The Impact of Cool and Warm Color Tones in Classrooms on the Perceived Emotions of Elementary School Students in Northwest China

Abstract

Although it has been shown that color can influence mental health and behavior, few studies have discussed the effects of cool and warm colors in classrooms on the perceived emotions of elementary school students. In this study, we investigated the emotional changes of elementary school students in Yinchuan City, Northwest China in classrooms with cool and warm color tones. By using the Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children (PANAS-C), the emotions of 123 third- to sixth-grade students in classrooms with cool and warm color tones were measured. We found the following conclusions: (1) Overall, the emotional responses of the subjects in both the cool- and warm-colored classrooms showed a tendency for positive emotions to be higher than negative emotions. (2) There was no significant difference between the effects of cool and warm colors on the overall emotion of elementary school students, but there were significant differences in specific emotions; Compared to warm colors, cool colors had a more significant effect on increasing feelings of calm (β = −0.365, p = 0.041). Compared to cool colors, warm colors were more likely to cause participants to feel mad (β = 0.186, p = 0.099). (3) The effects of cool and warm colors on students’ emotions differed significantly by gender and grade level. Cool and warm color tones had a significantly greater positive impact on females. In contrast, cool and warm colors had a more pronounced effect on males’ negative emotions. In addition, we found that grade level was significantly negatively correlated with overall emotion (β = −0.696, p < 0.001), with lower grades perceiving emotion more positively than higher grades. These findings provide important insights into the spatial design of elementary school classrooms and provide valuable comparative data for studies in different regional and cultural contexts, further enriching the empirical support of color psychology theory.

1. Introduction

In recent years, mental health problems have gradually expanded from adults to adolescents, showing a trend of “under-ageing” [1,2]. According to the estimation of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2020, the symptoms of about 50% of individuals with mental problems appeared before the age of 14, i.e., in elementary school. Mental health problems among elementary school students have become a global social and public health issue [3,4] that needs to be urgently addressed. As of 2022, there are 107 million elementary school students in China [5] who spend at least 6–8 h a day in school [6], most of which are in the classroom [7], making the classroom environment one of the most critical factors in decreasing or increasing students’ psychological stress. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the classroom environment affects students’ performance and academic achievement from psychological (e.g., attention and memory) [8,9,10,11] and neurophysiological (e.g., heart rate variability and electroencephalography) perspectives [12,13]. Individuals’ positive and negative emotions affect their mental health [14], and different color stimuli cause different emotional preferences and health effects [15]. Positive color schemes in spatial environments help to eliminate social stress [16]. Therefore, it is necessary to study the effects of classroom colors on the emotions of elementary school students, as this is of great practical importance for the early identification and adjustment of their emotions by regulating classroom colors, thus promoting their mental health.

Color is a main design element that can enrich a physical learning environment, in addition to interior form, space, light, and texture [17,18]. Color psychology, the study of how color influences human emotions, perceptions, behaviors, and psychological states, is applied in multiple fields, including psychology, art, design, architecture, and marketing [19]. Color psychology suggests that color not only regulates the atmosphere of a space but also evokes different emotional and physiological responses, thereby influencing individual behavior and decision-making [20]. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in his book Theory of Color divided colors into “additive” and “subtractive” colors [21]. Additive colors, such as yellow, reddish-yellow, and yellow-red, are thought to evoke positive feelings such as liveliness, ambition, and warmth. Conversely, subtractive colors, such as blue, red-blue, and blue-red, are thought to elicit negative feelings such as restlessness, anxiety, and cold [21]. According to psychiatrist Kurt Goldstein, reds and yellows are stimulating colors that inspire powerful action, while greens and blues are considered soothing colors that promote calm and stable action [22]. Colors with longer wavelengths (e.g., red and orange) are exciting or feel warm, while colors with shorter wavelengths (e.g., green and blue) are relaxing or cool [23]. The color black is associated with negative emotional concepts such as evil and death and prompts people to display aggression [24]. Studies have shown that red is associated with happiness, while blue is associated with sadness [25]. In applied color psychology research, it has been demonstrated that the color of the built environment has physiological, emotional, and cognitive effects on students [26,27,28,29]. Therefore, analyzing the effects of classroom colors on students’ emotions through color psychology theory allows for the early identification of and effective response to mental health problems by adjusting classroom colors.

Existing studies have explored the effects of color on students’ emotions mainly from three dimensions of color properties: color tone (i.e., wavelength), brightness (i.e., lightness), and saturation or chroma (i.e., purity or vividness) [29]. Children have different emotional associations with different colors [30]. Gold, yellow, rose, red, and green are the top five ranked emotionally pleasant colors for children [31]. Pink rooms enhanced children’s physical energy and positive emotions, while blue rooms diminished physical energy and positive emotions [32]. Research has also shown that color tone has a lesser effect on emotion, while saturation and brightness have a greater effect on emotion [29]. For example, in investigations exploring how color affects children’s emotions, lighter colors were associated with positive emotions (e.g., happiness, and excitement), while darker colors were associated with negative emotions (e.g., sadness, and anger) [30]. Children tend to associate high-brightness colors, such as blue and yellow, with positive emotions and low-saturation colors, such as black and gray, with negative emotions [24]. Other scholars have also explored the relationship between color preference and emotion, as well as the effect of color on emotion effects such as anxiety and anger. Some studies have also shown the psychological effects of color by examining the vividness, intensity, quantity, and temperature of colors [33,34].

It is noteworthy that, to date, there is a lack of research on the effect of classroom color tone on the perceived emotions of elementary school students, especially from a mental health perspective. Although some studies have demonstrated that classroom color affected the psychological stress and emotion of college students during the COVID-19 epidemic [35], these studies were conducted on college students and the context of the study was during the epidemic, which does not show the effect of classroom color on students’ emotions under normal circumstances. Therefore, it is necessary to study the effect of classroom color on the perceived emotions of elementary school students. In applied research, there are different views on the effects of classroom color tones (cool and warm). For example, Mahnke suggested the use of cool colors in upper grades’ classrooms because he believed that cool colors (e.g., blue or green) create an atmosphere of calmness and concentration, which helps students to focus and reduce anxiety [36]. On the other hand, Barrett suggested that students at different grade levels have different needs for classroom color tones. He suggested that warm colors should be used in higher-grade classrooms while cool colors are appropriate for lower-grade classrooms [27]. Another study showed that students felt more positively about cool-colored walls (e.g., light blue) than about warm-colored [37]. Therefore, it is particularly important to clarify the effects of cool- and warm-colored classrooms on the emotions of elementary school students and to explore the role of grade level in this regard.

Methodologically, previous studies have primarily used virtual reality (VR) environments [10,13] and other computer-rendered spatial images [8,37,38,39] to test subjects’ emotional perceptions of spatial color. In both of these types of studies, subjects experienced two environments simultaneously. The first type uses a virtual or simulated environment for visual perception, while the other is based on the actual environment in which the subjects are located. In such complex environments, it is difficult for students to make accurate judgments. In everyday learning, students are in the classroom for at least one class period, yet previous studies have only required subjects to enter specific labs and briefly complete experimental tasks. Measuring spatial perceptions for only a short time does not provide true insight into students’ emotional states. However, classroom experiences take place in complex environments of perceptual and behavioral interactions, and even the same color may elicit different emotions in different contexts [40]. Therefore, there is a need to study the effects of color on students in real and everyday learning environments.

This study focused on a group of elementary school students in Yinchuan City, Northwest China (located between 37°29′ and 38°53′ N latitude and 105°49′ and 106°53′ E longitude), which has a temperate continental climate and is a major gathering place of Islamic culture in China. Influenced by geography, climate, and culture, the sample population of this study has similar characteristics to student populations at the same latitude and in similar cultural contexts. However, the sample group of this study differs from the general population of other cultural backgrounds. Therefore, the uniqueness of the sample group of this study will fill a gap in the existing research.

In summary, based on color psychology theory, the present study explored the effects of cool- and warm-colored classrooms on elementary school students’ emotional perceptions by answering the following two specific research questions: (1) Do cool and warm color tones in classrooms affect elementary school students’ positive and negative emotions? (2) Is there heterogeneity in the effects of cool and warm color tones in classrooms on elementary school students’ emotions across gender and grade level groups?

The innovation of this study lies in three aspects: theoretical, practical, and technical. At the theoretical level, this study examines the effects of cool and warm color tones on elementary school students’ emotions and further explores the role of gender and grade differences in emotional perception, clarifying how students of different genders and grades perceive emotions differently in cool- and warm-colored classrooms. Additionally, the sample group in this study is unique due to cultural background differences, which could enrich the diversity of existing research and provide new empirical evidence for the development of the theory of color psychology. At the practical level, the findings offer valuable references for educators and classroom designers, showing that classroom color tones not only affect students’ emotions but also that this influence may vary based on a student’s gender and grade level. This helps optimize the design of educational spaces, enhancing students’ spatial experience and emotional comfort. At the technical level, this study overcomes the limitations of previous experiments that relied on virtual reality (VR) or computer-rendered environments by examining the emotional impact in a real and comparable everyday learning environment. This study also extended participants’ exposure time and used the Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children to more accurately measure the actual effects of color tones on elementary students’ emotions. Furthermore, by introducing a multiple linear regression model and interaction terms, this study not only effectively controlled for covariates but also deeply analyzed the complex effects of color environments on the emotions of different groups, providing a more robust approach to handling variable relationships compared to traditional univariate analysis or ANOVA.

This paper is composed of five sections. We first introduce the background of the necessity and importance of studying the effects of classroom colors on the emotions of elementary school students, conduct a literature review, and propose the research questions and innovations of this study. Secondly, we describe the materials and methods of this experimental study, including the experimental samples and settings, questionnaires for perceived emotions, data analysis methods, and reliability and validity tests. Thirdly, we present our results in terms of descriptive analysis, Pearson correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression analysis. Then, we discuss those results in the context of related studies and identified the limitations of this experiment. Finally, we summarize the conclusion and propose some directions for future studies.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Sample

From June to July 2023, we recruited 130 participants who met the following four selection criteria through the WeChat platform: (1) elementary school students; (2) aged between 8 and 12 years old; (3) born and residing in China (to avoid cultural influences); and (4) with normal color vision. When selecting the number of participants, we referred to Comrey’s suggestion that the sample size should be 3 to 5 times the number of items in the largest subscale of the questionnaire [41]. Based on this, with the Positive and Negative Child Emotion Scale containing 15 items, the theoretical sample size required for this study was between 45 and 75 participants. To ensure a sufficient sample size for subsequent analyses and enhance the robustness of the results, we ultimately recruited 130 participants, exceeding the minimum recommended sample size. Additionally, we referenced studies in related fields [1,2,35], which employed similar sample sizes and demonstrated statistical significance and feasibility in their results, further validating the rationale behind our sample size selection. To verify whether the selected sample size had sufficient statistical power, we used GPower software (version 3.1.9.7) to perform power analysis and sample size calculations. With parameters set at a medium effect size (0.5), significance level α of 0.05, and statistical power of 0.8, the software estimated a required sample size of 128 participants, which aligns with the 130 participants we recruited. Participants enrolled in the experiment between 1 July and 5 July 2023. Participants first completed a questionnaire in a cool-colored classroom and then completed another questionnaire in a warm-colored classroom. A total of 260 questionnaires were distributed and 256 were returned, of which 246 were valid. The return rate of the questionnaires was 98.5% and the validity rate was 96.5%.

The statistics presented in

Table 1. Description of demographic variables.

Characteristics	Category	Frequency	Percentage (%)
gender	male	43	35.0
	female	80	65.0
grade	lower grades	68	55.3
	higher grades	55	44.7
Total		123	100.0

show the numerical characteristics of the demographic variables, where 35.0% were males and 65.0% were females. This gender difference may be related to the research topic and the sample recruitment background. Participants were from a private training school that focuses on humanities and arts courses, which typically attract more female students. Additionally, the topic of color psychology tends to appeal more to women, as studies have shown that women generally have a higher interest in color-related fields. Although random sampling was used, the higher proportion of female participants (65%) likely reflects the attractiveness of the courses and research topic to women. A total of 55.3% of the students were in the lower grades (3–4) and 44.7% in the upper grades (5–6).

This study strictly adhered to the ethical guidelines outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Art and Design at Ningxia Polytechnic. Before the start of the experiment, each participant and their parents received an informed consent form. The research team committed to keeping participants’ personal information confidential and agreed to honor any requests from participants to withdraw from the study within one week after the experiment concluded.

2.2. Experimental Setting

We used two daily used classrooms as experimental scenarios within a private school in Yinchuan, China. To minimize the differences caused by spatial design, the two classrooms we used were completely identical in terms of spatial layout. This included the same seating arrangements, level of openness, and crowding factors. By doing so, we minimized the emotional biases caused by physical space differences, ensuring that the spatial design did not introduce any variation that could affect the research results between the experimental groups. The two classrooms were located on the first and second floors of the same building; they had the same size, orientation, and layout, and the outdoor natural landscape was treated uniformly to ensure a consistent indoor environment for teaching and learning. The two classrooms differed in wall, tabletop, and floor colors. The cool-colored classroom used light blue walls and blue tabletops, while the warm-colored classroom featured yellow walls and orange tabletops. Both had the same brown floor color. The ceiling color was white latex paint, consistent in both classrooms. The color parameters are detailed in

Table 2. Experimental setting.

Teaching Space	Cool-Colored Classroom		Warm-Colored Classroom
Classroom photo
Top color	White latex paint		White latex paint
Wall color		NCS: S 0510-B10G		NCS: S 1060-G90Y
Table top color		NCS: S 1550-G80B		NCS: S 1060-Y50R
Floor color		NCS: S 6020-Y20R		NCS: S 6020-Y20R
Vertical lighting	Illumination standard value ≥750 lux; Illumination uniformity ≥0.8 lux

Note: The NCS (Natural Color System) is a coding system used to define colors. Taking NCS: S 0510-B10G as an example, S stands for “Standardized,” meaning the color belongs to the NCS standard color library, widely used and recognized as a standard color. 0510 represents the brightness and saturation of the color, where 05 indicates the blackness level, showing that the color is very light and close to white, while 10 represents the chromaticity, indicating that the color has low saturation, close to gray. B10G refers to the hue, lying between blue (B) and green (G), with B representing blue and 10G indicating that the color contains 10% green, being mainly blue with a slight green tint.

. The rectangular classroom space measured 8.8 m × 5.2 m × 3.2 m. Each classroom had twelve double desks and could accommodate 24 elementary school students, which is typical for standard small class sizes in elementary school. Since there are currently no standards, regulations, or norms in China that specifically address the use of color in educational settings, most of classrooms are white. However, the walls of all classrooms in the experimental setting were painted in different shades of color. Children’s most preferred classroom colors are considered to be yellow and blue [42]. Therefore, in this study, the blue classroom was chosen as the cool-colored experimental space, and the yellow classroom was chosen as the warm-colored experimental space. The two classrooms differed in wall and tabletop colors. This study only discussed the effect of color tone on students’ emotions; brightness and saturation levels were not included. To minimize the potential impact of interior decorative changes and to ensure consistency of measurements, the floors were uniformly covered with warm gray ceramic tiles, and the ceilings were painted white. As most Chinese classrooms are decorated with coated materials/paint, the impact of materials was not considered in this test. The classrooms used for the experiment primarily utilized vertical illumination that meets international standards, with an illuminance level of no less than 750 lux and an illuminance uniformity of no less than 0.8. This ensured stable lighting conditions throughout the experiment. Additionally, both classrooms had windows located at the rear with dimensions of 2.0 m × 2.1 m, and the wall area where the windows were installed measured 5.2 m × 3.2 m, resulting in a window-to-wall ratio of 25.24%. This allows for natural lighting comparable to warm white, which helps enhance lighting comfort and complies with the standards for educational buildings [43].

The physical environment of the classroom, such as temperature, noise, and air quality, may have some impact on students’ emotions. To control these potential confounding variables as much as possible, we scheduled the experiment from 1 July to 5 July, consistently conducting the sessions between 1:00 p.m. and 3:00 p.m. each day. This time frame was chosen to ensure consistent environmental conditions, thereby reducing bias in the experimental results due to variations in external conditions. As shown in Figure 1, the experiment was divided into two phases. The first phase was conducted in the cool-colored classroom and the second phase in the warm-colored classroom. Before the experiment, both laboratories were deodorized to eliminate any potential odors. During the experiment (one session per day), air conditioning was used for ventilation and the temperature, ventilation, and lighting conditions in the classrooms were monitored to ensure environmental consistency.

Since the participants were elementary school students aged 8 to 12, and their ability to use mobile phones and other computer devices was limited, paper-based questionnaires were used for the study. The experiment was conducted from 1:00 p.m. to 3:00 p.m. At the beginning of the experiment, participants first experienced 10 to 15 min of color stimulation in the cool-colored classroom, followed by 5 to 7 min of questionnaire completion. After completing the session in the cool-colored classroom, participants moved to a neutral-colored (white) classroom for emotional adjustment, and after approximately 10 min, they proceeded to the warm-colored classroom to experience the same color stimulation and questionnaire process as in the first phase.

Throughout the experiment, participants were exposed to both cool and warm color stimuli, as well as a neutral color environment for emotional recovery, ensuring the reliability and consistency of the experimental data. The questionnaires were completed by the participants themselves, with a research assistant present to help with any interpretation of the questions. At the end of the experiment, the questionnaires were collected and stored by the research assistant.

2.3. Questionnaire Setup

This experiment utilized the Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children (PANAS-C), which was designed by Laurent et al. in 1999, based on the theoretical framework of emotional psychology, providing a solid scientific foundation. PANAS-C has been widely used in numerous studies and has been validated, demonstrating high reliability and validity, ensuring the accuracy and consistency of its measurements. Additionally, the development of PANAS-C took into account the reading and comprehension abilities of children and adolescents, and it covers two main dimensions: Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA) [44]. The Positive Affect dimension assesses the pleasantness, vigor, and excitement experienced by individuals at a given time, while the Negative Affect dimension measures the intensity and frequency of negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, and sadness. The scale is designed to effectively assess the emotional states of primary and secondary school students.

2.4. Data Analysis

Data analysis for this study was conducted using SPSS 26 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), which employs a step-by-step approach, moving from general to specific analyses, to gain a deeper understanding of the data and address the research questions. Firstly, to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the measurement instrument used, we tested the reliability and validity of the dependent variable (emotion scores). This step ensured that our research instrument reliably reflected students’ emotional changes in classrooms of different colors, which provided a solid foundation for subsequent analyses.

Secondly, we used descriptive statistics to analyze participants’ emotion scores in cool and warm colors of the classroom, aiming to understand the overall emotion trends and distribution. In this way, we were able to gain a preliminary understanding of the impact of cool and warm colors on students’ overall emotions, which provided background information for subsequent in-depth analyses.

Thirdly, to analyze the effect of cool- and warm-colored classrooms on emotion perception across gender and grade level groups, we used t-tests to compare the mean differences in students’ emotion scores between cool and warm classrooms, helping us to reveal heterogeneity in overall emotion perception between genders and grade levels. This method visualizes whether there are significant differences between groups and measures the significance of these differences by calculating means, standard deviations, t-values, and p-values.

Next, we explored the Pearson correlation analysis to assess the correlation between gender and grade (independent variables) and emotion scores (dependent variable). This analysis helps to understand the linear relationship between gender, grade level, and emotion scores, providing information about the overall association between emotion perception and individual characteristics.

Finally, to further explore the specific effects of cool and warm colors on emotion and to consider the moderating effects of gender and grade, we used a multiple linear regression model. In this model, color served as the independent variable, gender and grade as covariates, and emotion score as the dependent variable. This regression analysis allowed us to assess the independent effects of cool and warm colors on overall emotion, positive emotion, and negative emotion, controlling for gender and grade level. In addition, we introduced an interaction term to analyze the differences in the effects of cool and warm tones on the emotional perceptions of students of different genders (Model 2.1) and grades (Model 2.2), thus revealing the heterogeneous effects of cool and warm tones in different groups. The specific models are as follows:

Y = β0 + β1 Color + β2 Gender + β3 Grade (Model 1)

where

Y = participant’s overall emotion score, or specific positive or negative emotion score.

Color = binary variable: cool (reference) or warm tones

Grade = binary variable: lower grade (reference) or higher grade

Gender = binary variable: male (reference) and female

β1 = Difference in the perceived emotional impact of warm vs. cool tones, after adjusting for grade and gender.

β2 = Difference in the perceived emotional impact of warm colors compared to cool colors, after adjusting for color tone and grade level.

β3 = Difference in the perceived emotional impact of higher grades compared to lower grades, after adjusting for color tone and gender.

Y = β0 + β1 Color + β2 Gender + β3 Color × Gender + β4 Grade (Model 2.1)

Y = β0 + β1 Color + β2 Grade + β3 Color × Grade + β4 Gender (Model 2.2)

where

β3 = Difference in the effect of cool and warm colors on emotion perception across gender (Model 2.1)/grade (Model 2.2) among elementary school students.

2.5. Reliability and Validity Test

In this study, the questionnaire was tested for reliability and validity in SPSS 26 to verify the reliability and accuracy of the quantitative data (especially the emotional scale questions). The results of the reliability test were assessed through Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, which is widely recognized as an important measure of reliability [45]. According to Cronbach et al., the scale is considered reliable when the alpha coefficient is higher than 0.70 [46,47,48]. In the present study, the positive emotion word alert showed a significant modification index and was excluded. The final analysis consisted of 29 items with 14 positive and 15 negative emotion words.

Table 3. Reliability and validity test.

		Cool-Colored Classroom	Warm-Colored Classroom
Cronbach Alpha		0.86	0.78
item count (of a consignment etc.)		29	29
KMO Sample Suitability Quantity		0.78	0.83
Bartlett’s test of sphericity	Approximate chi-square	1826.2	1673.7
	Degrees of freedom	406	406
	Significance	<0.001	<0.001

shows that the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.86 and 0.78 for the cool- and warm-colored classrooms, respectively, were greater than 0.7, indicating that the research data were highly reliable and suitable for further analysis. Validity was verified by the KMO (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin) test and Bartlett’s test of sphericity. Table 3 shows that the KMO values were 0.78 and 0.83, both greater than 0.7, indicating that the research data were well-suited for factor analysis and adequately reflected the validity of the data. The results of Bartlett’s test of sphericity showed the rejection of the original hypothesis, indicating that there was a significant correlation between the data.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Analysis

3.1.1. Emotion Score Analysis

Both in the cool- and warm-colored classrooms, the participants’ emotional responses showed a trend of positive emotions being significantly higher than negative emotions. Specifically, in the cool-colored classroom (see Figure 2), the item with the highest mean for positive emotions was Lively (M = 3.15, SD = 1.44), while the item with the lowest mean was Proud (M = 1.64, SD = 0.93). The item with the highest mean for negative emotions was Gloomy (M = 1.50, SD = 0.94), while the item with the lowest mean was Sad (M = 1.08, SD = 0.35). Similarly, in the warm-colored classroom (see Figure 2), there were significant differences in students’ emotional responses. Specifically, the highest-scoring positive emotion item was Lively (M = 3.27, SD = 1.49), while the lowest-scoring item was Proud (M = 1.76, SD = 1.06). For the negative emotions item, the highest score was Nervous (M = 1.67, SD = 1.01), while the lowest score was Sad (M = 1.13, SD = 0.42). These results suggest that cool- and warm-colored classrooms not only stimulate positive emotions in students but also may trigger some negative emotions.

We found that the differences in emotional responses were minor but clear. Specifically, we observed that most of the positive emotions of students in the warm-colored classroom were higher than those in the cool-colored classroom (e.g., Excited and Active). In addition, we found that students in the cool-colored classroom had significantly higher scores in Calm and slightly lower scores in some negative emotions (e.g., Mad and Ashamed).

Table 4. Description of emotional scores in cool- and warm-colored classrooms.

Color Tone	Emotions	Sample Size	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Standard Deviation	Median
Cool-colored classroom	Negative	123	1.00	2.73	1.23	0.34	1.13
	Positive	123	1.13	4.53	2.56	0.77	2.47
Warm-colored classroom	Negative	123	1.00	3.07	1.26	0.40	1.13
	Positive	123	1.00	4.20	2.62	0.83	2.60

shows the mean values of positive and negative emotional scores in cool- and warm-colored classrooms. The mean of negative emotion in the cool-colored classroom was 1.23 and the mean of positive emotion was 2.56. The mean of negative emotion in the warm-colored classroom was 1.26 and the mean of positive emotion was 2.62. This suggests that the positive and negative emotional scores were generally higher in the warmer classroom compared to the mean scores in the cooler classroom.

3.1.2. Differential Analysis by Gender

Color tones in the classroom may have differential effects across genders on different emotional dimensions. The results showed that males had significantly higher emotional scores than females in the Energetic (t = 2.14, p = 0.03) and Active (t = 2.36, p = 0.02) dimensions in the cool-colored classroom, with mean values of 3.00 and 3.12 for males, respectively, compared to 2.50 for both for females. On the contrary, males had significantly higher emotional scores than females in the Jittery (t = −2.31, p = 0.02) dimension, and males had significantly lower emotional scores than females, with a mean of 1.05 for males compared to a mean of 1.24 for females (Figure 3). In the warm-colored classroom, males had significantly higher emotional scores than females on the Jittery (t = 2.45, p = 0.02) and Lonely (t = 2.47, p = 0.02) dimensions. The mean score on the Jittery dimension was 1.33 for males and 1.06 for females, and the mean score on the lonely dimension was 1.69 for males and 1.27 for females (Figure 3).

We found that the gender differences were the opposite in terms of some positive emotions. For example, male students in the cool-colored classroom had higher positive and lower negative emotional scores than those in the warm-colored classroom. However, female students had lower positive emotional scores in the cool-colored classroom compared with their sores in the warm-colored classroom.

3.1.3. Differential Analysis by Grade

Lower grades students showed higher positive emotions and lower negative emotions than upper grades students in both cool- and warm-colored classrooms. The results showed that in the cool-colored classroom, the lower grades (Grade 3–4) students were more likely to be Excited (t = 3.23, p = 0.002), Happy (t = 2.44, p = 0.016), Strong (t = 2.75, p = 0.007), Active (t = 2.04, p = 0.044), Joyful (t = 2.56, p = 0.012), Interested (t = 2.16, p = 0.033), Delighted (t = 2.60, p = 0.010), Daring (t = 2.93, p = 0.004), and Lively (t = 2.50, p = 0.014). Those emotional dimensions of students from lower grades were significantly higher than those of senior students (Grade 5–6). On the negative emotional dimension, the lower grades scored significantly lower than the upper grades on the Afraid (t = −2.01, p = 0.048) dimension, as shown in Figure 4. Similarly, in the warm-colored classroom, lower-grade students scored significantly lower on the Excited (t = 2.72, p = 0.008), Happy (t = 3.93, p = 0.000), Calm (t = 3.59, p = 0.000), Cheerful (t = 3.24, p = 0.002), Active (t = 2.46, p = 0.015), Joyful (t = 3.54, p = 0.001), Interested (t = 2.95, p = 0.004), Delighted (t = 4.53, p = 0.000), Daring (t = 3.52, p = 0.001), and Lively (t = 2.97, p = 0.004) dimensions. However, they scored significantly higher than seniors on the scores of Upset (t = −2.92, p = 0.005), Nervous (t = −2.86, p = 0.005), Scared (t = −2.02, p = 0.046), Jittery (t = −2.96, p = 0.004), Frightened (t = −2.36, p = 0.021), Mad (t = −2.33, p = 0.023), and Disgusted (t = −2.70, p = 0.009) dimensions, as shown in Figure 4.

We observed that with Grade 3–4, students from the warm-colored classroom had higher positive emotions and lower negative emotions compared to those in the cool-colored classroom. In addition, within Grade 5–6, students in the warm-colored classroom had higher scores in some positive emotions (e.g., Excited, Strong) and lower scores in some negative emotions (e.g., Nervous, Mad). However, they also showed lower positive emotions (e.g., Calm, Cheerful) and higher negative emotions (e.g., Longly, Blue).

3.2. Pearson Correlation Analysis

Cool- and warm-colored classrooms affected students’ positive and negative emotions and those effects varied by gender and grade level.

In the cool-colored classroom, gender was significantly correlated with the positive emotions Energetic (r = −0.19, p < 0.05) and Active (r = −0.21, p < 0.05), but not with negative emotions. Grade level was significantly associated with several positive emotions, including the positive emotions Excited (r = −0.27, p < 0.01), Happy (r = −0.22, p < 0.05), Strong (r = −0.24, p < 0.01), Active (r = −0.18, p < 0.05), Joyful (r = −0.23, p < 0.05), Interested (r = −0.19, p < 0.05), Delighted (r = −0.23, p < 0.05), Daring (r = −0.25, p < 0.01), and Lively (r = −0.22, p < 0.05), and were significantly associated with the negative emotions Afraid (r = 0.19, p < 0.05) and Disgusted (r = 0.19, p < 0.05), as shown in Figure 5.

In the warm-colored classroom, gender was significantly correlated only with the negative emotions of Jittery (r = −0.27, p < 0.01) and Lonely (r = −0.24, p < 0.01), and was not correlated with positive emotions. Grade level was significantly associated with the positive emotions Excited (r = −0.24, p < 0.01), Happy (r = −0.34, p < 0.01, Calm (r = −0.31, p < 0.01), Cheerful (r = −0.28, p < 0.01), Active (r = −0.22, p < 0.05), Joyful (r = −0.31, p < 0.05), and Interested (r = −0.26, p < 0.01), Delighted (r = −0.38, p < 0.01), Daring (r = −0.30, p < 0.01), and Lively (r = −0.26, p < 0.01), and were significantly correlated with the negative emotion Upset (r = 0.27, p < 0.01), Nervous (r = 0.26, p < 0.01), Scared (r = 0.18, p < 0.05), Jittery (r = 0.27, p < 0.01), Frightened (r = 0.21, p < 0.05), Mad (r = 0.22, p < 0.05), and Disgusted (r = 0.25, p < 0.01), as shown in Figure 5.

Overall, the influence of gender on emotions showed slight differences. Gender primarily affected positive emotions in the cool-colored classroom and negative emotions in the warm-colored classroom, but the impact was not significant. The influence of grade level on emotions showed significant differences and demonstrated a negative correlation, meaning that as grade level increased, students tended to score higher on negative emotions, while lower-grade students exhibited more positive emotions.

3.3. Multiple Linear Regression Analysis

Overall, after adjusting for gender and grade differences, we found that the difference between the effects of cool and warm colors on overall perceived emotion was not significant; see

Table 5. Multiple linear regression analysis of the overall emotional impact of cool and warm colors in classrooms.

Dependent Variable	Model 1
	Beta	Estimate	Pr(>|t|)
	β1 (Color)	0.048	0.699
Overall emotion	β2 (Gender)	−0.099	0.445
	β3 (Grade)	−0.696	<0.001

.

Specifically, however, for positive emotions, compared to warm colors, cool colors had a more significant effect on increasing feelings of Calm (β = −0.365, p = 0.041). For negative emotions, compared to cool colors, warm colors were more likely to cause participants to feel Mad (β = 0.186, p = 0.099). In addition, after adjusting for color and gender differences, we found that grade level was significantly negatively correlated with overall emotion (β = −0.696, p < 0.001), with lower grades perceiving emotion more positively than higher grades; see

Table 6. Multiple linear regression analysis of the effect of cool and warm colors in classrooms on specific emotions.

Model 1
Dependent Variable	Beta	Estimate	Pr (>|t|)	Dependent Variable	Beta	Estimate	Pr (>|t|)
Positive Emotions				Negative Emotions
Excited	β1 (Color)	0.258	0.095	Ashamed	β1 (Color)	0.235	0.350
	β2 (Gender)	−0.111	0.496		β2 (Gender)	0.126	0.635
	β3 (Grade)	−0.640	<0.001		β3 (Grade)	−0.262	0.303
Happy	β1 (Color)	0.172	0.294	Upset	β1 (Color)	−0.030	0.659
	β2 (Gender)	−0.104	0.550		β2 (Gender)	−0.069	0.335
	β3 (Grade)	−0.754	<0.001		β3 (Grade)	0.191	0.006
Strong	β1 (Color)	0.140	0.367	Nervous	β1 (Color)	0.180	0.125
	β2 (Gender)	−0.137	0.401		β2 (Gender)	−0.015	0.903
	β3 (Grade)	−0.511	0.001		β3 (Grade)	0.232	0.050
Energetic	β1 (Color)	0.080	0.658	Guilty	β1 (Color)	−0.100	0.134
	β2 (Gender)	−0.243	0.204		β2 (Gender)	0.001	0.985
	β3 (Grade)	−0.145	0.427		β3 (Grade)	0.078	0.249
Calm	β1 (Color)	−0.365	0.041	Scared	β1 (Color)	0.051	0.593
	β2 (Gender)	0.071	0.704		β2 (Gender)	−0.069	0.494
	β3 (Grade)	−0.542	0.003		β3 (Grade)	0.204	0.035
Cheerful	β1 (Color)	−0.118	0.490	Miserable	β1 (Color)	0.005	0.932
	β2 (Gender)	−0.046	0.799		β2 (Gender)	−0.005	0.932
	β3 (Grade)	−0.610	<0.001		β3 (Grade)	0.107	0.056
Active	β1 (Color)	0.241	0.175	Jittery	β1 (Color)	−0.021	0.759
	β2 (Gender)	−0.304	0.106		β2 (Gender)	−0.023	0.748
	β3 (Grade)	−0.598	0.001		β3 (Grade)	0.137	0.044
Proud	β1 (Color)	0.112	0.380	Afraid	β1 (Color)	0.017	0.802
	β2 (Gender)	−0.092	0.494		β2 (Gender)	0.065	0.372
	β3 (Grade)	0.073	0.572		β3 (Grade)	0.206	0.003
Joyful	β1 (Color)	0.117	0.514	Sad	β1 (Color)	0.045	0.366
	β2 (Gender)	−0.185	0.329		β2 (Gender)	0.084	0.110
	β3 (Grade)	−0.799	<0.001		β3 (Grade)	0.105	0.036
Interested	β1 (Color)	0.104	0.544	Frightened	β1 (Color)	−0.013	0.817
	β2 (Gender)	−0.189	0.295		β2 (Gender)	−0.034	0.571
	β3 (Grade)	−0.640	<0.001		β3 (Grade)	0.157	0.006
Fearless	β1 (Color)	−0.065	0.656	Lonely	β1 (Color)	−0.045	0.662
	β2 (Gender)	0.006	0.967		β2 (Gender)	−0.158	0.153
	β3 (Grade)	−0.239	0.108		β3 (Grade)	0.187	0.075
Delighted	β1 (Color)	0.053	0.758	Mad	β1 (Color)	0.186	0.099
	β2 (Gender)	−0.065	0.722		β2 (Gender)	−0.173	0.147
	β3 (Grade)	−0.874	<0.001		β3 (Grade)	0.319	0.005
Daring	β1 (Color)	0.131	0.404	Disgusted	β1 (Color)	0.034	0.623
	β2 (Gender)	−0.225	0.177		β2 (Gender)	−0.055	0.444
	β3 (Grade)	−0.736	<0.001		β3 (Grade)	0.233	0.001
Lively	β1 (Color)	0.138	0.451	Blue	β1 (Color)	−0.118	0.118
	β2 (Gender)	−0.087	0.652		β2 (Gender)	−0.054	0.498
	β3 (Grade)	−0.718	<0.001		β3 (Grade)	0.156	0.041
				Gloomy	β1 (Color)	−0.069	0.569
					β2 (Gender)	0.033	0.797
					β3 (Grade)	0.108	0.376

.

The positive effects of the cool and warm color tones on overall emotion was significantly greater among females (β = 0.504, p = 0.050) after adjusting for grade differences. Specifically, the effect of cool and warm color differences on positive emotion was more pronounced for females. For example, color tones had a greater effect on females than males for Happy (β = 0.679, p = 0.048), Strong (β = 0.544, p = 0.094), Active (β = 0.790, p = 0.034), Interested (β = 0.754, p = 0.035), and Lively (β = 0.693, p = 0.071). The effects of cool and warm colors on negative emotions were more significant for males. For example, color tones had a greater effect on males than females for Nervous (β = −0.426, p = 0.083), Scared (β = 0.398, p = 0.046), Jittery (β = −0.467, p < 0.001), and Lonely (β = −0.481, p = 0.027). In addition, after adjusting gender differences, the effect of cool colors on positive emotions in terms of Calm (β = −0.63, p = 0.07) was significantly greater in the higher grades. The effect of warm colors on the negative emotions of Nervous (β = 0.556, p = 0.017) and Jittery (β = 0.238, p = 0.076) was more significant in the higher grades; see

Table 7. Multiple linear regression analyses of the effect of classroom cool and warm colors on emotion across grade and gender dimensions.

Dependent Variable		Model 2.1		Model 2.2
		Estimate β3 (Color × Gender)	Pr (>|t|)	Estimate β3 (Color × Grade1)	Pr(>|t|)
Overall emotion		0.504	0.050	−0.288	0.242
Positive emotions	Excited	0.254	0.433	0.027	0.931
	Happy	0.679	0.048	−0.393	0.231
	Strong	0.544	0.094	0.175	0.572
	Energetic	0.556	0.143	−0.025	0.946
	Calm	−0.234	0.531	−0.632	0.076
	Cheerful	0.491	0.172	−0.393	0.251
	Active	0.790	0.034	−0.110	0.758
	Proud	−0.034	0.898	0.124	0.630
	Joyful	0.376	0.318	−0.286	0.426
	Interested	0.754	0.035	−0.210	0.541
	Fearless	−0.099	0.750	−0.137	0.642
	Delighted	0.387	0.288	−0.502	0.148
	Daring	−0.001	0.997	−0.201	0.525
	Lively	0.693	0.071	−0.132	0.718
Negative emotions	Ashamed	0.204	0.701	−0.235	0.642
	Upset	−0.123	0.392	0.154	0.260
	Nervous	−0.426	0.083	0.556	0.017
	Guilty	0.022	0.875	0.159	0.235
	Scared	−0.398	0.046	0.152	0.427
	Miserable	−0.103	0.372	0.034	0.758
	Jittery	−0.467	0.001	0.238	0.076
	Afraid	−0.048	0.741	−0.009	0.948
	Sad	−0.040	0.703	−0.043	0.665
	Frightened	0.085	0.471	−0.004	0.972
	Lonely	−0.481	0.027	−0.109	0.602
	Mad	−0.334	0.159	0.296	0.191
	Disgusted	−0.095	0.508	0.102	0.454
	Blue	0.101	0.525	−0.041	0.787
	Gloomy	0.060	0.813	0.189	0.437

.

4. Discussion

This study analyzed the effects of cool and warm classroom colors on elementary school students’ emotional perceptions in Northwest China. The main contribution of this study is finding that the cool and warm colors of classrooms do not have a significant effect on the overall emotional perceptions of elementary school students; however, there are significant differences in their effects on specific emotional dimensions. Moreover, the effects of cool and warm colors on emotional perceptions differed significantly across the grade and gender groups of elementary school students. Previous studies have rarely discussed this issue from the perspective of focusing on the mental health of elementary school students, and there is inconsistency in the conclusions regarding the color palette applied to classrooms at different grade levels. The methodology, results, and limitations of the study are discussed below.

Regarding the methodology, three key points need to be emphasized: (1) The use of the PANAS-C as an emotion measurement tool. In China, although some researchers have focused on children’s emotional development, there have been more studies using the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS). However, the reliability of the results is affected by children’s difficulty in understanding words such as “hostile”. The PANAS-C was designed by Laurent et al. for children and adolescents to assess positive and negative emotions based on the reading and comprehension skills of primary and secondary school students. Therefore, the use of the PANAS-C to measure children’s emotions ensured the reliability of the results of this study. (2) The experiment was conducted in a classroom regularly used by students, which extended the exposure time of participants to approximate students’ daily learning activities. The experiment was set in an actual learning environment, making the results more reflective of students’ real emotional responses, overcoming the limitations of short-term simulated experiments. This design provides more realistic outcomes for the study and enhances the generalizability of the findings to real teaching environments. Similar research methods have been supported in several studies that emphasize the advantages of conducting experiments in real educational settings [49,50,51]. In contrast, existing studies using virtual reality (VR) [10,13] or computer-rendered environments [8,37,38,39] to test emotional perception, while effective in controlling variables, are limited by the experimental environment and fail to capture emotional changes over long-term exposure, especially in replicating real learning situations in laboratory environments. (3) This study employed a multiple linear regression model as the data analysis method, which offers strong interpretability and broad generalizability. The model can simultaneously analyze the associations between multiple independent variables (such as color, gender, and grade) and the dependent variable (emotion scores) while effectively controlling for the influence of covariates. Compared to univariate analysis or ANOVA, regression models are better suited to handle complex variable relationships, which could simultaneously analyze the effects of multiple independent variables (such as color, gender, and grade) on the dependent variable (emotion scores) and allow us to control for potential covariates) to reduce the influence of confounding factors and enhance the accuracy of the results. By introducing interaction terms, this approach allows for an in-depth exploration of the heterogeneous effects of color environments on emotion perception across different genders and grade levels. This method not only meets the research needs but also provides stronger explanatory power and generalizability for future research and applications [52,53].

Concerning the findings of the study, the following three key points are emphasized: (1) the effects of cool and warm color tones on the emotions of elementary school students show an overall positive trend; (2) the differences in the effects of cool and warm color tones on the overall emotion of elementary school students are not significant, but there are significant differences in the effects of cool and warm color tones on specific emotions; and (3) the effects of cool and warm color tones on the emotions of the students show a significant degree of heterogeneity when the factors of gender and grade are taken into account.

First, the effects of cool and warm color tones on elementary school students’ emotional perceptions showed a positive trend in general. Specifically, cool-colored classrooms not only have the potential to evoke positive emotions in students but may also trigger some negative emotions. This finding is consistent with the views of psychiatrist Kurt Goldstein and the conclusions of other related studies [8,23,30], suggesting that the impact may vary depending on the specific context and individual differences among students. For example, Lipson-Smith et al. also found that participants exhibited different emotional perceptions of the same color in different types of rooms (cube room, lounge room, and waiting room) [54]. Other studies have found that during the COVID-19 lockdown, warm colors were shown to effectively alleviate students’ anxiety and depression [35], while cool-colored classroom environments (such as blue and green) also demonstrated the ability to promote positive emotions [30]. The emotional response trends in both color-tone classrooms are similar, with positive emotions scoring slightly higher in the warm-colored classroom, while the negative emotion of ‘nervousness’ scores significantly higher in the warm-colored classroom compared to the cool-colored classroom. Accordingly, warm-colored classrooms, while capable of boosting students’ positive emotions, are also accompanied by some negative emotions, which is in line with Goddard’s theory of color psychology [22]. However, on the whole, the effects on students’ emotions in both cool and warm color classrooms generally show a trend of significantly higher positive emotions than negative emotions. Therefore, when designing classroom environments, it is important to comprehensively consider the dual effects of color tones on students’ emotions to optimize students’ learning experience and emotional well-being. For example, an appropriate amount of warm color elements should be added to a cool-colored classroom or cool color elements should be introduced to a warm-colored classroom to balance and mitigate the impact of negative emotions.

Second, the difference between the effects of cool and warm colors on the overall emotional perception of elementary school students was not significant, but there were significant differences in the specific emotional perceptions. For overall emotion, the difference between the effects of cool and warm colors on overall emotion was not significant when gender and grade differences were considered. However, grade level showed a significant negative correlation with overall emotion, which means that students in lower grades perceived emotion more positively. Comparatively, cooler tones contributed more to positive emotions in higher grades than warmer tones, which is consistent with findings in the existing literature [8,13] that children’s preference for colors shifts from warmer tones to cooler tones as grade level and age increase. Thus, choosing the right classroom colors for different grade levels can help optimize their emotional states. For example, students in lower grades may benefit more from the emotionally stimulating effects of cooler and warmer-toned classrooms than those in higher grades. Although both cool- and warm-colored classrooms influenced students’ emotional responses, males and females reacted differently across various emotional dimensions. Notably, in the warm-colored classroom, males scored significantly higher than females on negative emotions like ‘nervousness’ and ‘loneliness. In terms of specific emotions, cooler colors have a more significant role in enhancing feelings of calmness, whereas warmer colors are more likely to trigger feelings of agitation, which is in line with Lois B. Wexner’s observation that blue (cooler colors) is associated with feelings of security and comfort [55]. Torres et al. explored the relationship between color preference, arousal levels, and room types [56]. The authors found that warm colors were preferred in activity rooms and were associated with higher arousal levels, while cool colors were preferred in bedrooms and were associated with lower arousal levels. Therefore, the design of classroom environments should be based on the selection of appropriate shades for different instructional needs and contexts to maximize the optimization of students’ emotional well-being. For example, in classrooms where static learning is the main focus, cool colors can be used to create a learning environment that contributes to students’ emotional stability.

Finally, there was significant heterogeneity in the effects of cool and warm color tones on students’ emotions by gender and grade level. Concerning overall emotion, the positive effect of cool and warm colors on overall emotion was more significant among females after adjusting for grade level differences. Specifically, males had more positive emotions in the cool-colored classroom, while females had more positive emotions in the warm-colored classroom. Research in color psychology has shown that there are significant differences in the perception of color by gender. For example, Helson and Lansford’s study found that females preferred warmer colors while males preferred cooler colors [57]. Al-Rasheed’s study also noted that males across cultures preferred cooler colors, such as blues and greens, while females were relatively less likely to show this preference [58]. This may be related to traditional gender role expectations, with females tending to show gentleness and caring, which is consistent with warm color associations, and males tending to show calmness and rationality, which is consistent with cool color associations [59,60]. As for specific emotions, the effects of color on positive emotions such as happiness, sense of power, activeness, interest, and liveliness differed significantly across genders, taking into account grade differences, and were more pronounced for females, whereas the effects of color were more pronounced for males about negative emotions such as nervousness, fear, fright, and loneliness. These results further emphasize the importance of giving due consideration to the multifaceted effects of colors on students’ emotions in the design of classroom environments to promote the overall development of students.

This study has several limitations. First, it is based on the geographic and cultural context of Yinchuan City, China, with the study population being limited to commuter students from a private elementary school, and the sample size is relatively small. Therefore, future research should expand to regions with different languages, lifestyles, climates, and ethnic backgrounds, and include students from other grade levels (e.g., middle school and university students) while also increasing the sample size to validate and enrich the conclusions of this study. Additionally, the study could consider including the color perception of the LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender) community to obtain more inclusive research results. Secondly, this study was conducted in classrooms used by students daily which had been painted with specific colors. Due to physical constraints, only two colors were selected for analysis in this study and there was no white wall control group, as well as no detailed measurements of the specific values of the colors in the dimensions of luminance and saturation. Future studies should consider including a white wall control group to more effectively isolate and analyze the effects of color, as well as incorporating more colors and color dimensions (e.g., luminance and saturation) with a more detailed classification method that incorporates specific color parameters for in-depth study. Additionally, although the experiment controlled the time and environment, physical factors such as temperature, noise, and air quality may still affect the results, and these factors should be further controlled or adjusted in future research.

5. Conclusions

This study explored the effect of cool and warm colors in the classroom on elementary school students’ emotional perceptions. We measured students’ emotional changes through experiments by using the PANAS-C scale and explained the results by the theory of color psychology. The following conclusions were drawn from the study: (1) Cool- and warm-colored classrooms not only stimulate positive emotions in students but also may trigger some negative emotions. Overall, the emotional responses of the subjects in both the cool- and warm-colored classrooms showed a tendency for positive emotions to be significantly higher than negative emotions. (2) Further analyses showed that the difference between the effects of cool and warm color tones on overall emotion was not significant. However, cool tones had a more significant effect in enhancing a sense of calmness, while warm tones were more likely to trigger a sense of agitation. (3) There was significant heterogeneity in the effects of cool and warm hues on students’ emotions by gender and grade level. Lower grades had more positive emotional responses to hues, while higher grades had more pronounced positive emotional responses in cooler-hued environments. Boys were more emotionally active in the cool-colored classroom, while girls were more emotionally active in the warm-colored classroom. There are limitations to this study, including a district-specific sample and limited color dimensions, and future research should expand the studied sample group and consider the inclusion of a white wall control group and additional color parameters to further validate and complement these findings.

The limitations of this study include a sample restricted to a specific elementary school in Yinchuan City and a small sample size, which affects the generalizability of the conclusions. Future research should expand to different regions, grade levels, and cultural backgrounds, increase the sample size, and consider the color perception of the LGBT community to obtain more inclusive results. Additionally, this study only analyzed two colors, did not include a white wall control group, and did not measure parameters such as brightness and saturation. Future studies should incorporate more colors, control groups, and detailed color parameters for further in-depth analysis. The findings of this study provide practical guidance and insights for classroom designers, educators, and other participants in the education industry. In addition, this study provides valuable comparative information for studies focusing on different regional and cultural contexts and enriches color psychology theory by providing empirical support.