Mechanical, Durability, and Microstructural Evaluation of Coal Ash Incorporated Recycled Aggregate Concrete: An Application of Waste Effluents for Sustainable Construction
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Program
2.1. Materials and Properties
2.2. Testing Methodology
3. Discussion of Results
3.1. Mechanical Performance
3.1.1. Compressive Strength
3.1.2. Split Tensile Strength
3.2. Durability Performance
3.2.1. Water Absorption
3.2.2. Chloride Ion Migration
3.2.3. Resistance against H2SO4 Attack
3.3. Statistical Analysis
3.4. Scanning Electron Microscopic Analysis
4. Conclusions
- 1.
- The CS of the FRAC blend fabricated using textile factory effluent at ninety days was maximum at a value of 30.5 MPa, which was 19% more improved than the CS of concrete manufactured with potable water. The inclusion of coal ash resulted in a pozzolanic interaction between CH and coal ash particles, which led to a surge in the CS of FRAC. Furthermore, the inclusion of coal ash into concrete surges the density of the matrix. A strong bond developed between cement and sand particles due to CSH gel.
- 2.
- At ninety days, the STS of concrete made with textile industry effluent was approximately 115 percent more improved than the STS of concrete made with potable water. When equated with concrete produced using potable water, the FRAC compositions made with fertilizer factory effluent had a maximum STS of 97 percent, the mix made with leather factory effluent had a maximum STS of 92 percent, the service station effluent FRAC mix had a maximum STS of 99 percent, and the sugar factory effluent FRAC mix had a maximum STS of 95 percent.
- 3.
- The test results revealed that, among all the different FRAC compositions, concrete made with leather factory effluent had the highest WA, i.e., 113 percent and 121 percent at twenty-eight and ninety days, separately. This depicts that concrete made using leather factory effluent has a lot of pores and less density, being less durable. The coal ash inclusion reduced the WA of FRAC compositions.
- 4.
- The maximum level of chloride ion migration showed by concrete manufactured utilizing fertilizer factory effluent, i.e., 16 mm at twenty-eight days and 10.8 mm at ninety days as compared to the control mix.
- 5.
- The results of tests in which FRAC compositions were exposed to a 4 percent solution of revealed that the FRAC mix made with fertilizer factory effluent lost mass due to acid attack, i.e., 19 percent after 120 days. This could be explained by the fact that the pH value of fertilizer factory effluent was the lowest (2.5), which enhanced the mass loss. Adding coal ash to FRAC compositions proved to be helpful for the development of the durability behavior of the concrete.
- 6.
- The ANOVA analysis revealed major variations between the CS and chloride ion migration results of different FRAC blends. On the other hand, FRAC mixtures exhibited no significant changes in STS, WA, or acid attack. Therefore, the investigated types of effluent can be utilized to make efficient concrete, which leads to waste material availability and long-term environmental impact.
- 7.
- The SEM results depicted that the mix TEX presented the most densified microstructure with the formation of CSH gels and ettringite needles, having an improved ITZ compared with the other types of effluent, thus leading to the enhanced mechanical and durability performance of the FRAC mix.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Physical Properties | Chemical Properties | ||
---|---|---|---|
Parameter | Value | Compound | Percentage |
Consistency [52] | 28.90% | SiO2 | 19.2% |
Fineness (Blaine Test) | 2765 (cm2/g) | CaO | 58.1% |
Specific surface area [53] | 325 m2/kg | Fe2O3 | 6.0% |
Soundness [54] | No expansion | Na2O | 0.4% |
Specific gravity [55] | 3.0 | Al2O3 | 5.7% |
Initial setting time [56] | 110 min | SO3 | 2.2% |
Final setting time [56] | 225 min | MgO | 5.3% |
Strength at 3 days [57] | 38.2 MPa | Loss of ignition | 2.9% |
Strength at twenty-eight days [57] | 42.5 MPa | K2O | 0.8% |
Property | Sand | RCA |
---|---|---|
Water absorption after 24 h (%) | 2.33 | 7.30 |
Dry density (kg/m3) | 1630 | 1295 |
Specific gravity | 2.62 | 2.23 |
Fineness modulus | 2.43 | - |
Maximum size (mm) | 4.75 | 12.0 |
Minimum size (mm) | - | 4.75 |
Chemical Properties | Physical Properties | ||
---|---|---|---|
Compound | Percentage | Parameter | Value |
SiO2 | 57.9% | Consistency [52] | 25.98% |
CaO | 3.21% | Specific surface area [53] | 389 m2/kg |
Fe2O3 | 2.3% | Fineness (Blaine Test) | 2950 (cm2/g) |
Na2O | 1.02% | Soundness [54] | No expansion |
Al2O3 | 31.32% | - | - |
SO3 | 1.01% | - | - |
MgO | 0.7% | - | - |
Parameter (Unit) | POT | LED | FER | TEX | SUG | SER |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH value | 7.00 | 7.30 | 2.50 | 7.10 | 7.20 | 6.00 |
Hardness (mg/L) | 357.7 | 706.58 | 2508.8 | 335.16 | 2077.6 | 362.6 |
Alkalinity (mg/L) | 80.36 | 95.06 | 0.50 | 47.04 | 120.54 | 84.28 |
Bicarbonates (mg/L) | 33.56 | 37.88 | 0.40 | 296 | 135 | 43 |
DO (mg/L) | 6.17 | 2.74 | 2.35 | 5.19 | 2.94 | 2.54 |
COD (mg/L) | 18.22 | 412.58 | 1024.1 | 117.6 | 931 | 191.6 |
BOD (mg/L) | 14.70 | 304.78 | 597.8 | 68.6 | 705.6 | 127.6 |
TSS (mg/L) | 33.32 | 491.96 | 64.68 | 25.48 | 71.54 | 66.64 |
TDS (mg/L) | 880.04 | 1074.08 | 5117.56 | 380.24 | 4018.98 | 480.2 |
Turbidity (NTU) | 1.07 | 245 | 3.18 | 1.20 | 24.5 | 36.26 |
Conductivity (m-s/cm) | 1.37 | 1.82 | 8.33 | 0.98 | 6.46 | 0.86 |
Fluoride (mg/L) | 0.39 | 1.12 | 0.09 | 1.69 | 0.42 | 0.11 |
Chloride (mg/L) | 14.7 | 333.2 | 858.48 | 62.13 | 844.76 | 245 |
Sulphate (mg/L) | 8.82 | 739.9 | 927.08 | 102.9 | 205.8 | 113.68 |
Iron (mg/L) | 0.76 | 0.85 | 3.52 | 0.94 | 1.45 | 1.20 |
Zinc (mg/L) | - | 1.32 | - | - | 0.18 | - |
Nitrate (mg/L) | 1.86 | 137.2 | 70.56 | 2.54 | 37.24 | 11.76 |
Cement | RCA | Fine Aggregates | Water Content | Coal Ash | w/c Ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
331 | 1155 | 625 | 166 | 83 | 0.5 |
Groups | Count | Sum | Average | Variance | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
POT | 3 | 63.02774 | 21.00924667 | 2.219700211 | ||
LED | 3 | 42.714375 | 14.238125 | 7.903666312 | ||
FER | 3 | 58.973625 | 19.657875 | 4.303503563 | ||
TEX | 3 | 83.619 | 27.873 | 4.684854938 | ||
SUG | 3 | 61.652625 | 20.550875 | 3.827338922 | ||
SER | 3 | 66.21975 | 22.07325 | 4.772577937 | ||
ANOVA | ||||||
Source of variation | Sum of squares | Degrees of freedom | Mean squares | p-value | ||
Between groups | 288.1695593 | 5 | 57.63391185 | 8.47863525 | 0.000206664 | 3.105875239 |
Within groups | 55.42328377 | 12 | 4.61860698 | |||
Total | 343.592843 | 17 |
Groups | Count | Sum | Average | Variance | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
POT | 3 | 6.05625 | 2.01875 | 0.001032234 | ||
LED | 3 | 5.6715 | 1.8905 | 0.050376422 | ||
FER | 3 | 5.778375 | 1.926125 | 0.006819516 | ||
TEX | 3 | 7.103625 | 2.367875 | 0.176529 | ||
SUG | 3 | 5.835375 | 1.945125 | 0.052237828 | ||
SER | 3 | 5.735625 | 1.911875 | 0.118097766 | ||
ANOVA | ||||||
Source of variation | Sum of squares | Degrees of freedom | Mean squares | p-value | ||
Between groups | 0.489910844 | 5 | 0.097982169 | 1.451255274 | 0.275778446 | 3.105875239 |
Within groups | 0.810185531 | 12 | 0.067515461 | |||
Total | 1.300096375 | 17 |
Groups | Count | Sum | Average | Variance | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
POT | 3 | 23.231985 | 7.743995 | 1.132812315 | ||
LED | 3 | 24.46437 | 8.15479 | 0.754597331 | ||
FER | 3 | 28.568925 | 9.522975 | 4.678102345 | ||
TEX | 3 | 28.283745 | 9.427915 | 4.715792447 | ||
SUG | 3 | 32.44941 | 10.81647 | 0.808297081 | ||
SER | 3 | 28.813365 | 9.604455 | 0.60030996 | ||
ANOVA | ||||||
Source of variation | Sum of squares | Degrees of freedom | Mean squares | p-value | ||
Between groups | 18.43320295 | 5 | 3.68664059 | 1.743104637 | 0.199393883 | 3.105875239 |
Within groups | 25.37982296 | 12 | 2.114985246 | |||
Total | 43.81302591 | 17 |
Groups | Count | Sum | Average | Variance | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
POT | 3 | 31.8402252 | 10.6134084 | 0.604905146 | ||
LED | 3 | 30.9456084 | 10.3152028 | 2.151876247 | ||
FER | 3 | 41.1015423 | 13.7005141 | 1.005832652 | ||
TEX | 3 | 41.5183524 | 13.8394508 | 1.037664326 | ||
SUG | 3 | 46.8962193 | 15.6320731 | 1.098640583 | ||
SER | 3 | 37.9500513 | 12.6500171 | 0.888944267 | ||
ANOVA | ||||||
Source of variation | Sum of squares | Degrees of freedom | Mean squares | p-value | ||
Between groups | 62.66853252 | 5 | 12.5337065 | 7.07892669 | 0.000364576 | 3.105875239 |
Within groups | 13.57572644 | 12 | 1.131310537 | |||
Total | 76.24425896 | 17 |
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Raza, A.; Saad, N.; Elhadi, K.M.; Azab, M.; Deifalla, A.F.; Elhag, A.B.; Ali, K. Mechanical, Durability, and Microstructural Evaluation of Coal Ash Incorporated Recycled Aggregate Concrete: An Application of Waste Effluents for Sustainable Construction. Buildings 2022, 12, 1715. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101715
Raza A, Saad N, Elhadi KM, Azab M, Deifalla AF, Elhag AB, Ali K. Mechanical, Durability, and Microstructural Evaluation of Coal Ash Incorporated Recycled Aggregate Concrete: An Application of Waste Effluents for Sustainable Construction. Buildings. 2022; 12(10):1715. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101715
Chicago/Turabian StyleRaza, Ali, Noha Saad, Khaled Mohamed Elhadi, Marc Azab, Ahmed Farouk Deifalla, Ahmed Babeker Elhag, and Khawar Ali. 2022. "Mechanical, Durability, and Microstructural Evaluation of Coal Ash Incorporated Recycled Aggregate Concrete: An Application of Waste Effluents for Sustainable Construction" Buildings 12, no. 10: 1715. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101715
APA StyleRaza, A., Saad, N., Elhadi, K. M., Azab, M., Deifalla, A. F., Elhag, A. B., & Ali, K. (2022). Mechanical, Durability, and Microstructural Evaluation of Coal Ash Incorporated Recycled Aggregate Concrete: An Application of Waste Effluents for Sustainable Construction. Buildings, 12(10), 1715. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101715