Next Article in Journal
Life Table Parameters and Digestive Enzyme Activity of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on Selected Legume Cultivars
Next Article in Special Issue
Mosquitocidal Activity of the Methanolic Extract of Annickia chlorantha and Its Isolated Compounds against Culex pipiens, and Their Impact on the Non-Target Organism Zebrafish, Danio rerio
Previous Article in Journal
An Ecological Profile of Hydropsyche alternans (Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae) in Lake Superior, the Last Stronghold of a Once-Dominant Great Lakes Surf Zone Caddisfly
Previous Article in Special Issue
Promising Insecticidal Efficiency of Essential Oils Isolated from Four Cultivated Eucalyptus Species in Iran against the Lesser Grain Borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.)
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Insects
Volume 13
Issue 7
10.3390/insects13070658
insects-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Effectiveness of Herbal Essential Oils as Single and Combined Repellents against Aedes aegypti, Anopheles dirus and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae)

by
Nataya Sutthanont
1,
Monthatip Sudsawang
1,
Theerawit Phanpoowong
1,
Patchara Sriwichai
1,
Jiraporn Ruangsittichai
1,
Chawarat Rotejanaprasert
2,3 and
Raweewan Srisawat
1,*
1
Department of Medical Entomology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Ratchawithi Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
2
Department of Tropical Hygiene, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Ratchawithi Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
3
Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Ratchawithi Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Insects 2022, 13(7), 658; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13070658
Submission received: 7 June 2022 / Revised: 8 July 2022 / Accepted: 19 July 2022 / Published: 21 July 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Botanical Control of Insect Pests)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:

Simple Summary

The repellent efficacy of ten essential oils was measured against all three-mosquito species using the arm-in-cage approach to determine the duration of protection. All essential oils showed high complete-protection time against Culex quinquefasciatus, ranging from 120 to 360 min. Petitgrain oil showed the highest complete-protection time from bites of Aedes aegypti for 270 min. Peppermint oil also exhibited complete-protection time from bites of Anopheles dirus for 180 min. When two highly effective essential oils were combined to potentially prolong mosquito bite protection, the binary combinations of petitgrain with other essential oils (basil and coriander) exhibited antagonistic effects and provided complete protection against A. aegypti bite for 150 min. On the other hand, the sage and patchouli oil combination showed more repellent activity from A. dirus bite for 270 min than an individual oil. The binary combination efficiently increased or decreased protection time.

Abstract

Mosquito repellents reduce human-vector contact of vector-borne diseases. We compared the repellent activity of 10 undiluted essential oils (anise, basil, bergamot, coriander, patchouli, peppermint, petitgrain, rosemary, sage and vetiver) against A. aegypti, A. dirus and C. quinquefasciatus using the arm-in-cage method. Petitgrain oil was the most effective against A. aegypti (270 min). Peppermint oil was the most effective against A. dirus (180 min). Interestingly, all single oils had attributes of repellency against C. quinquefasciatus (ranged, 120–360 min). Moreover, we integrated their binary combinations of highly effective essential oils against A. aegypti and A. dirus to potentially increase the protection time. A 1:1 combination of petitgrain/basil, petitgrain/coriander, basil/coriander and basil/sage reduced the median complete-protection time of 150 min for A. aegypti; a combination of sage and patchouli oils prolonged the median complete-protection time of 270 min for A. dirus. Combining essential oils effect protection time from these two mosquito species.

1. Introduction

Dengue and malaria are mosquito-borne diseases that are widespread in tropical and sub-tropical regions. The primary vectors of dengue, filariasis and malaria are Aedes, Culex [1,2] and Anopheles mosquitoes, respectively. In Thailand, lymphatic filariasis was studied in 23,477 targeted immigrants from 2002 to 2017; the findings revealed that 0.7% of them became seropositive on average [3]. In 2021, there were an estimated 3684 dengue cases [4] and 2950 reported cases of malaria [5].
Personal protection is the simplest method of preventing mosquito bites and reducing mosquito-borne diseases and includes window and door screens, long-sleeved shirts, long trousers, mosquito bed nets and insect repellents [6]. N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) is a synthetic chemical insect repellent that is effective against mosquitoes but can penetrate the skin and cause adverse health effects in humans [7,8,9]. Therefore, there is a need for mosquito repellents that are biodegradable and non-toxic [10]. Multiple studies have investigated natural (plant-based) insect repellents as alternatives to DEET [11]. Essential oils are highly concentrated substances extracted from plants by distillation, and some have been reported to repel mosquitoes of the Aedes, Anopheles, or Culex genera. These include Ocimum basilicum (basil), Citrus bergamia (bergamot), and Coriandrum sativum (coriander) [12,13,14].
Efforts to improve the efficacy of repellents have involved the addition of fixatives such as paraffin, vanillin and coconut oil. Another option would be to combine essential oils for an additive or synergistic effect [11]. In Thailand, citronella oil is the most common active ingredient in plant-based mosquito repellent products such as sprays, lotions and candles. However, the odor of this oil may be too strong for some individuals. In the present study, we assessed the repellent activity of 10 essential oils (anise, basil, bergamot, coriander, patchouli, peppermint, petitgrain, rosemary, sage and vetiver) against A. aegypti, A. dirus and C. quinquefasciatus, as well as their binary combinations against A. aegypti and A. dirus using the arm-in-cage method under laboratory conditions to identify effective candidates for plant-based mosquito repellents.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Preparation of Essential Oils

The 10 essential oils were selected from the literature on their mosquito-repellent activity, edibility and non-toxicity to humans (Table 1). The 100% pure essential oils were obtained from a reliable supplier, Hong Huat Co., Ltd. (Bangkok, Thailand), and were accompanied by a Certificate of Analysis (COA). Citronella oil was used as a positive control because of its well-known odor and popularity as an herbal insect repellent, particularly against mosquitoes, fleas and biting flies [15].
The essential oils that had (protection time ≥ 120 min and met the FDA Thailand requirement against each mosquito species were selected to be analyzed further in binary combinations (1:1 v/v). Each combination was specific for each mosquito species listed in Table 2.

2.2. Mosquitoes

The free-mating A. aegypti (Bora Bora strain) and C. quinquefasciatus (Nonthaburi strain), and the forced-mating A. dirus (Kao Mai Kaew strain) laboratory-reared females were maintained at the Insecticide Research Unit at the Department of Medical Entomology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University. Eggs were hatched in plastic trays. After hatching, 200 larvae were reared in plastic trays in 1500 mL of dechlorinated water and fed daily on fish food powder (Optimum, Perfect Companion Group Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand). Pupae were transferred to plastic cups and placed inside a cage (20 × 20 × 30 cm3) for emergence. Adult mosquitoes were fed 5% sugar solution on cotton wool, which was changed once a week. All larvae and adult mosquitoes were colonized and maintained under controlled insectary conditions (25 ± 2 °C, 70 ± 10% relative humidity, and 14/10 h light/dark cycle). Both sexes of mosquitos were maintained in the cage to allow for mating [16]. Only A. aegypti and C. quinquefasciatus are free-mating in the cage, while A. dirus requires forced mating. The non-blood-fed female mosquitoes, 5–7 days old A. aegypti and A. dirus, and 10–12 days old C. quinquefasciatus were isolated and sugar fasted for 12 h before testing but had access to limited water. Female mating or unmating had no effect on blood feeding [17].
The age of female mosquitoes was considered in this study in accordance with WHO recommendations [16] that they should be host-seeking in a uniform cage, which was usually implemented, preferably 5–7 days post-emergence. However, 10–12-day-old C. quinquefasciatus were more active in seeking hosts than 5–7-day-old, resulting in more than 10 bites on the control arm within 3 min.

2.3. Human Volunteers

Five male and female volunteers were 20–65 years old, healthy, with no history of an allergic reaction to mosquito bites. We excluded women who were pregnant and individuals who were sensitive to essential oils or taking daily medication. Volunteers did not use fragrance and repellent products for 12 h before the experiment and during testing. Volunteers were not tobacco users or at least had refrained from tobacco use for 12 h before and during testing. Volunteers were interviewed and instructed in the methodology. Each volunteer signed an informed consent form.

2.4. Repellent Activity Test

Undiluted essential oils were evaluated for repellency against female A. aegypti, A. dirus and C. quinquefasciatus using the arm-in-cage technique modified from the standard World Health Organization method [16] and Junkum et al. [18]. Each essential oil was tested on adult healthy volunteers at random. One volunteer was tested once per essential oil, once per mosquito species, and once per day. The test area of the human volunteer (inner part of the forearm between wrist and elbow) was washed with unscented soap and 70% ethanol and covered with a rubber sleeve with a 3 × 10 cm window. The hand was protected with a glove. Approximately 100 µL of undiluted essential oil was dropped on gauze and allowed to dry for 1 min, and the gauze was rubbed on a test area of skin. The other forearm served as a control and was exposed to mosquitoes without the application of essential oil. Fifty fasted aged 5–7 days A. aegypti and A. dirus females, and 250 fasted aged 10–12 days C. quinquefasciatus were selected at random and placed in a standard cage (30 × 30 × 30 cm3) and rested for 1–2 h before the experiment. Tests were conducted by exposing the control and tested forearms in the test cage containing mosquitoes. The control arm was exposed before the treatment arm. If at least 10 mosquitoes landed on the control arm within 3 min, the repellency test was continued. After 30 min post application, the tested arm was exposed for 3 min, then withdrawn for 30 min, and then exposed again. The experiment was stopped when the second mosquitoes landed on the test area and recorded as the complete-protection time for that subject [18]. The protection time was measured between the application of essential oil and the second landed. The Thai Food and Drug Administration (Thai FDA) determined that protection time for A. aegypti should be at least 120 min [19], which is the regular criterion used to consider repellent efficacy. The exposure period was determined by the biting behavior of the mosquitos; A. aegypti and A. dirus were exposed from 8:00 to 15:00 h, and C. quinquefasciatus from 15:00 to 22:00 h.
C. quinquefasciatus prefers to bite at night and is less anthropophilic [20]. Then, 250 mosquitoes were the appropriate number to conduct the experiment resulting in more than 10 bites landing on the control arm within 3 min, and this number was not higher than the WHO guidelines. Furthermore, because there was no comparison among species, the different numbers of each species had no effect on the results of each essential oil within species.

2.5. Data Analysis

The complete protection time of each volunteer was recorded. These data were non-normally distributed and were small samples; therefore, the differences in the protection time and the type of essential oil were analyzed by using the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test. If the ANOVA was significant, Dunn’s multiple comparisons were performed with the Benjamini–Hochberg correction at a critical level of 0.05 (PASW Statistics for Windows, version 18.0; IBM SPSS, Armonk, NY, USA).

3. Results

3.1. Repellent Activity of Individual Essential Oils against A. aegypti

We assessed the repellent activity of 10 tested essential oils against A. aegypti by the arm-in-cage method (Figure 1A). Oils that provided protection for 120 min were considered highly effective; these were the essential oils of petitgrain (270 min), basil (180 min), coriander (180 min) and sage (150 min). The other essential oils had much lower median complete-protection times of 90 min (bergamot, patchouli and peppermint), 60 min (anise) and 30 min (rosemary and vetiver). The protection time was significantly different (Chi-square = 22.60, p = 0.012, df = 10) among the individual essential oils. The results of pairwise comparisons of individual essential oils (Table S1) against A. aegypti were provided in Table S2A in the supplementary document.

3.2. Repellent Activity of Individual Essential Oils against A. dirus

The median protection time of 10 undiluted tested essential oils against A. dirus under laboratory conditions (Figure 1B). When compared with citronella oil (90 min) as a control, only five essential oils (peppermint, sage, anise, patchouli and petitgrain) were highly effective over 120 min against the mosquito, with median complete-protection times of 180, 150, 120, 120 and 120 min, respectively. Basil, bergamot, coriander, rosemary and vetiver had low median protection times of 90, 90, 60, 30 and 30 min, respectively. The protection time was significantly different (Chi-square = 20.08, p = 0.029, df = 10) among the individual essentials. The complete results of pairwise comparisons of individual essential oils against A. dirus were provided in Table S2B in the supplementary document.

3.3. Repellent Activity of Individual Essential Oils against C. quinquefasciatus

Followed by FDA Thailand requirements, the repellent time against mosquitoes should be more than 120 min; all 10 tested essential oils showed high levels of protection (Figure 1C), with median complete-protection times of 360 min (petitgrain, citronella and basil), 330 min (coriander), 300 min (peppermint, sage and anise), 210 min (bergamot and rosemary), 150 min (vetiver) and 120 min (patchouli). The protection time was significantly different (Chi-square = 29.46, p = 0.001, df = 10) among the individual essential oils. The results of pairwise comparisons of individual essential oils against C. quinquefasciatus were provided in Table S2C in the supplementary document.

3.4. Repellent Activity of Essential Oil Combinations against A. aegypti

We mixed the four essential oils (petitgrain, basil, coriander and sage) in two-oil combinations against A. aegypti at a 1:1 (v/v) ratio to evaluate whether they exerted additive or synergistic effects (Table 2). All combinations provided more than 120 min of protection (Figure 2). A median complete-protection time of 150 min was observed for petitgrain/basil, petitgrain/coriander, basil/coriander and basil/sage combinations. A median complete-protection time of 120 min was observed for petitgrain/sage and coriander/sage combinations. All six binary combinations evaluated against A. aegypti exhibited an antagonistic effect, showing that combined had a lower repellent efficacy than individual oil applications and citronella oil (180 min). The combinations were not significantly different in their efficacy against A. aegypti (Chi-square = 4.47, p = 0.483, df = 5). Since the analysis of variance was not significant, the post-hoc comparisons were not performed.

3.5. Repellent Activity of Essential Oil Combinations against A. dirus

The five essential oils (peppermint oil, sage oil, anise oil, patchouli oil and petitgrain oil) were blended into two-oil against A. dirus at a 1:1 (v/v) ratio to evaluate whether they exerted additive or synergistic effects (Table 2). All combinations provided more than 120 min of protection (Figure 3). Combining sage and patchouli oil resulted in the highest median complete-protection time (270 min). A median complete-protection time of 210 min was observed for peppermint/sage, peppermint/patchouli, sage/anise and anise/patchouli combinations. A median complete-protection time of 180 min was observed for peppermint/petitgrain and patchouli/petitgrain combinations. A median complete-protection time of 120 min was observed for peppermint/anise, sage/petitgrain and anise/petitgrain combinations. The combinations were not significantly different in their efficacy against A. dirus (Chi-square = 12.79, p = 0.172, df = 9). However, the combined essential oil prolonged repellency against A. dirus over that of individual oils. Because the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test was not significant, the pairwise comparisons were not calculated.

4. Discussion

Our research clearly revealed that some essential oils studied were effective against A. aegypti, A. dirus and C. quinquefasciatus to some degree in the human arm-in-cage assay. Few essential oils examined have higher repellent efficacy than citronella, the well-known natural mosquito repellent in Thailand [21]. The FDA Thailand minimum requirement for mosquito-bite protection was 120 min for A. aegypti. Conversely, the FDA Thailand does not prescribe for other mosquito species, and when considering the repellent effect of citronella oil on A. dirus, the protection time of 90 min was revealed, which was consistent with previous studies [12,22,23]. Against C. quinquefasciatus, all tested essential oils showed repellent potential with protection time higher than 120 min. Petitgrain and basil oil exhibited the highest repellency, with the protection time of 360 min equaled to citronella. This was in concordance with earlier studies [24,25]. We considered that the essential oils alone were sufficient enough to repel C. quinquefasciatus. Combining them to improve repelling duration is unnecessary in this study. However, this is a significant benefit that we will study further by integrating it with other product and packaging technologies, featuring a prototype product that is reliable and comfortable for users. Above all, we directly targeted further development of plant-based repellents for anti-mosquito vectors in dangerous vector-borne diseases, urban (A. aegypti), forest and jungle areas (A. dirus).
Petitgrain oil was the most effective against A. aegypti, in line with previous reports [26,27,28]. Essential oils from basil, coriander and sage were also effective in repelling A. aegypti and are known to contain insect-repelling compounds such as α-terpineol, citral, eugenol, linalool, menthol and estragole [29,30,31]. Diluted basil oil was previously shown to repel A. aegypti, A. dirus, and C. quinquefasciatus [23,32]. The major constituent of coriander oil is linalool, and the oil has been shown to be effective for 60 min against A. albopictus [14]. Sage oil showed biting-deterrent activity against A. aegypti and A. quadrimaculatus [33]; its main constituents are viridiflorol, α-pinene, α and β-thujone, camphor and 1,8-cineole [33,34,35].
The 100% peppermint oil exhibited the highest efficacy against A. dirus (180 min), longer than the 64 min recorded for 10% peppermint oil in soybean oil [23]. A previous study reported 100% protection by peppermint oil against A. aegypti for 150 min [10]; the major constituents of peppermint oil are limonene, α-pinene, myrcene and linalool [36]. We also observed good efficacy (>120 min) against A. dirus by essential oils of sage, anise, patchouli and petitgrain. This finding is consistent with previous reports for patchouli against A. dirus [22] and sage against another malaria vector, A. stephensi [34]. Patchouli oil contains patchoulol, α-bulnesene, α-guaiene and pogostone [37,38], as well as limonene, linalool and β-myrcene [39]. Petitgrain oil has been shown as highly effective against A. dirus in combination with vanillin [28]. The major constituents of anise oil are trans-anetole, estragole, γ-hymachalen and para-anisaldehyde [40], and it has been shown to repel A. stephensi, A. aegypti, and C. quinquefasciatus [41].
The repellent activity of essential oils depends on their chemical constituents [28]. Camphor, cineol, linalool and α-pinene have been identified as insect repellents [42,43,44,45,46,47]. Limonene and linalool act as contact poisons or nerve toxins [48]. Essential oils are composed mainly of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, alcohols and phenols that can be neurotoxic to mosquitoes [49]. However, the use of essential oils as insect repellents is limited by their volatility and oxidation. Stabilizing the oils may involve additives such as vanillin, coconut oil and olive oil [28,32] to extend protection times and substitutes for synthetic repellents [15,27,50]. Lantana camara flower extract in coconut oil was shown to protect against A. albopictus and A. aegypti without side effects in human volunteers [51], while a combination of 5% eucalyptus oil and 5% basil oil in soybean oil protected against both A. aegypti and A. dirus [23]. According to these studies, combining essential oils resulted in a longer duration of mosquito protection time than applying them alone. However, in this report, the repellency of A. aegypti was shown to be lower in all six binary combinations than in single oils, suggesting that some components present in each essential oil have antagonistic effects or interact antagonistically with each other [52].
We tested binary mixtures of the most effective essential oils for additive or synergistic effects. Petitgrain/basil, petitgrain/coriander, basil/coriander and basil/sage combinations were shown to be efficient against A. aegypti for 150 min, and the combination of sage and patchouli was most effective against A. dirus (270 min). Although no synergistic interaction was found when considering the repellency of oil combinations in repelling A. aegypti, antagonism in the repellent activity of plant essential oils or their main components is not unusual. In particular, as compared to those single oils, the repellent efficacy of the binary blends of sandalwood oil with marjoram, cypress, lemongrass and clary sage oil revealed an antagonistic effect to repel spider mite, Tetranychus urticae [53]. Monoterpene compound binary combinations exhibited antagonistic interactions with Spodoptera littoralis larvae in 150 of the 435 combinations [54] and C. quinquefasciatus larvae in 74 of the 435 combinations [55]. Interestingly, when the most active oils in repellent activity against n. dirus were combined, they improved the median complete-protection time and had a synergistic activity. A similar trend in synergistic effect was found in an increase in the mean protection time against female Stomoxys calcitrans generated by binary combinations of patchouli and tamanu oil (138 min) compared to patchouli oil (41.4 min) or tamanu oil (33.3 min) alone [56]. Additionally, a 1:1 mixture of eucalyptus and clove essential oils was shown to exhibit better protection than individual oils against Anopheles mosquito [57]. Therefore, when two single oils were mixed, the type, quantity or ratio of active ingredients changed. This may increase or decrease the effective protection time against mosquito bites. To fully comprehend the synergistic or antagonistic response when plant essential oils are applied, a comprehensive study of all possible factors is necessary.
Finally, the different species of mosquitoes have different repellent responses to essential oils [58]. Essential oil is differently stimulated by olfactory receptors of mosquitoes. Over millions of years of evolution, the mosquito chemosensory receptors have diversified to the point where one species may be able to detect a chemical that encourages repulsion while others cannot. Adult Aedes and Culex mosquitoes, for instance, appear to express odorant receptors that respond to DEET but are not expressed in Anopheles [59].
In this study, C. quinquefasciatus showed an easier repel response with essential oil than A. aegypti and A. dirus, which is similar to other reports [59,60]. C. quinquefasciatus was sensitive to all 41 essential oils tested, but A. aegypti was tolerable to several oils [59] due to its aggressive biting behavior [61]. This finding can be explained by the fact that C. quinquefasciatus feed on animals and can seek blood meal elsewhere while being rejected by human hosts [62], but A. aegypti and A. dirus are extremely anthropophilic, meaning they more frequently attack humans [59,62].
Essential oil-based repellents are considered safer and more accessible than synthetic chemical repellents and may have a lower probability of resistance development in mosquitoes. Plant-based mosquito repellents can be applied to skin or clothing without affecting non-target organisms or the environment [63]. In the present study, all tested essential oils exhibited high repellency against C. quinquefasciatus, petitgrain and basil oils being the most potential. The combinations of petitgrain/basil, petitgrain/coriander, basil/coriander and basil/sage were responsible for repelling A. aegypti bite, although the repellent efficiency was lower than that of the individual oils, and sage/patchouli combinations yielded effective and long-lasting protection against A. dirus. These combinations may be candidates for the formulation of safe and effective mosquito repellents. The synergistic repellent effect of the essential oils used in this study may contribute to the development of more effective alternatives to synthetic repellents for human mosquito protection.

5. Conclusions

Petitgrain, peppermint and basil oil were highly effective against female A. aegypti and C. quinquefasciatus. Combining petitgrain/basil, petitgrain/coriander, basil/coriander and basil/sage showed efficacy against A. aegypti, as did a combination of sage and patchouli oils against A. dirus. Field trials should include a study of operational feasibility and dermal toxicity before these essential oil combinations can be developed as alternative and safe insect repellents for individual use to reduce and control vector-borne diseases.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/insects13070658/s1, Tabel S1: Labels of essential oil used in study; Table S2A: Pairwise comparisons of undiluted essential oils and citronella (control) against Aedes aegypti; Table S2B: Pairwise comparisons of undiluted essential oils and citronella (control) against Anopheles dirus; Table S2C: Pairwise comparisons of undiluted essential oils and citronella (control) against Culex quinquefasciatus.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.S., M.S. and R.S.; methodology, N.S. and M.S; validation, R.S. and C.R.; formal analysis, N.S., M.S. and C.R.; investigation, N.S., M.S. and T.P.; resources, R.S.; data curation, N.S. and M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, M.S. and N.S.; writing—review and editing, N.S.; visualization, R.S., P.S. and J.R.; supervision, R.S., P.S. and J.R.; project administration, R.S.; funding acquisition, R.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Kao Consumer Product (Southeast Asia) Co., Ltd.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, under protocol no. TMEC 18-056 for human subjects (arm-in-cage method) and protocol no.0202018 for animal use by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University (FTM-ACUC), Bangkok, Thailand.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in article and supplementary material.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Associate Narumon Komalamisra and Siriluck Attrapadung for their helpful advice and suggestions. We also thank the staff of the Insecticide Research Unit, Department of Medical Entomology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, whose support, and collaboration made this study possible.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

References

  1. Thavara, U.; Tawatsin, A.; Pengsakul, T.; Bhakdeenuan, P.; Chanama, S.; Anantapreecha, S.; Molito, C.; Chompoosri, J.; Thammapalo, S.; Sawanpanyalert, P.; et al. Outbreak of chikungunya fever in Thailand and virus detection in field population of vector mosquitoes, Aedes aegypti (L.) and Aedes albopictus skuse (diptera: Culicidae). Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 2009, 40, 951–962. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  2. WHO. Dengue Guidelines for Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control: New Edition; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  3. Bizhani, N.; Hashemi Hafshejani, S.; Mohammadi, N.; Rezaei, M.; Rokni, M.B. Lymphatic filariasis in Asia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Parasitol. Res. 2021, 120, 411–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health. Dengue Situation in Thailand 2021. Available online: https://datastudio.google.com/reporting/84a91f26-9f99-4d85-aa9c-9f2f42205a77/page/cFWgC (accessed on 2 June 2022).
  5. Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health. Malaria Patients in Thailand in Fiscal Year 2022. Available online: http://malaria.ddc.moph.go.th/malariaR10/index_newversion.php (accessed on 2 June 2022).
  6. CDC. How to Protect against Mosquito Bites. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/zika/prevention/prevent-mosquito-bites.html (accessed on 2 June 2022).
  7. Briassoulis, G.; Narlioglou, M.; Hatzis, T. Toxic encephalopathy associated with use of DEET insect repellents: A case analysis of its toxicity in children. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 2001, 20, 8–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Fradin, M.S.; Day, J.F. Comparative efficacy of insect repellents against mosquito bites. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002, 347, 13–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Santhanam, A.; Miller, M.A.; Kasting, G.B. Absorption and evaporation of N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide from human skin in vitro. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2005, 204, 81–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Kumar, S.; Wahab, N.; Warikoo, R. Bioefficacy of Mentha piperita essential oil against dengue fever mosquito Aedes aegypti L. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2011, 1, 85–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Das, N.G.; Dhiman, S.; Talukdar, P.K.; Rabha, B.; Goswami, D.; Veer, V. Synergistic mosquito-repellent activity of Curcuma longa, Pogostemon heyneanus and Zanthoxylum limonella essential oils. J. Infect. Public Health 2015, 8, 323–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Phasomkusolsil, S.; Soonwera, M. Comparative mosquito repellency of essential oils against Aedes aegypti (Linn.), Anopheles dirus (Peyton and Harrison) and Culex quinquefasciatus (Say). Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2011, 1, S113–S118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Melliou, E.; Michaelakis, A.; Koliopoulos, G.; Skaltsounis, A.L.; Magiatis, P. High quality bergamot oil from Greece: Chemical analysis using chiral gas chromatography and larvicidal activity against the West Nile virus vector. Molecules 2009, 14, 839–849. [Google Scholar]
  14. Benelli, G.; Flamini, G.; Fiore, G.; Cioni, P.L.; Conti, B. Larvicidal and repellent activity of the essential oil of Coriandrum sativum L. (Apiaceae) fruits against the filariasis vector Aedes albopictus Skuse (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitol. Res. 2013, 112, 1155–1161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Nerio, L.S.; Olivero-Verbel, J.; Stashenko, E. Repellent activity of essential oils: A review. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 372–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. WHO. Guidelines for Efficacy Testing of Mosquito Repellents for Human Skin; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  17. Dahalan, F.A.; Churcher, T.S.; Windbichler, N.; Lawniczak, M.K.N. The male mosquito contribution towards malaria transmission: Mating influences the Anopheles female midgut transcriptome and increases female susceptibility to human malaria parasites. PLoS Pathog. 2019, 15, e1008063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  18. Junkum, A.; Maleewong, W.; Saeung, A.; Champakaew, D.; Chansang, A.; Amornlerdpison, D.; Aldred, A.K.; Chaithong, U.; Jitpakdi, A.; Riyong, D.; et al. Ligusticum sinense Nanoemulsion Gel as Potential Repellent against Aedes aegypti, Anopheles minimus, and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae). Insects 2021, 12, 596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Thai Industrial Standards Institute (TISI). Mosquito Repellents; Thai Industrial Standards Institute, Ministry of Industry: Bangkok, Thailand, 2010.
  20. Elizabeth, R.G.; Surendran, A.; Thatheyus, A.J. Biting Behaviour of The Filarial Vector Mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus Say, in an Urban Area. JPAE 2020, 2, 1–13. [Google Scholar]
  21. Jumepaeng, T.; Jantayota, R.; Hemmood, S.; Komolwanich, S.; Wuthisarn, S.; Luthria, D.; Chanthai, S. Determination and comparison of volatile aroma compounds in fresh and dried leaves samples of citronella grass, lemongrass, and citronella incense products by micro-hydrodistillation. Acta Chromatogr. 2014, 26, 177–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Trongtokit, Y.; Rongsriyam, Y.; Komalamisra, N.; Apiwathnasorn, C. Comparative repellency of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites. Phytother. Res. 2005, 19, 303–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Sritabutra, D.; Soonwera, M.; Waltanachanobon, S.; Poungjai, S. Evaluation of herbal essential oil as repellents against Aedes aegypti (L.) and Anopheles dirus Peyton & Harrion. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2011, 1, S124–S128. [Google Scholar]
  24. Erler, F.; Ulug, I.; Yalcinkaya, B. Repellent activity of five essential oils against Culex pipiens. Fitoterapia 2006, 77, 491–494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Phasomkusolsil, S.; Soonwera, M. Insect repellent activity of medicinal plant oils against Aedes aegypti (Linn.), Anopheles minimus (Theobald) and Culex quinquefasciatus Say based on protection time and biting rate. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 2010, 41, 831–840. [Google Scholar]
  26. Sarrou, E.; Chatzopoulou, P.; Dimassi-Theriou, K.; Therios, I. Volatile constituents and antioxidant activity of peel, flowers and leaf oils of Citrus aurantium L. growing in Greece. Molecules 2013, 18, 10639–10647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Soonwera, M. Efficacy of essential oils from Citrus plants against mosquito vectors Aedes aegypti (Linn.) and Culex quinquefasciatus (Say). IJAT 2015, 11, 669–681. [Google Scholar]
  28. Auysawasdi, N.; Chuntranuluck, S.; Phasomkusolsil, S.; Keeratinijakal, V. Improving the effectiveness of three essential oils against Aedes aegypti (Linn.) and Anopheles dirus (Peyton and Harrison). Parasitol. Res. 2016, 115, 99–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Del Fabbro, S.; Nazzi, F. Repellent effect of sweet basil compounds on Ixodes ricinus ticks. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 2008, 45, 219–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Debboun, M.; Frances, S.P.; Strickman, D. Insect Repellents Handbook; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
  31. Perumalsamy, H.; Kim, J.Y.; Kim, J.R.; Hwang, K.N.R.; Ahn, Y.J. Toxicity of Basil Oil Constituents and Related Compounds and the Efficacy of Spray Formulations to Dermatophagoides farinae (Acari: Pyroglyphidae). J. Med. Entomol. 2014, 51, 650–657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Sritabutra, D.; Soonwera, M. Repellent activity of herbal essential oils against Aedes aegypti (Linn.) and Culex quinquefasciatus (Say.). Asian Pac. J. Trop. Dis. 2013, 3, 271–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Ali, A.; Tabanca, N.; Demirci, B.; Blythe, E.K.; Ali, Z.; Baser, K.H.; Khan, I.A. Chemical composition and biological activity of four salvia essential oils and individual compounds against two species of mosquitoes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63, 447–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Kayedi, M.H.; Haghdoost, A.A.; Salehnia, A.; Khamisabadi, K. Evaluation of Repellency Effect of Essential Oils of Satureja khuzestanica (Carvacrol), Myrtus communis (Myrtle), Lavendula officinalis and Salvia sclarea using Standard WHO Repellency Tests. J. Arthropod Borne Dis. 2014, 8, 60–68. [Google Scholar]
  35. Bedini, S.; Guarino, S.; Echeverria, M.C.; Flamini, G.; Ascrizzi, R.; Loni, A.; Conti, B. Allium sativum, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Salvia officinalis Essential Oils: A Spiced Shield against Blowflies. Insects 2020, 11, 143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Tyagi, A.K.; Malik, A. Antimicrobial potential and chemical composition of Mentha piperita oil in liquid and vapour phase against food spoiling microorganisms. Food Control. 2011, 22, 1707–1714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Albuquerque, E.L.; Lima, J.K.; Souza, F.H.; Silva, I.M.; Santos, A.A.; Araujo, A.P.; Blank, A.F.; Lima, R.N.; Alves, P.B.; Bacci, L. Insecticidal and repellence activity of the essential oil of Pogostemon cablin against urban ants species. Acta Tropica 2013, 127, 181–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Liu, X.C.; Liu, Q.; Chen, H.; Liu, Q.Z.; Jiang, S.Y.; Liu, Z.L. Evaluation of Contact Toxicity and Repellency of the Essential Oil of Pogostemon cablin Leaves and Its Constituents Against Blattella germanica (Blattodae: Blattelidae). J. Med. Entomol. 2015, 52, 86–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Suntar, I.; Khan, H.; Patel, S.; Celano, R.; Rastrelli, L. An Overview on Citrus aurantium L.: Its Functions as Food Ingredient and Therapeutic Agent. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2018, 2018, 7864269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  40. Shojaii, A.; Abdollahi Fard, M. Review of pharmacological properties and chemical constituents of Pimpinella anisum. ISRN Pharm. 2012, 2012, 510795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  41. Prajapati, V.; Tripathi, A.K.; Aggarwal, K.K.; Khanuja, S.P. Insecticidal, repellent and oviposition-deterrent activity of selected essential oils against Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. Bioresour. Technol. 2005, 96, 1749–1757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Waliwitiya, R.; Kennedy, C.J.; Lowenberger, C.A. Larvicidal and oviposition-altering activity of monoterpenoids, trans-anithole and rosemary oil to the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Pest Manag. Sci. 2009, 65, 241–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Ashitani, T.; Garboui, S.S.; Schubert, F.; Vongsombath, C.; Liblikas, I.; Palsson, K.; Borg-Karlson, A.K. Activity studies of sesquiterpene oxides and sulfides from the plant Hyptis suaveolens (Lamiaceae) and its repellency on Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae). Exp. Appl. Acarol. 2015, 67, 595–606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Campos, E.V.R.; Proenca, P.L.F.; Oliveira, J.L.; Pereira, A.E.S.; de Morais Ribeiro, L.N.; Fernandes, F.O.; Goncalves, K.C.; Polanczyk, R.A.; Pasquoto-Stigliani, T.; Lima, R.; et al. Carvacrol and linalool co-loaded in beta-cyclodextrin-grafted chitosan nanoparticles as sustainable biopesticide aiming pest control. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 7623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Huff, R.M.; Pitts, R.J. An odorant receptor from Anopheles gambiae that demonstrates enantioselectivity to the plant volatile, linalool. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0225637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Saad, M.M.G.; El-Deeb, D.A.; Abdelgaleil, S.A.M. Insecticidal potential and repellent and biochemical effects of phenylpropenes and monoterpenes on the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum Herbst. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2019, 26, 6801–6810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Tian, Y.; Dong, F.; Zhou, X.; Yang, X. Repellent, Insecticidal and Antimicrobial Activities of Leaf Essential Oils from Three Eucalyptus Species. Chem. Biodivers. 2020, 17, e1900580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Peshin, R.; Dhawan, A.K. Integrated Pest Management: Volume 1: Innovation-Development Process; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  49. Dubey, N.K. Natural Products in Plant Pest Management; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  50. Rehman, J.U.; Ali, A.; Khan, I.A. Plant based products: Use and development as repellents against mosquitoes: A review. Fitoterapia 2014, 95, 65–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Dua, V.K.; Gupta, N.C.; Pandey, A.C.; Sharma, V.P. Repellency of Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) flowers against Aedes mosquitoes. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 1996, 12, 406–408. [Google Scholar]
  52. Andrade-Ochoa, S.; Sanchez-Aldana, D.; Chacon-Vargas, K.F.; Rivera-Chavira, B.E.; Sanchez-Torres, L.E.; Camacho, A.D.; Nogueda-Torres, B.; Nevarez-Moorillon, G.V. Oviposition Deterrent and Larvicidal and Pupaecidal Activity of Seven Essential Oils and their Major Components against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae): Synergism-antagonism Effects. Insects 2018, 9, 25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  53. Yoon, J.; Tak, J.H. Toxicity and Repellent Activity of Plant Essential Oils and Their Blending Effects Against Two Spotted Spider Mites, Tetranychus urticae Koch. Korean J. Appl. Entomol. 2018, 57, 199–207. [Google Scholar]
  54. Pavela, R. Acute, synergistic and antagonistic effects of some aromatic compounds on the Spodoptera littoralis Boisd. (Lep., Noctuidae) larvae. Ind. Crops Prod. 2014, 60, 247–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Pavela, R. Acute toxicity and synergistic and antagonistic effects of the aromatic compounds of some essential oils against Culex quinquefasciatus Say larvae. Parasitol. Res. 2015, 114, 3835–3853. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Hieu, T.T.; Kim, S.I.; Lee, S.G.; Ahn, Y.J. Repellency to Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) of plant essential oils alone or in combination with Calophyllum inophyllum nut oil. J. Med. Entomol. 2010, 47, 575–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Sheikh, Z.; Amani, A.; Basseri, H.R.; Kazemi, S.H.M.; Sedaghat, M.M.; Azam, K.; Azizi, M.; Amirmohammadi, F. Repellent Efficacy of Eucalyptus globulus and Syzygium aromaticum Essential Oils against Malaria Vector, Anopheles stephensi (Diptera: Culicidae). Iran J. Public Health 2021, 50, 1668–1677. [Google Scholar]
  58. Afify, A.; Potter, C.J. Insect repellents mediate species-specific olfactory behaviours in mosquitoes. Malar. J. 2020, 19, 127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  59. Amer, A.; Mehlhorn, H. Repellency effect of forty-one essential oils against Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex mosquitoes. Parasitol. Res. 2006, 99, 478–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Kweka, E.J.; Munga, S.; Mahande, A.M.; Msangi, S.; Mazigo, H.D.; Adrias, A.Q.; Matias, J.R. Protective efficacy of menthol propylene glycol carbonate compared to N, N-diethyl-methylbenzamide against mosquito bites in Northern Tanzania. Parasites Vectors 2012, 5, 189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  61. Lupi, E.; Hatz, C.; Schlagenhauf, P. The efficacy of repellents against Aedes, Anopheles, Culex and Ixodes spp.—A literature review. Travel Med. Infect. Dis. 2013, 11, 374–411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Barnard, D.R. Repellency of essential oils to mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 1999, 36, 625–629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Bottrell, D.G.; Schoenly, K.G. Integrated pest management for resource-limited farmers: Challenges for achieving ecological, social and economic sustainability. J. Agric. Sci. 2018, 156, 408–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Insects 13 00658 g001 550
Figure 1. Median with interquartile range (IQR) protection time of 10 undiluted essential oils and citronella (control) against (A) Aedes aegypti, (B) Anopheles dirus and (C) Culex quinquefasciatus. ** Significantly different from control (p < 0.05).
Figure 1. Median with interquartile range (IQR) protection time of 10 undiluted essential oils and citronella (control) against (A) Aedes aegypti, (B) Anopheles dirus and (C) Culex quinquefasciatus. ** Significantly different from control (p < 0.05).
Insects 13 00658 g001
Insects 13 00658 g002 550
Figure 2. Median with interquartile range (IQR) protection times of essential oil combinations and citronella oil (control) against Aedes aegypti.
Figure 2. Median with interquartile range (IQR) protection times of essential oil combinations and citronella oil (control) against Aedes aegypti.
Insects 13 00658 g002
Insects 13 00658 g003 550
Figure 3. Median with interquartile range (IQR) protection times of essential oil combinations and citronella (control) against Anopheles dirus.
Figure 3. Median with interquartile range (IQR) protection times of essential oil combinations and citronella (control) against Anopheles dirus.
Insects 13 00658 g003
Table
Table 1. Essential oils used in the study.
Table 1. Essential oils used in the study.
Scientific NameCommon NameFamilyCAS No.
Cymbopogon narduscitronellaPoaceae91771-61-8
Pimpinella anisumanise Apiaceae84775-42-8
Ocimum basilicumbasil Lamiaceae8015-73-4
Citrus bergamiabergamotRutaceae8007-75-8
Coriandrum sativumcorianderApiaceae8008-52-4
Pogostemon cablinpatchouliLamiaceae8014-09-03
Mentha piperitapeppermintLamiaceae8030-01-1
Citrus aurantiumpetitgrainRutaceae8014-17-3
Rosmarinus officinalisrosemaryLamiaceae8000-25-7
Salvia officinalissageLamiaceae8022-56-8
Vetiveria zizanioidesvetiverPoaceae84238-29-9
Table
Table 2. Essential oil combinations used in the study.
Table 2. Essential oil combinations used in the study.
Aedes aegypti Protection Anopheles dirus Protection
petitgrain and basilpeppermint and sage
petitgrain and corianderpeppermint and anise
petitgrain and sagepeppermint and patchouli
basil and corianderpeppermint and petitgrain
basil and sagesage and anise
coriander and sagesage and patchouli
sage and petitgrain
anise and patchouli
anise and petitgrain
patchouli and petitgrain
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Sutthanont, N.; Sudsawang, M.; Phanpoowong, T.; Sriwichai, P.; Ruangsittichai, J.; Rotejanaprasert, C.; Srisawat, R. Effectiveness of Herbal Essential Oils as Single and Combined Repellents against Aedes aegypti, Anopheles dirus and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae). Insects 2022, 13, 658. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13070658

AMA Style

Sutthanont N, Sudsawang M, Phanpoowong T, Sriwichai P, Ruangsittichai J, Rotejanaprasert C, Srisawat R. Effectiveness of Herbal Essential Oils as Single and Combined Repellents against Aedes aegypti, Anopheles dirus and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae). Insects. 2022; 13(7):658. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13070658

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sutthanont, Nataya, Monthatip Sudsawang, Theerawit Phanpoowong, Patchara Sriwichai, Jiraporn Ruangsittichai, Chawarat Rotejanaprasert, and Raweewan Srisawat. 2022. "Effectiveness of Herbal Essential Oils as Single and Combined Repellents against Aedes aegypti, Anopheles dirus and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae)" Insects 13, no. 7: 658. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13070658

APA Style

Sutthanont, N., Sudsawang, M., Phanpoowong, T., Sriwichai, P., Ruangsittichai, J., Rotejanaprasert, C., & Srisawat, R. (2022). Effectiveness of Herbal Essential Oils as Single and Combined Repellents against Aedes aegypti, Anopheles dirus and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae). Insects, 13(7), 658. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13070658

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop