housing at an affordable price, while on the other, it prevents the proportion of second homes from increasing drastically since when these remain unoccupied, most of the time they erode the compactness of the local community [68].

4.3. Mid West Wales

In 2021, the population of Wales was 3,107,500, with a surface area of 20,779 km²; this resulted in a density of 149.5 people/km², almost half the UK average. Moreover, there is a clear concentration of population in urban areas around Cardiff, Newport and Swansea in the south, and in the north, closer to Liverpool. The central part is undoubtedly the least populated, partly due to its mountainous terrain and pastoral tradition. It is also important to consider the disparity in income in different parts of Wales [71]. Although there are areas—generally urban but some rural—with high income levels, in most rural areas the income level is very low and the younger population is often encouraged to migrate to places offering more opportunities.

The “National Development Framework (2020–2040)” [16] establishes a specific policy of “Supporting local communities” that stresses the need to encourage sustainable development in rural areas through growth and development on a scale appropriate to the economic and housing resources of a significant number of people in Wales. To do so, the Welsh government established two strategies: Policy 4—Supporting Rural Communities; and Policy 5—Supporting the rural economy. In both policies, it is considered necessary to develop strategic local development plans to help rural communities in a more concrete and tailored manner. In strategy 4 “Supporting rural communities”, the case is made for trying to ensure that communities display a balanced distribution of age ranges, the reversal of depopulation and consider the role of new affordable housing, the market, job opportunities, local services and greater mobility to help address these challenges. In strategy 5 “Supporting the rural economy”, it is stated that planning is needed to satisfy the employment needs of rural areas, including jobs deriving from the foundational economy, the agriculture and forest sectors, start-ups and micro-companies, innovative and emerging technological sectors and attempts at diversification. The aim is therefore to help rural areas to unlock all their potential, expanding the economic foundations and creating higher-paid jobs. In the particular case of Mid Wales (Figure 10 and Figure 11), the area of the country most affected by depopulation and unemployment, there are plans to improve transport between settlements and the rest of the country, improve telephone and internet connectivity and promote the diversification of companies [72].

4.4. Highland in Scotland

In 2021, Scotland had a population of 5,466,000 inhabitants, extending over 78,772 km², and a mean density of 67.5 people per km². However, population density throughout the territory is very irregular, with 40% of the total population living in Glasgow, the most populated city. According to a report from the National Records of Scotland [73], 2021 was the year with the lowest population growth since 2003 (only 0.05%), and with a higher death rate than birth rates. There is also a major difference in population density between the Highlands and Lowlands, as the former is by far the most depopulated area in Scotland. In 2024, a plan aiming to limit depopulation, create a more balanced distribution of the Scottish population and improve opportunities in all communities was published [74]. In this regard, a series of strategies are established, most notably accessibility to high-quality jobs throughout the territory, requiring more evenly distributed investment, promoting connectivity and remote work; improving digital infrastructures throughout the territory; providing continuous high-quality training for workers; guaranteeing access to housing for young people; creating proximity infrastructures throughout the territory (20 min neighbourhoods); improving connections and transport in rural areas and the islands; ensuring public services throughout all rural and urban areas, reconverting and updating all public buildings; developing a green proximity economy; and granting support to local communities in the process of demographic renewal and attraction.

The Highlands are without a doubt the most depopulated areas given their remoteness, lack of employment opportunities and limited connection. However, the Isle of Skye in particular has observed an increase in the population by 12% in the last 25 years [75]. In 1840, the island’s population peaked at 23,082 inhabitants, but famine, the agricultural crisis and wars resulted in the population dropping to its lowest number, 7183 inhabitants, in 1971, when it started to recover very slowly and has been progressively recovering in recent years [76]. This increase in population is due to a great extent to the population aged 65–75 (76.5%), while the number of inhabitants in the 25–44 age range has decreased (22.6%). It should also be noted that the increase in the population has also brought about an increase in the number of buildings occupied as a principal residence throughout the entire year.

This population growth is probably due to the attractive setting that the island offers its inhabitants. Although there is tourism, it is not mass tourism and there are no major tourist infrastructures, while local culture and tradition are maintained and promoted (Figure 12), all of which make it a very pleasant place to live (Figure 13).

5. Discussion

Through bibliographical reviews, interviews, fieldwork and case study analysis, this research has identified the geographical, historical, economic and political factors that have defined the circumstances and mechanisms influencing the containment of depopulation in rural areas of the UK, particularly in the twentieth century. The detailed analysis of the role of these individual factors in the different fields of action (territory, agriculture, urbanism, rural settlements, traditional architecture, population and society) has allowed the identification of points of interaction and convergence summarised in a multifactor table (Figure 14).

In addition to this global multifactor analysis, the general case study of the United Kingdom (explained in detail in Section 3 of this text) and the detailed analysis of case studies (summarised in Section 4) have made it possible to identify the policies and concrete actions proposed specifically to improve living conditions in rural settlements and to protect and conserve the environment, the settlements and their architecture. These actions have been grouped into five major strategies (Figure 15) protecting the territory and natural and built heritage to guarantee their conservation and survival; improving the services and transport infrastructure to guarantee the quality of life of the population in rural areas, as well their connection with the workplace; providing support to local administrations so that these may correctly manage rural areas with sufficient funding; providing financial support to different population sectors in order to encourage business and residences in rural areas; and guaranteeing government support to the rural population to avoid them feeling like second class citizens and to give them equal opportunities.

The first strategy, ‘Protecting the territory and natural and built heritage’, has a direct relationship with the history and thinking of conservation in the UK and also with the country’s culture and society. However, we could say that concrete actions to protect the landscape and rural settlements have been developed mainly from the second half of the 20th century onwards, with actions like the protection of natural areas, the creation of Green Belts around large cities, the containment of urban development and the creation of New Towns. On the other hand, since the first decades of the 20th century, policies for the protection of rural settlements have been developed through actions such as the control of restoration interventions in rural settlements, the control of new construction interventions in rural settlements, the protection of the character of the settlement controlling new constructions, awarding grants for restoration and conservation of historic buildings in rural areas, promotion of the drafting of restoration manuals for rural historic buildings and the limitation of the number of dwellings for non-resident buyers, second homes and holiday rentals.

The second strategy, ‘Improving the services and transport infrastructure’, has clearly emerged in recent decades and especially since the 21st century when, in addition to the need to improve the quality of life and access to housing already present after the Second World War, the need to implement a more liveable city model with local commuting [77] has also arisen. To this end, actions have been implemented such as improving local transport, encouraging movement on foot and cycling in rural nuclei, guaranteeing the connection of rural centres and work centres, concentrating services in shared areas between rural centres, guaranteeing and improving education infrastructures, guaranteeing and improving healthcare infrastructures, building small development areas near rural settlements with accessible housing and services reachable on foot or cycling, and guaranteeing all necessary services at a limited distance that can be reached on foot or cycling.

The third strategy, ‘Providing support to local administrations for management’, is clearly aimed at supporting small local administrations with ideas, support and methods that can promote and monitor their activities. To this end, activities have been launched such as the creation of municipality networks (Market Towns Initiative), the creation of an annual report on rural development indicators, the creation of pilot projects for the measurement of the real impact and potential improvement of policies implemented and the creation of a rural services standard.

The fourth strategy, ‘Providing economic support to different population sectors’, is linked to the economic support needed to promote the economy and job creation, as well as the support needed to restore traditional buildings in rural areas. In general, this aid is granted by the public administration and can take the form of both funding for businesses or private individuals and tax relief. There is a long list of possible forms of aid and financial support that have been implemented over time and in different places: establishing tax benefits for companies in rural settings like setting a 50% tax break for village shops, pubs and garages; encouraging the decentralisation of work with financial advantages and tax deductions; allowing the construction of very limited urban developments near rural settlements for services and shops; enabling the development of small business initiatives; supporting a wide range of economic activities by facilitating permits and procedures; supporting and promoting the diversification of the economy in rural areas; supporting sustainable and diverse agricultural enterprises, supporting the rehabilitation of isolated buildings; supporting diversification in agriculture and livestock; supporting the development of activities relating to horse riding; supporting the sustainable management and operation of forests; supporting sustainable tourism, which benefits local economies by supporting new businesses, the establishment of accommodation and construction of tourist services; awarding public grants for the restoration and conservation of historic buildings in rural areas; and guaranteeing equal access to housing, if necessary even including new dwellings as limited expansions.

The fifth strategy, ‘Guaranteeing government support for the rural population’, consists of non-financial support to improve the management of the processes, as well as to strengthen society’s knowledge and appreciation of rural settlements and traditional architecture. These include actions such as the creation of a Rural Advocate providing representation and defence at the highest levels of government for the rural population; creating portals for direct access to information; creating guidelines, manuals and dissemination brochures; and encouraging the dissemination of the ideal of country life through magazines and media.

A comparison of the five main strategies identified in this research and other publications and documents reveals the current relevance and potential of the strategies identified. The book 3D PAST. Guidelines and strategies for maintenance of vernacular architecture in World Heritage sites [78] establishes four sections of strategies resulting from case studies in the European Union: Study and knowledge, Material conservation, Policy and management and Dissemination. Within the section “Policy and management”, a number of strategies were established: suitable architectural regulations to control maintenance; suitable urbanistic regulations to control urban actions; limitation of uses, functions and new buildings in protected areas; promotion and grants to local associations working on heritage; promotion and grants for using local materials; economic aid for artisans to train apprentices; awards and recognition for best practices; tax aid for local inhabitants; aid and grants for architectural conservation; creation of artisans’ networks to disseminate arts and crafts. Some of these strategies match actions found in the United Kingdom, although, in this instance, a wider, more detailed series of specific actions to be developed is also provided here. The same can be stated in relation to the European Union’s Rural Pact [9], which establishes a series of objectives to promote territorial cohesion and to create new opportunities for attracting innovative companies; to facilitate access to high-quality jobs; to promote new improved capabilities; to guarantee better infrastructures and services; and to take advantage of the role of sustainable architecture and diverse economic activities. However, this is a working framework and does not yet provide concrete actions.

With regard to the case studies, it should be noted that despite the peculiarity of each one at a geographical, historical and social level, these are cases where the coexistence of a large vernacular heritage with a very low population rate is a factor that is understood as a risk, in what is often associated with the abandonment of rural buildings and their consequent degradation [79]. This combination of factors is found in many of the UK’s rural areas, as well as in many other European countries so that possible strategies for action could be exported to other similar contexts. On the other hand, it is worth noting some reflections that emerge from the analysis of the case studies. In European countries widely affected by depopulation, such as Spain, a clear tendency has been identified to base the development of the economy of rural areas on tourism [80]. This is tourism defined as cultural or inland tourism that allows not only the development of economic activities, but also the strengthening of the local community through common activities [80]. In the UK, and especially in Cotswolds and Cornwall, efforts have been made to limit the presence of second homes because they are not inhabited for most of the year, and they have been seen as a destabilising element of the local community. In addition, in places with low populations, such as Scotland, it has been observed that the population has been increasing in the most attractive locations; however, this is an increase in the older population, while the younger population continues to decrease.

Finally, it is worth noting the limitations of this research, which derive from the complexity of the phenomenon that we attempted to address as well as the necessary selection of information through analysis of the literature and, especially, of government documents, as well as the indications of the experts interviewed and the case studies selected. The strategies proposed as a result of this work do not claim to be exhaustive, as they are mainly derived from the planning and public management documents analysed at the level of the whole of the UK territory and the case studies. By analysing other factors such as compulsory, vocational and university education, the construction business sector or the real estate sector, new perspectives and strategies could certainly be added. Notwithstanding these clear limitations, the research undertaken provides an advance in knowledge in the analysis of the UK context, in the methodology designed and in the proposal of strategies and actions for the conservation of rural settlements in depopulated areas.

6. Conclusions

The research presented in this text has sought to study the United Kingdom in depth, as it is a territory in which, since the 19th century, special attention has been paid to rural settlements and the preservation of traditional architecture and passageways. The detailed analysis of the UK context, as well as the detailed study of some specific case studies, have allowed us to identify a series of geographical, historical, economic and political factors that have had an influence on different areas (territory, agriculture, population, society, town planning, rural settlements, traditional architecture). The combination of these factors has made it possible to create a multifactorial matrix that can be used both to analyse other contexts and to design new strategies for action that take into account the intersection of these factors.

On the other hand, the analysis of the policies and actions implemented both at the global level and in the case studies has made it possible to identify five main strategies for action: protecting the territory and natural and built heritage to guarantee their conservation and survival; improving the services and transport infrastructure to guarantee the quality of life of the population in rural areas as well their connection with the workplace; providing support to local administrations so that these may correctly manage rural areas with sufficient funding; providing financial support to different population sectors in order to encourage business and residences in rural areas; and guaranteeing government support to the rural population to avoid them feeling like second class citizens and to give them equal opportunities. In addition, the case studies have provided a number of examples of concrete actions included in these five strategies.

In view of all of the above, the study carried out presents different advances in the knowledge of factors and fields of action involved in containing and reducing depopulation in rural areas while providing a series of strategies, concrete actions and examples that can be of use in other European and international settings.