A Study on the Visual Perception of Cultural Value Characteristics of Traditional Southern Fujian Architecture Based on Eye Tracking

Abstract

The traditional Southern Fujian architecture serves as a reflection of the region’s deeply rooted cultural values. However, research on the architectural and cultural heritage of Southern Fujian remains scarce. Accordingly, this study employs eye-tracking technology to experiment with 20 individuals with local cultural backgrounds and 20 without it to investigate the differences in the perception of the architectural heritage of Southern Fujian by individuals with disparate cultural backgrounds. The findings indicate that distinct groups evince disparate visual perceptions of the architectural and cultural heritage of Southern Fujian. The participants’ attention was divided into two categories: patterns and shapes and calligraphy and text. Non-locals were primarily drawn to patterns and shapes, whereas locals demonstrated a greater interest in the calligraphy and text category. The extraction of cultural information from calligraphic characters requires greater understanding and more time spent within the culture. Knowledge of local cultural backgrounds is helpful to better understand such information. This highlights the potential impact of Southern Fujian architecture on the local population. These findings provide a compelling rationale for the incorporation of multicultural elements in contemporary architectural design while also advocating for the preservation and advancement of Southern Fujian architectural heritage.

1. Introduction

Architectural heritage constitutes an integral component of cultural heritage, which encompasses a rich regional culture and possesses significant historical and artistic value [1]. There is an increasing awareness of the importance of protecting architectural heritage [2]. With the development of architectural heritage protection consciousness, the emphasis on protection has shifted from the protection of the entity itself to a focus on the intrinsic value of the assets in question [3]. In light of the growing recognition of the significance of value-based heritage conservation, a considerable body of academic research has emerged, delving into a multitude of related topics, including the conceptualization of values, the construction of heritage value systems, the classification of heritage values, and strategies for the protection and utilization of these values.

Austrian art theorist Alois Riegl was a seminal figure in the classification of the diverse values inherent in heritage conservation practices. He establishes criteria for value assessment and analysis, elucidates the intrinsic contradictions between the various values inherent to architectural heritage, and demonstrates the impact of historical and epochal values on cultural conservation strategies. Similarly, in Value and Heritage Conservation, Jukka Jokileh provides a classification of heritage values in accordance with ICOMOS conventions and documents, as well as an analysis of the concept of “outstanding universal value” [4].

Since the mid-1970s, an increasing number of scholars have recognized the economic value of architectural heritage and advocated its revitalization and reuse as a key strategy for urban development [5]. By the mid-to-late 1980s, research on the conservation and reuse of architectural heritage evolved to encompass the perspectives of urban dwellers, extending beyond professional value judgments and restoration practices. These perspectives encompass historical memory, aesthetic preferences, and the economic value of architectural heritage. Currently, a comprehensive evaluation paradigm and index system have been established to assess architectural heritage from five dimensions: historical value, artistic value, scientific value, social value, and cultural value.

The Southern Fujian region is located in the southeastern part of Fujian Province and boasts a multitude of architectural work that illuminates the social and cultural history of the region. Fujian Province’s coastline accounts for one-fifth of China, and it has driven the people of Southern Fujian to develop towards the sea. During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, Southern Fujian was the largest port in the country. The development of maritime transportation facilitated the exchange of cultures between China and foreign countries and left obvious traces of marine culture on the folk houses of Southern Fujian. The combination of Chinese and Western elements has become a major feature of folk houses in Southern Fujian. Traditional folk houses in Southern Fujian are built with red bricks in various patterns, creating a splendid red brick culture, which is identical to the architectural techniques of ancient Islamic buildings. This has aroused great interest from scholars and produced a large number of research results.

Li and Miao conducted an investigation into the distribution of traditional residential buildings in Southern Fujian, as well as the various factors affecting the spatial evolution of buildings [6,7]. Xia, Hu, and Yao conducted a comprehensive analysis of traditional houses in Southern Fujian, examining their basic structural forms and decorative types [8,9,10]. Jin and Zhou conducted a study to investigate the reasons for and evolution of the use of color in ancient residential buildings in Southern Fujian, as well as its application in contemporary artworks [11,12]. Cao X., Yang, and CY conducted a structural analysis of traditional brick and stone walls in Southern Fujian and employed fuzzy mathematical techniques to evaluate their characteristics [13,14]. Zihao. C conducted a comprehensive investigation into the interrelationship between traditional architectural forms and identity formation in Huizhou and Southern Fujian, highlighting the pivotal role of architectural heritage in fostering community cohesion [15].

The methods commonly used to assess visual perception are eye-tracking techniques, Electrooculography (EOG) [16] and Scleral Search Coils [17]. Compared to the other methods, eye-tracking devices are smaller, more convenient to wear [18], more precise [19], and do not cause discomfort to the wearer [20], making them more suitable for dynamic observation situations.

Eye-tracking technology can identify fixed points and features of objects in real or virtual environments. This technology allows researchers to conduct accurate and comprehensive data analysis [21].

Eye-tracking technology has been widely utilized in a multitude of fields, including advertising graphics [22,23,24,25], game product design [26,27], machine learning, and IoT technologies [16]. In addition, it has been applied to fields as diverse as library and information science [28], virtual reality [29], special education [30], emotion recognition [31], language research [32], and aviation safety [33].

In the field of building environment research, eye-tracking techniques have been employed to examine visual preferences in urban and rural landscapes, as well as in images of streetscapes. For example, Shen evaluated the spatial visual characteristics of the continuous landscape of the Saipoji Temple in Japan [34]. Lien Dupont employed eye-tracking technology to conduct a survey of potential users’ visual assessments of the landscape [35]. Xing and Y employed a methodology that integrated eye-tracking with subjective questionnaires to assess spatial perception in traditional villages [36]. Lee Chae identified environmental factors that contribute to the exacerbation of women’s fear of crime on public streets [37,38].

Peng Wang, Reitstätter, L., Sitong Zhou, and Zao Li all employ eye-tracking technology for the analysis of buildings or environments [39,40,41,42]. These studies encompassed a range of settings, including villages, temples, and urban streetscapes, emphasizing that user perception is the core element of the evaluation system.

In conclusion, architectural heritage, as a vital repository of regional cultural history, is receiving increasing attention for its value assessment and need for protection. The distinctive natural environment and cultural background of Southern Fujian have fostered the growth of a substantial and diverse traditional architectural heritage. While previous research has primarily focused on aspects such as craftsmanship, decoration, and cultural connotations, there has been a dearth of systematic evaluation of heritage value. Recently, the application of eye-tracking technology in architectural environments has provided a novel perspective for the assessment of heritage value.

Despite valuable insights from prior domestic and international studies, there remain three significant gaps:

• The Inclusion of Different Cultural Groups: there has been limited research involving diverse cultural groups.
• The Application of Eye-Tracking Technology in Southern Fujian Architecture: the use of eye-tracking technology to study Southern Fujian regional architectural heritage remains underexplored.
• Specialized Studies on the Cognition of Cultural Characteristics: there has been no focused research on the cognition of cultural characteristic information inherent in Southern Fujian’s regional architectural heritage.

To address these gaps, this study aims to answer three key questions using eye-tracking technology:

• What are the cultural value characteristics of Southern Fujian’s regional architectural heritage? Which cultural value attributes are effectively recognized?
• What carriers of cultural value characteristics in the scene are easily noticed?
• What are the differences in the behavioral cognition of different cultural groups to the characteristics of architectural and cultural value?

These problems need to be further explored through comprehensive research and discussion. Accordingly, this study utilizes eye-tracking technology to investigate the traditional red-brick mansions in the Southern Fujian region. This study aims to investigate the cultural characteristics of architectural elements, conduct a thorough examination of the cultural value characteristics of architectural heritage, and elucidate the laws governing human perception. Additionally, it seeks to reveal the cultural value characteristics of Southern Fujian’s traditional architectural heritage and to gain insight into the public’s overall cognitive level of architectural heritage cultural elements and the perceptual differences in specific cultural elements.

The novelty of this study lies in its integration of eye-tracking technology into the field of architectural heritage research, specifically focusing on Southern Fujian’s traditional red-brick mansions. While previous studies have emphasized craftsmanship, decoration, and cultural connotations, this research provides a systematic approach to evaluating the cognitive recognition of cultural value attributes through advanced visual behavior analysis. By incorporating eye-tracking technology, this study introduces a quantitative methodology to assess how different cultural groups perceive and interact with architectural elements, bridging the gap between traditional qualitative assessments and modern technological approaches. Moreover, this is one of the first studies to apply eye tracking to Southern Fujian architecture, providing novel insights into the public’s cognitive engagement with the cultural heritage of this region, thereby advancing both the fields of heritage conservation and perceptual analysis.

The remainder of this article is organized as follows: Section 2 is the Materials and Methods and presents the research methodology, including the design of the eye-tracking experiment, participant selection, and the cultural characteristics of architecture in Southern Fujian. Section 3 provides experimental data analysis, which details the results of the eye-tracking experiment, highlighting key findings regarding the visual behavior of participants from different cultural backgrounds. Section 4 is the Discussion and provides a discussion of the results, contextualizing them within the broader literature on architectural heritage and cultural value perception. Finally, Section 5 gives the Conclusions of the study by summarizing the key contributions, discussing limitations, and offering directions for future research.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Objects and Cultural Characteristics of Architecture in the Southern Fujian Region

This study takes the traditional architecture of Southern Fujian in Xiamen, Fujian Province, selecting the Liantang Villa as the research object after investigating several architectural complexes, including the Liantang Villa, Xin’an Huizuo Village Ancient House Group, Wang Qingxiang’s Residence, and the “Dafu Mansion”. Liantang Villa was chosen due to its well-preserved condition, grandeur, and open terrain, which is suitable for eye-tracking experiments.

The Liantang Villa is grand in scale and highly skilled in construction; the architectural complex covers a total area of 8235 square meters. It consists of residential areas, a school, and a home temple. The Liantang Villa began during the reign of Guangxu in the Qing Dynasty and was completed in 1906. The Liantang Villa is notable for its grandeur and exceptional construction craftsmanship. The red brick adorns the facade, almost covering all the hollow brick masonry patterns of Southern Fujian, showing the highest level of artisans at the time. Skilled carving is distributed around the building, the content of which is mostly based on flowers and beasts, with exquisite composition an elegant and lifelike mood, making Liantang Villa a rare masterpiece of carving art in Southern Fujian. In addition, there are a large number of colored sculptures and calligraphy works in the villa, which are precious cultural heritages in the architectural art of red-brick mansions in Southern Fujian.

Through field investigation, interviews, and a literature review, this study summarizes the cultural values characteristic of Southern Fujian architecture embodied in Liantang Villa in Haicang District in

Table 1. Cultural characteristics of architecture in Southern Fujian.

Element	Meaning	Picture
Swallow-tail ridge	The swallow-tail ridge is the main ridge of the building curved into the tail of the swallow, hence the name “swallow-tail ridge”.
Saddle-shaped ridge	The saddle-shaped ridge serves as a ridge decoration, with various patterns symbolizing different meanings. For instance, motifs like bats are meant to bring good fortune, while clouds symbolize wishes for a happy and prosperous life.
Stone carvings (patterns and calligraphic texts)	Stone carving skills in Southern Fujian are excellent. In the building, the common patterns of stone carvings are dragons and phoenixes, reflecting people’s prayers for good luck.
Wood carvings (patterns and calligraphic texts)	Most traditional buildings in Southern Fujian are constructed using wooden structures. Southern Fujian wood carvings are notable for their distinctive local characteristics and are widely used in various building parts.
Painting	Color painting is a crucial element of traditional architectural decoration, characterized by heavy brushwork, a decorative style, and ink-dyeing techniques. In Southern Fujian architecture, the combination of painting and wood carving creates a “combination of carving and coloring”.
Red bricks	Red bricks are highly characteristic elements in the architectural decoration of Southern Fujian. Patterns drawn or carved in relief on the red tiles often feature auspicious symbols or folklore scenes.
Hollow brick masonry	Hollow brick masonry is a unique form of brick-art in Southern Fujian’s architecture. This intricate masonry technique creates exquisite geometric patterns, demonstrating the region’s ingenuity in architectural decoration and symbolizing aspirations and prayers for a better life.
Colored sculptures (patterns and calligraphic texts)	Jiaotou pottery represents a unique ceramic application in Southern Fujian’s architectural decoration. This technique reflects the history of cultural exchanges between Southern Fujian and Southeast Asia.

.

2.2. Selection of Experimental Materials

In order to obtain a representative sample, over 100 high-quality images of the Liantang Villa architectural landscape were captured under consistent imaging technology and weather conditions. These images were then used as experimental materials in the subsequent analysis. The selection of images was conducted in accordance with the following principles:

• Avoid spatial similarity: the images of each building should be taken from different scenes to ensure the diversity of architectural styles.
• The representativeness of the scene: the selected photos should be able to reflect the typical characteristics of the ancient house of red brick in Southern Fujian.
• The typicality of scene information and spatial location: the image should be able to contain two or more iconic features of Southern Fujian red brick ancient houses.

Previous studies have demonstrated that too many images tend to fatigue participants in eye-tracking experiments [43] and that fewer images collect enough data to assess the perception of different image complexities [44]. Following expert discussion, 12 images were selected based on the above criteria, comprising four distant-view modeling images and eight close-up images. The sample images have a resolution of 4032 × 3024 pixels, 300 dpi, with an aspect ratio of 3:4 or 4:3.

2.3. The Experimenter Selected

The objective of this study is to investigate the differences in visual perception of Southern Fujian traditional architecture among individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. To this end, two control groups have been included: the two control groups are designated as Group A and Group B.

Group A serves to test the visual preferences of participants with limited familiarity with the architectural culture of Southern Fujian. The sample consisted of 20 participants, primarily from the School of Architecture and Civil Engineering at Xiamen University and non-local residents. The majority of participants in Group A traveled to the Southern Fujian region for work or education and had not previously engaged with Southern Fujian architectural culture in a systematic manner prior to their arrival. Some had visited traditional Southern Fujian red-brick mansions yet lacked an in-depth comprehension of their cultural connotations.

Group B examines the visual preferences of participants who are familiar with Southern Fujian architectural culture. They comprise 20 participants, the majority of whom are local residents or individuals with specialized knowledge of Southern Fujian architecture. These participants have been exposed to traditional Southern Fujian architecture from an early age and have developed a certain level of understanding of its distinctive features and cultural connotations.

Neither group had previously visited Liantang Villa prior to the experiment, thus ensuring that their perceptions were not influenced by any prior familiarity with this specific site. The demographic analysis of the experimenters is recorded in

Table 2. Demographic information of experimental personnel.

Group	Stats	Categories	Frequency	Percentage
Non-local cultural group (Group A)	Gender	Male	12	60
		Female	8	40
	Age	20–30 years old	11	55
		20–40 years old	6	30
		40–50 years old	3	15
		Over 50 years old	0	0
	Education	High school and below	7	35
		Undergraduate	5	25
		Master’s degree	7	35
		Doctoral degree	1	5
	The period in Southern Fujian	Within a year	13	65
		1–3 years	1	5
		3–5 years	5	25
		5+ years	1	5
Local cultural group (Group B)	Gender	Male	12	60
		Female	8	40
	Age	20–30 years old	8	40
		20–40 years old	3	15
		40–50 years old	4	20
		50+	5	25
	Education	College degree and below	10	50
		Undergraduate course	3	15
		Master’s degree	6	30
		Doctoral degree	1	5
	The period in Southern Fujian	Within a year	0	0
		1–3 years	0	0
		3–5 years	0	0
		5+ years	20	100

as follows.

2.4. Experimental Procedure

Considering the significant interference that light can cause in eye-tracking experiments [45], our experiment was conducted in a room devoid of outdoor light sources. The experimenter sat at a table and watched pictures projected on a computer screen. The only light source other than the computer was the internal lighting of the room. We used a portable eye tracker manufactured by Senso Motoric Instruments (SMI), Teltow, Germany. With a sampling frequency of 250 Hz and a weight of only 246 g. The eye tracker manufactured is show in Figure 1. The eye tracker can be worn for free observation without any discomfort and is not restricted by large equipment, thus allowing participants greater mobility in the experimental space. Eye movement data were recorded using a Samsung Galaxy mobile phone (Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd., Suwon-si, South Korea) for up to 4 h of continuous on-site recording. The device was integrated with the Begaze (Version 3.5.101.9021) software analysis platform for the statistical analysis of eye movement data. Figure 2 outlines the experimental procedure for the eye-tracking study. The procedure is as follows:

2.5. Selection of Eye Movement Indicators

During the data analysis process, we primarily employed indicators such as time to first fixation, the number of fixation points, total fixation duration, and average fixation duration to analyze the participants’ visual perception while viewing architectural heritage. The specific meanings of these indicators are shown in

Table 3. The meaning of eye movement metrics.

Metrics	Acronyms	Meaning
First fixation duration	FFD	Duration of gaze when the experimenter’s eyes first entered the AOI
Fixation counts	FC	The number of gaze points represents the number in a selected AOI
Fixation duration	FD	Total time spent by testers observing an AOI
Average fixation duration	AFD	Average time observed per gaze
Fixation duration per area	FDQA	Gaze duration per unit area

.

FFD reflects the immediacy of the participant’s reaction when exposed to a culturally significant element, indicating its visual prominence or emotional resonance. FFD helps determine which cultural elements capture attention most quickly, signaling their relative importance to the viewer.

A higher FC suggests that the participant found the cultural feature engaging or complex, which may indicate its perceived cultural significance or the need for further cognitive processing to understand its value.

FD is the total time spent observing a particular AOI. Longer durations imply that the participant is engaging more deeply with the cultural element, either due to its complexity or its perceived importance.

AFD is useful for gauging how long participants generally focus on particular cultural elements during a single fixation. A longer AFD could indicate that the viewer is pondering the cultural significance or complexity of the element, reflecting deeper cognitive processing.

FDQA provides a normalized measure of how much attention a cultural element receives in relation to its size. A larger cultural element might naturally attract more gaze duration, so FDQA helps control the size of the AOI, ensuring that attention is not just due to its physical size but also its cultural value. This metric helps compare the attention given to different-sized cultural elements, providing a more objective assessment of their perceived significance.

2.6. AOI Area Definition

AOI is a clearly delineated segment of stimulus space and plays a pivotal role in the experimental design of the study [46]. In this experiment, we used Begaze software to classify various decorative components of traditional buildings in Southern Fujian and defined them as discrete AOI regions. The above elements include stone carvings, wood carvings, brick carvings, sculptures, paintings, and so on. By classifying these AOIs, the visual behaviors and perceptual differences shown by participants in different AOI regions can be studied. Figure 3 illustrates the distribution of the AOIs across all scenes employed in the experiment.

3. Experimental Data Analysis

3.1. Characteristics of Visual Behavior of Architectural Heritage When Viewing Different Scenes by Different Groups of Participants

In this part of the experiment, we selected four different scenes. In Figure 4, the first and second column show the Heat Maps of the Group A and B as they watch from a distance. The darker-colored areas (red) in the heat map indicated that the location had been watched for longer and had a larger FD value.

Distant-view 1 presents the front elevation of the “Wan Zai Tang” hall in Liantang Villa, lavishly adorned with traditional Southern Fujian elements such as swallow-tailed ridges, stone carvings, wood carvings, and paintings. When observing Distant-view 1, the following is evident:

• Group A participants primarily focused on the swallow-tailed ridge above the roof and the central paintings.
• Group B participants concentrated their gaze more on the building itself, particularly on the painted ancestral hall door, the wooden plaque above the door, and the stone-carved couplets flanking the entrance. Additionally, Group B also observed other stone-carved couplets near the main door, which were largely overlooked by Group A.

Distant-view 2 depicts the lateral aspect of Liantang Villa, comprising a stone base and a rammed earth wall. The wall is characterized by a minimalist aesthetic, with only red brickwork above the doorway on the left side and plaster patterns decorating the saddle ridge above.

This wall is relatively sparsely decorated, with only red bricks above the doorway on the left and a saddle-shaped ridge above the gable. Group A’s gaze was more focused on the red brick door on the right during the observation, and Group B focused more on the saddle ridge and was also more attracted by the red brick door on the left, but the duration of their gaze was relatively short. Both groups spent more time looking at the blank areas. The heat maps show that the doors, windows, and uneven filling of the intermediate color blocks attracted the attention of most of the testers.

Distant-views 3 and 4 present the front elevation of the outbuilding and the rear elevation of the “Wan Zai Tang” hall, respectively. In these scenes, both Groups A and B concentrated their gaze on the swallow-tailed ridges and saddle-shaped ridges; both groups also spent significant time looking at the large blank areas, which included visual elements like door and window openings and landscape plants. However, Group B’s gaze was relatively more focused compared to Group A’s gaze. In contrast, Group A participants’ gaze often lingered on the sky, surrounding trees, and non-architectural objects in the landscape.

The FFD, AFD, and FC values of Group A and B populations while watching different scenes are summarized in

Table 4. FFD, AFD, and FC of Group A and B populations at different scenes.

Scene	Element	FFD Group A	FFD Group B	AFD Group A	AFD Group B	FC Group A	FC Group B
Distant-view 1	White space	291.48	156.34	272.69	117.64	6.44	8.11
	Paintings	147.08	235.10	231.03	215.80	4.22	7.22
	Red bricks	133.63	112.53	270.43	348.66	1.11	0.78
	Wood carvings	254.61	259.97	294.11	324.01	2.00	1.89
	Wood carvings (text)	182.68	247.01	358.58	452.60	0.56	0.89
	Stone carvings	66.36	138.31	298.63	312.84	0.89	2.22
	Stone carvings (text)	11.32	93.51	228.08	285.56	0.44	2.67
	Sky	191.79	68.17	270.88	187.93	2.78	1.33
	Swallow-tail ridge	372.30	234.22	398.29	179.39	5.67	7.11
Distant-view 2	White space	210.69	234.16	219.56	150.40	14.30	18.33
	Saddle-shaped ridge	157.37	274.62	165.21	275.67	7.80	8.89
	Red bricks	272.01	235.62	301.82	246.29	5.64	4.96
	Sky	225.27	221.20	129.42	68.01	5.30	5.67
Distant-view 3	White space	202.15	180.27	161.11	99.33	16.20	21.22
	Red bricks	224.91	200.99	250.09	293.15	4.40	5.67
	Saddle-shaped ridge	393.23	304.18	285.30	363.48	5.80	5.44
	Sky	161.05	250.84	372.85	294.68	2.80	3.22
Distant-view 4	White space	143.09	269.92	133.16	93.58	14	17.66
	Red bricks	109.54	302.39	532.58	296.20	1.76	1.44
	Saddle-shaped ridge	169.24	273.08	468.93	650.71	3.7	3.88
	Sky	287.10	311.73	159.59	181.84	6.1	5.55
	Swallow-tail ridge	184.21	265.57	282.07	283.38	5.2	4.33

.

Group A showed the longest AFD on the swallowtail ridges, followed by the blank areas. Group B had a longer AFD for wood carvings (text) and red bricks. Swallow-tailed ridges are beautifully ornate and can easily attract visitors’ attention, especially for the first time. Lorenzo’s study highlights how people often perceive beautiful objects and individuals more positively and accurately upon their first encounter, as they tend to focus attention on aesthetically pleasing features [47]. Group B was most interested in the wood carvings (text) because they contained a wealth of cultural information that allowed them to learn basic information, such as the family name and family origins of the owner of the shrine.

In Distant-view 2, the longest FFD for Group A participants was the red bricks, with an FC count of 5.64. For Group B participants, the longest FFD was on the saddle-shaped ridge, with an FC count of 8.89.

Red bricks and saddle-shaped ridges are key representatives of the cultural value characteristics of Southern Fujian architecture. Without understanding their cultural significance, brightly colored red bricks and tiles are more likely to capture initial interest. In this scene, the large blank area includes various objects such as doors, windows, color blocks on walls, and stone foundations, which attracted some participants’ attention. The blank areas exhibited the highest fixation count among all categories, but their average FFD was not prominent. Figure 5 presents the FFD, AFD, and FC values for Groups A and B while viewing different architectural elements.

In Distant-views 3 and 4, the maximum FC for both Group A and B participants is concentrated on the blank areas, mainly due to the large size of the blank areas and the presence of many elements. The maximum FFD for Groups A and B occurred for the saddle-shaped ridge area. Compared to Scene 2, the number and duration of the participants’ fixations on the saddle-shaped ridge gradually increased.

The cultural element carriers present in each scene were analyzed using an independent samples t-test. The results in

Table 5. The paired sample t-test for each indicator in view.

Scene	Element	Levin’s Test for Variance Equality			Mean Equality t-Test		Difference 95% Confidence Interval
			F	Salience	t	Significance	Lower Bound	Upper Limit
Distant-view 1.	Paintings	FFD	2.35	0.15	−1.45	0.166	−216.48	40.44
		FC	0.11	0.74	−3.37	0.004	−6.88	−1.57
		AFD	0.13	0.72	−0.28	0.781	−137.53	105.10
	Red bricks	FFD	0.57	0.46	0.32	0.756	−120.69	162.90
		FC	0.26	0.62	0.74	0.468	−0.62	1.28
		AFD	0.88	0.36	0.04	0.968	−213.36	221.77
	Wood carvings	FFD	0.02	0.89	−0.05	0.963	−247.60	236.89
		FC	0.46	0.51	0.13	0.902	−1.77	2.00
		AFD	0.04	0.84	0.16	0.873	−223.40	260.51
	Wood carvings(text)	FFD	0.13	0.73	−3.05	0.008	−222.26	−39.83
		FC	2.52	0.13	−1.41	0.176	−1.39	0.28
		AFD	0.05	0.82	−3.40	0.004	−192.59	−44.58
	Stone carvings	FFD	2.10	0.17	−3.53	0.003	−155.31	−38.70
		FC	0.04	0.84	−3.91	0.001	−2.74	−0.81
		AFD	1.24	0.28	−1.59	0.131	−295.73	42.10
	Stone carvings(text)	FFD	3.24	0.09	−3.42	0.004	−118.90	−27.90
		FC	7.72	0.01	−3.72	0.002	−2.62	−0.72
		AFD	0.00	0.98	−2.45	0.026	−267.26	−19.39
	Swallow-tail ridge	FFD	2.36	0.14	3.07	0.007	44.61	244.63
		FC	0.84	0.37	−0.75	0.462	−5.51	2.62
		AFD	0.21	0.65	4.33	0.001	85.72	249.98
Distant-view 2	Red bricks	FFD	1.406	0.25	1.448	0.164	−64.3231	352.8995
		FC	0.935	0.346	0.875	0.393	−0.696	1.696
		AFD	0.46	0.506	1.285	0.214	−77.1991	322.7985
	Saddle-shaped ridge	FFD	0.639	0.434	−4.244	0.001	−154.674	−52.5057
		FC	3.653	0.071	0.323	0.750	−2.893	3.948
		AFD	0.03	0.865	−4.317	0.002	−177.366	−61.5376
Distant-view 3	Red bricks	FFD	7.348	0.015	0.9	0.385	−69.0797	166.8908
		FC	0.068	0.797	−0.52	0.61	−3.947	2.391
		AFD	5.541	0.032	−1.765	0.108	−107.656	12.50304
	Saddle-shaped ridge	FFD	1.068	0.315	2.345	0.031	17.44814	317.4919
		FC	0.012	0.913	0.731	0.474	−1.687	3.487
		AFD	10.577	0.004	0.985	0.347	−66.351	172.6824
Distant-view 4	Red bricks	FFD	0.381	0.545	−2.143	0.047	−298.541	−2.33634
		FC	4.179	0.057	−0.6	0.556	−1.354	0.754
		AFD	0.334	0.571	−2.344	0.031	−281.529	−14.7979
	Saddle-shaped ridge	FFD	1.623	0.22	−3.097	0.007	−152.967	−29.0061
		FC	1.646	0.217	0.365	0.72	−1.487	2.109
		AFD	0.569	0.461	−3.801	0.001	−321.178	−91.9098
	Swallow-tail ridge	FFD	0.273	0.608	−0.393	0.699	−218.82	150.1556
		FC	0.154	0.7	1.443	0.167	−0.869	4.624
		AFD	0.497	0.49	0.709	0.488	−82.5178	165.992

indicate no significant statistical differences in FFD, FC, and AFD for non-textual architectural culture carriers between the two groups. However, a statistically significant difference was observed for text-containing carriers, particularly between Group A and Group B across most indicators. This suggests that the appeal of text-laden cultural carriers varies significantly between the groups, highlighting a pronounced sensitivity to textual elements.

For instance, in Distant-view 1, while the non-textual elements like paintings and red bricks did not yield significant differences, the wood carvings with text elements revealed a significant difference in FFD (t = −3.05, p = 0.008) and AFD (t = −3.40, p = 0.004), indicating that Group B participants exhibited longer initial gaze times and average fixation durations on these culturally rich items. Similar patterns were observed with stone carvings that included text, where notable differences were found in both FFD (t = −3.42, p = 0.004) and FC (t = −3.72, p = 0.002).

Additionally, the swallow-tail ridge demonstrated a significant difference in FFD (t = 3.07, p = 0.007) and AFD (t = 4.33, p = 0.001), suggesting that its intricate design and textual elements capture attention differently among the groups. These findings underscore the critical role that cultural and textual context plays in visual perception and highlight the importance of considering these factors in architectural design and cultural heritage studies.

3.2. Characteristics of Visual Behavior of Architectural Heritage When Viewing Different Architectural Elements by Various Groups of Participants

In addition to the swallow-tailed ridges, saddle-shaped ridges, and the characteristic use of red bricks, traditional Southern Fujian red-brick mansions boast an array of intricately crafted architectural decorations. These include wood carvings, stone carvings, hollow brick masonry, paintings, and colored sculptures. Such decorations are important cultural value carriers of Southern Fujian architecture. Given the intricate details of these elements, which cannot be fully appreciated from a distance, we conducted further experiments using eight close-up images taken at “Liantang Villa”. These images highlight various architectural decorations.

Table 6. Architectural elements included in each scene.

Picture	Element
Close-up 1	Wood carvings, Stone carvings, Wood carvings (text), Stone carvings (text), Paintings, Swallow-tail ridge
Close-up 2	Hollow brick masonry, Colored sculptures, Swallow-tail ridge, Red bricks, Saddle-shaped ridge
Close-up 3	Wood carvings, Hollow brick masonry, Stone carvings, Colored sculptures, Colored sculptures (text), Swallow-tail ridge
Close-up 4	Hollow brick masonry, Stone carvings, Colored sculptures, Colored sculptures (text), Paintings, Swallow-tail ridge, Saddle-shaped ridge, Red bricks
Close-up 5	Hollow brick masonry, Stone carvings (text), Colored sculptures, Colored sculptures (text), Paintings
Close-up 6	Stone carvings, Stone carvings (text), Colored sculptures, Colored sculptures (text), Paintings, Red bricks
Close-up 7	Stone carvings, Stone carvings (text), Colored sculptures, Paintings
Close-up 8	Hollow brick masonry, Colored sculptures, Wood carvings, Stone carvings, Stone carvings (text)

provides the specifics of each close-up image.

In Figure 6, the first and second column show the Heat Maps of the Group A and B as they watch from a close range. The darker-colored areas (red) in the heat map indicated that the location had been watched for longer and had a larger FD value. The heat maps in Figure 6 demonstrate notable discrepancies in the observation outcomes of architectural embellishments between Group A and Group B participants. In Close-up 1, Group A participants demonstrated a notable interest in the swallow-tailed ridge, stone carvings, and wood carvings. However, the inscriptions carved on the stone columns flanking the image were largely overlooked by Group A participants, whereas they attracted considerable attention from Group B participants. Furthermore, Close-up 2 depicts the saddle-shaped ridge observed in the distant views. The saddle-shaped ridge is more ornate than those in Distant-view 2, attracting greater attention from both Group A and Group B. Furthermore, when the gaze of both groups first moved to the colored sculptures and hollow brick masonry, they exhibited a longer duration of fixation.

In Close-up 3, both Group A and Group B focused their attention on a large area of blue bricks. In addition, participants’ eyes lingered longer on the well-preserved colored sculptures on both sides of the blue brick carving. In Close-ups 4 and 5, the brick carvings and colored sculptures continued to attract considerable attention from Group A participants. Meanwhile, the inscriptions on the colored sculptures began to arouse interest in Group A participants, resulting in a gradual increase in the duration of their fixation on the inscriptions. However, they still demonstrated a lower level of attention to the stone-carved couplets on the right column, whereas Group B participants consistently maintained a high level of observation of the textual elements throughout.

In Close-ups 6, 7, and 8, extensive areas of stone-carved inscriptions commanded the attention of Group A participants. In Close-up 7, the stone couplets often ignored by Group A participants were moved from the periphery of the scene to the center of the picture, thus significantly increasing participants’ attention. In Close-up 8, the side-by-side brick carvings and colored sculptures significantly increased the fixation time of the participants on the latter.

The aforementioned analysis demonstrates that Group B participants exhibit a heightened sensitivity to the textual information embedded within architectural elements when compared to Group A participants. In the context of traditional Southern Fujian architecture, the meanings conveyed by inscriptions are closely intertwined with local customs and family origins. Group A participants, lacking familiarity with the conventions of traditional Southern Fujian architecture, may encounter difficulties in interpreting the information conveyed by the inscriptions, leading to a lack of interest in these textual elements. Therefore, it can be posited that more intuitive images, vivid colors, and unique shapes are more likely to capture the interest of Group A participants.

Table 7. FC, FD, FDPA, and AFD for Group A and B populations for different architectural elements.

Element	Relative Area	Part 1				Part 2
		FC	FD	FDPA	AFD	FC	FD	FDPA	AFD
White space	78.05	1656	327,979	4202	198.1	1432	317,092	4063	221.4
Painting	9.82	498	171,604	17,467	344.6	335	101,263	10,307	302.3
Wood carving	13.82	442	134,464	9729	304.2	505.98	161,363	11,676	318.9
Wood carving (text)	1	33	10,703	10,704	324.4	74	16,967	16,967	229.3
Stone carving	5.12	152	43,300	8452	284.9	204	38,234	7463	187.4
Stone carving (text)	2.79	89	35,010	12,537	393.4	245	82,163	29,423	335.4
Sky	11.6	104	20,571	1773	197.8	136	27,460	2368	201.9
Swallow-tail ridge	9.83	477	117,914	11,993	247.2	268	81,888	8329	305.6
Red bricks	2.48	148	35,341	14,272	238.8	97	26,367	10,649	271.8
Saddle-shaped ridge	3.76	165	46,755	12,436	283.4	249	48,191	12,818	193.5
Hollow brick masonry	12.16	642.5	197,845	16,272	307.9	528	165,559	13,616	313.6
Colored sculptures	21.52	1136	360,206	16,735	317.1	707	201,386	9356	284.8
Colored sculpture (text)	5.9	247	83,763	14,904	379.6	343	123,863	21,010	361.1

presents the longest FD and the highest FC for participants in Groups A and B in the blank areas. Given the significant impact that the location and size of each element can have on observation results, the FDQA (fixation duration per unit area) is calculated based on the area size of the smallest element, “wood carving (text)”, in order to determine the preferences of Groups A and B participants for each architectural decorative element.

The results showed that Group A participants had the highest FDQA values for architectural elements, such as painting, color sculpture, and brick carving, which can be explained by their preference for elements with complex shapes and bright colors.

Among these carvings, the number of fixed gaze times on brick carvings is significantly higher than that of wood carvings and stone carvings. In contrast, participants in Group B showed a clear preference for architectural elements containing inscriptions. The participants in Group B clearly preferred stone inscriptions over other elements containing text. The stone inscriptions in the scene are divided into two categories: stone antithetical couplets and stone window inscriptions. The former gives an idea of the aspirations and values of the family to which the building belongs, while the latter occupies a larger area and is often painted bright red after carving, which is a prominent feature of the scene.

Figure 7 demonstrates that, for both groups, text elements display a higher AFD in comparison to other architectural elements. This suggests that participants require a greater investment of their time to extract information from text-containing architectural elements. Compared with Group B, Group A subjects had a significantly higher AFD for text elements, indicating that familiarity with traditional Southern Fujian culture helped them understand the cultural information contained in these texts more quickly. In addition to textual elements, paintings and wood carvings also demonstrate relatively high AFD values. This may be attributed to the fact that Southern Fujian architecture features paintings and wood carvings with traditional depictions of flora, fauna, birds, beasts, and various mythical creatures and stories. While these cultural carriers enhance the cultural connotation of traditional Southern Fujian architecture, they also require more from observers, making it more challenging for them to extract information from these intricate designs.

3.3. Concerns About Cultural Information at the Scene

In traditional Southern Fujian red-brick mansions, each architectural element is imbued with a specific meaning and exists in a state of interdependence with the whole. Together, they constitute the spiritual and cultural connotations of Southern Fujian red-brick mansions.

A comparison of the data and eye movement heat maps in Figure 8 reveals that the two test groups, Group A and Group B, responded differently to the scene. Ancestral halls serve a number of functions, including the housing of ancestral spirits, the offering of sacrifices, the expression of family hierarchy, and the strengthening of family ties. The heat maps demonstrate that the visual fixation of Group A participants is most concentrated on the swallow-tailed ridge in the upper left of the image, indicating a significant interest in this roof outline. Although the swallow-tailed ridge is the most salient feature, it is not a principal element of cultural significance in this scene. Group A participants demonstrate a reduced level of attention to the plaques and couplets that contain key textual information reflecting the clan significance of the ancestral hall. In contrast, they direct their attention more towards the sky, the front square, and other areas that are not directly related to the architectural theme, with longer periods of fixation on these regions.

In contrast, the visual focus of Group B participants was on images, especially the plaques, paintings, and stone couplets on both sides of the ancestral hall. They paid less attention to objects that were not directly related to the building itself. Although there was some deviation in their line of sight, it did not become a fixed hot spot; instead, their gaze remained focused on the architectural elements.

This analysis shows that participants from Southern Fujian are better at identifying architectural culture carriers and key information in the scene and are less disturbed by secondary factors. This result is consistent with our previous analysis of each architectural culture carrier. It can be concluded that the choice preference for cultural value carriers in the scene is closely related to the cognitive background and habits of the participants. Figure 8 describes the visual behavior characteristics of Group A and Group B when viewing ancestral halls from a distance. Due to the lack of understanding of the basic composition and cultural background of ancestral temples in Southern Fujian, Group A participants could not distinguish the main elements and secondary information in the architectural scene. It is difficult for them to discern which elements are closely related to the themes and cultural connotations expressed by the building, which elements deserve more attention, and which messages are not relevant. Therefore, there is no effective internal correlation between the fixed point of Group A participants and the cultural intention of the red-brick mansion in Southern Fujian.

A more detailed examination of the core regions in Vision 1 (Figure 9) reveals significant differences in the distribution of fixed points between the two groups of participants. The eyes of Group A participants focused on specific features, including intricate ornate patterns on carved stone doors and windows, paintings on doors, elaborate wood carvings, and dovetail ridges above. The columns on either side of the central axis were largely ignored. By contrast, the fixed focus of the subjects in Group B was concentrated on the plaque and the couplets on both sides, and the fixed time was longer.

This suggests that culturally significant elements in Feature 1 were of greater concern to Group B subjects than those that found them merely refined and aesthetically pleasing. People with local cultural backgrounds showed a clear visual preference for written information, and they will invest a lot of time and energy into identifying and understanding the connotations and meaning of the text. The text content and its cultural connotations did not arouse the same interest among Group A participants, who showed a clear cognitive preference for the formal and aesthetic aspects of the architectural appearance.

The experimental results let us intuitively understand the value and function of written materials in the red-brick mansion in Southern Fujian. Information-rich elements, such as plaques and couplets, easily evoke the visual attention and cognitive engagement of participants with similar cultural backgrounds, thus promoting the enhancement of aesthetic experience. Text messages proved to be an effective means of capturing the attention of the local test group.

The results of the eye movement experiment clearly show that compared with Group A participants, Group B participants were more inclined to understand the cultural meaning conveyed by the scene through the important cultural elements contained in the scene. Each architectural element in the scene resonates with other elements and complements each other, constituting the cultural connotation of traditional architecture in Southern Fujian. This has had a subtle influence on the aesthetic habits and cultural tastes of local audiences.

The influence of the audience’s cultural background on environmental cognition is an important factor. Even if they have not received systematic education on traditional architectural culture in Southern Fujian, local observers can instinctively draw their attention to elements rich in cultural information, such as plaques and couplets, during the observation process. This subconscious focus on culturally significant elements illustrates the important influence of cultural context on visual perception and appreciation.

However, factors such as participants’ prior exposure to certain architectural styles and potential fatigue during the experiment may have influenced these results. Participants familiar with Southern Fujian architecture may have exhibited a natural affinity and familiarity with culturally significant features, while unfamiliar participants might have focused more on visually prominent elements without cultural connotations. Additionally, participant fatigue, especially in an extended observation task, could have affected attention spans, possibly leading to variations in gaze patterns over time. Recognizing these factors can allow for a more balanced interpretation of the findings and underscores the need to account for both cultural familiarity and task-related fatigue in future studies.

4. Discussion

Following a comprehensive review of the pertinent literature, on-site observations, and investigative research, we have identified two primary categories of architectural heritage in Southern Fujian that exhibit cultural value characteristics: pattern and calligraphy. The pattern modeling category encompassed a distinctive dovetail ridge, saddle ridge, and an array of pattern symbols observed in painted, carved, and brickwork designs. Calligraphic characters primarily indicate the presence of calligraphic inscriptions and elements in wood, stone, brick, and color sculptures. The elements of pattern modeling are characterized by exquisite imagery, rich color, and superb craftsmanship. They possess not only high aesthetic value but also profound cultural connotations. To illustrate, the configuration of the dovetail ridge aligns with the climatic characteristics of the region, as well as a historical narrative associated with the ancient Min kingdom. The sign below the saddle ridge serves as a metaphor for the local populace’s aspirations for a brighter future. The extensive use of wood carving, stone carving, brick carving, and colored sculptures is closely related to the natural geographical environment of Southern Fujian. The patterns are predominantly derived from the local natural landscape and living customs. In contrast to the local customs and traditions reflected in the patterns and shapes, the calligraphy characters are often closely associated with the art of calligraphy and literary works. They serve to reflect the identity, aesthetic preferences, and cultural achievements of the owner of the building. This is exemplified by the wooden plaque hanging in Distant-view 1. In the cultural tradition of Southern Fujian, ancestral plaques are an indispensable element. They serve to identify the name of the ancestral hall, emphasize the family name, elucidate the evolution of the family’s origins, and more. The stone couplets on either side of the plaques predominantly articulate the legacy of the ancestors or the aspirations and sustenance of the descendants.

This study employed eye-tracking technology to examine the visual behaviors of participants from diverse cultural backgrounds when observing the architectural and cultural elements of Southern Fujian. The examination of eye movement behavior when viewing a form of architectural heritage reveals the significant impact of different cultural backgrounds. The FFD and FC of Group A were higher when observing pattern elements, whereas the FFD and FC of Group B were higher when observing wooden plaques, stone couplets, and other calligraphic elements. A statistical analysis of the indicators revealed that the FD and FC values generated by observing blank areas were the largest among all the AOI regions. As demonstrated by the study conducted by Na Li et al., this phenomenon can be attributed to the fact that blank areas constituted the largest portion of the observation image. Furthermore, the size and position of the image were identified as influencing factors in the observed results [48]. To eliminate the influence of area size, we introduced the fixed sight time FDQA per unit internal product as a means of judging the preference of Group A and Group B for each element. As evidenced in Table 5, the highest FDQA value observed in Group A was for pattern modeling elements, such as colored sculptures and empty bucket bricks. In contrast, the highest FDQA value observed in Group B was for the stone carving text and colored sculpture text. The research of Dogoan demonstrates that eye-tracking technology can elucidate the cognitive processes of observers in cultural heritage contexts, which resonates with the observation that participants from local cultural backgrounds exhibited a higher gaze time on text and calligraphy elements in this study [49]. These participants demonstrated the capacity to interpret the cultural information inherent in these architectural elements with greater alacrity, thereby substantiating the impact of cultural context on visual behavior and information extraction. Kizilkan and Yeşildal explored the visual impact of new cultural buildings within historical urban contexts and found that perceptions varied widely based on socio-demographic factors. This suggests that when designing or restoring architectural spaces, the consideration of the target population’s cultural background is not only important for preserving heritage but also for reflecting the evolving cultural identity of the community [50].

The FDQA value is consistently higher for both Group A and Group B when observing elements such as colored plastic, red brick, and empty bucket brick. This indicates that regardless of the experimental group, elements with vibrant colors and intricate shapes, such as painting, colored plastic, empty bucket brick, and red brick, tended to capture attention more effectively. Hollander employed eye-tracking technology to analyze the visual response in a traditional community design environment. The findings revealed that specific architectural elements, such as windows in the TND environment, had a pronounced visual impact on the subjects [51]. This suggests that visually salient architectural features play a critical role in how individuals engage with heritage sites and can be used to guide more targeted conservation strategies.

The present study reveals significant differences in visual behavior among participants from diverse cultural backgrounds, particularly when observing architectural heritage in Southern Fujian. These differences are evident in the varying degrees of attention paid to architectural elements, including patterns, shapes, calligraphy, and characters. This phenomenon can be explained by the cultural familiarity theory. As posited by Ueda and Komiya, an individual’s cultural background exerts a profound influence on their visual attention. Individuals with an East Asian cultural background demonstrate a greater inclination to attend to the background and context, whereas individuals with a Western cultural background exhibit a stronger tendency to focus on central objects [52]. This finding aligns with the observation that participants with a Southern Fujian cultural background demonstrate heightened visual engagement with calligraphy and character elements, rapidly apprehending the familiar characters and carving information inherent to the cultural context. In contrast, participants with foreign cultural backgrounds exhibited a proclivity for bright colors and intricate patterns. This indicates that their visual behavior is influenced more by compelling visual features than cultural connotations. In 2013, Liu investigated the perception of Chinese and Western paintings and discovered that individuals with an East Asian cultural background tend to focus on the overall background, whereas individuals with a Western cultural background are more inclined to attend to specific objects [53]. Moreover, Ksander’s research also lent support to this conclusion. He posited that cultural background not only affects individual visual behavior but also influences the visual processing mechanism of the cerebral cortex, which is represented by culture-specific visual processing patterns [54]. In this study, participants with a Southern Fujian cultural background demonstrated an enhanced ability to interpret the cultural information embedded in the calligraphy and architectural elements of characters. This was observed to reflect their familiarity with these elements, which not only affected their attention patterns but also facilitated the extraction of cultural information. Culturally sensitive designs should prioritize elements that resonate with specific cultural groups, incorporating both traditional and contemporary features that align with the visual and cognitive expectations of different populations. For example, Li emphasized how visual behavior characteristics are influenced by architectural elements such as size, prominence, and symbolic meaning, suggesting that integrating culturally significant elements in new designs or restorations can enhance public engagement and appreciation [48].

Regardless of whether they are Group A or Group B participants, the AFD of architectural cultural carriers in the calligraphy and text category is always higher than that of other architectural elements, indicating that it is more difficult for observers to obtain information from text-based carriers. For the observation of the same type of textual information, the AFD of Group A participants is always greater than that of Group B participants, indicating that Group B participants find it easier to extract information from architectural elements in the calligraphy and text category. This suggests that understanding the local cultural background helps observers comprehend the information contained in the text-based elements of Southern Fujian traditional architecture. It facilitates a connection with the cultural connotations expressed by Southern Fujian traditional architecture. Although most Group B participants are local people who have grown up in Southern Fujian, many have not systematically learned about the cultural background of Southern Fujian traditional architecture. Nevertheless, they can subconsciously focus on calligraphy and text elements rich in cultural meaning during the experiment and more quickly connect with the cultural connotations expressed by the architecture. This indicates that the rich cultural connotations of Southern Fujian’s traditional architecture have subtly influenced local viewers in their daily lives, making the culture embedded in traditional architecture an inseparable part of the spiritual civilization of the local population.

While this study provides valuable insights into the cultural perception of Southern Fujian architecture through the use of eye-tracking technology, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, the relatively small sample size may limit the generalizability of the findings to broader populations. Future research should aim to increase the number of participants to strengthen the statistical power and robustness of the results. Additionally, potential participant bias, encompassing the pre-existing level of familiarity with the architecture of Southern Fujian among non-local culture individuals, might have had an impact on visual attention patterns. Participants with prior exposure may exhibit different visual behaviors if they have experienced previous contact with it before. Furthermore, the study did not fully account for the influence of cultural background on the depth of understanding or recognition of specific architectural features. Different styles of Southern Fujian architecture may have affected the participants’ responses, leading to variability in how they engaged with the visual elements. Addressing these limitations in future research could provide more comprehensive insights into the influence of cultural background on architectural heritage perception and contribute to the refinement of this study.

5. Conclusions

This study employed eye-tracking technology to investigate the visual perception behavior characteristics of individuals with different cultural backgrounds towards Southern Fujian’s traditional architectural heritage. The principal findings are presented below:

• Categorization of Cultural Value Elements: We classified the elements of cultural value in Southern Fujian architectural heritage into two categories: patterns and shapes and calligraphy and writing. The architectural cultural carriers in the patterns and shapes category are reflective of the natural conditions and local customs of Southern Fujian. In contrast, those in the calligraphy and text category embody information pertaining to the status, aesthetic preferences, and cultural achievements of the architectural owner.
• Variations in Visual Behavior: Significant differences were observed in the visual behavior of participants with varying cultural backgrounds when observing architectural heritage. Those lacking the local cultural background of Southern Fujian inhabitants demonstrated a greater focus on architectural elements within the patterns and shapes category, which encompasses intricate designs, elaborate shapes, and vibrant colors. Their interest in the calligraphy and text category was pervasive, and their gaze was readily influenced by surrounding objects that were not directly related to the architectural features, resulting in a more dispersed distribution of fixations. In contrast, participants familiar with the local cultural background of Southern Fujian demonstrated a greater interest in the calligraphy and text category, with a more concentrated gaze and less influence from surrounding objects. Irrespective of their cultural background, elements within the patterns and shapes category were observed to effectively attract the attention of participants, whereas elements within the calligraphy and text category were found to hold greater appeal for participants with a local cultural background.
• Comprehension of Cultural Information: The eye-tracking experiment demonstrated that the elements within the calligraphy and text category of Southern Fujian traditional architecture contained substantial cultural information, which necessitated a greater investment of time to extract. A deeper understanding of local traditional cultural backgrounds allows for a more comprehensive comprehension of the information in question.
• Influence of Local Cultural Background: People with a local cultural background are also more likely to identify elements that are closely related to the themes and cultural connotations expressed by the building. In the course of our experiments, participants were more likely to connect with the cultural atmosphere created by traditional buildings. This shows that traditional architecture has a subtle impact on the aesthetic preferences and cultural tastes of local audiences, highlighting the importance of an audience’s cultural background in environmental perception.

This study sheds light on the cultural value characteristics of Southern Fujian’s architectural heritage and how they are perceived through the eye-tracking analysis of visual behavior. By exploring which architectural elements capture attention and how different cultural groups respond to them, this research offers valuable insights into the public’s perception of regional heritage. The findings highlight how these differences in visual attention can inform architects and designers in balancing various architectural components, ensuring that key cultural elements are preserved and emphasized. Beyond its academic contributions, this study has practical implications for architects, urban planners, and policymakers involved in cultural heritage preservation. By understanding how people from different cultural backgrounds engage with heritage sites, professionals can design spaces that both honor traditional values and accommodate contemporary needs. This work contributes to the ongoing dialog on how heritage can be thoughtfully integrated into modern architectural practice, promoting the cultural continuity and innovation of Southern Fujian’s rich architectural legacy.

Future research in this area should aim to address the limitations of this study and explore under-studied aspects of architectural heritage and cultural perception. First, expanding the sample size and incorporating a more diverse participant pool—including individuals from various cultural backgrounds and regions—can provide a broader understanding of how different groups engage with Southern Fujian architecture. Additionally, future studies could benefit from employing advanced technologies such as virtual reality (VR) or augmented reality (AR) in combination with eye tracking, allowing participants to interact with architectural environments more dynamically. These technologies could offer more immersive and realistic simulations of architectural spaces, yielding deeper insights into user engagement and perception.