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Review

Recycling of Mine Wastes in the Concrete Industry: A Review

by
Aiman El Machi
1,*,
Yahya El Berdai
2,
Safaa Mabroum
3,
Amine el Mahdi Safhi
4,
Yassine Taha
2,
Mostafa Benzaazoua
2 and
Rachid Hakkou
2,5
1
Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
2
Geology and Sustainable Mining Institute (GSMI), Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Ben-Guerir 43150, Morocco
3
Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Construction Engineering, University of Pisa, 56122 Pisa, Italy
4
Gina Cody School of Engineering and Computer Science, Concordia University, Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada
5
Faculty of Science and Technology, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech 40000, Morocco
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2024, 14(6), 1508; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061508
Submission received: 17 April 2024 / Revised: 6 May 2024 / Accepted: 15 May 2024 / Published: 23 May 2024
(This article belongs to the Collection Utilization of Waste Materials in Building Engineering)
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Abstract

:
The mining industry generates a substantial amount of waste materials, including tailings and waste rocks, which, if not managed correctly, pose threats to the environment and public health due to their long-term accumulation and disposal. Simultaneously, the construction sector consumes important amounts of natural resources like water and rocks. However, research shows that inert mining waste can serve as a substitute for conventional raw materials in construction, particularly in concrete. This review focuses on using mining waste as an alternative to concrete technology to promote cleaner practices in construction and circular economy in mining. Mining waste, with its physical characteristics and chemical composition, can function as diverse components in concrete, such as sand, aggregates, and binders. This article assesses these properties and explores their incorporation into concrete production, aiming to stimulate further research and development, foster environmentally responsible approaches, and underline the direct link to reaching SDGs to achieve sustainability in the construction industry.

1. Introduction

During various stages of mining operations, such as extraction, mineral beneficiation, and processing, substantial amounts of waste are generated. These mining wastes, which include both solids and liquids, are unwanted and unprofitable byproducts that are typically deposited near the mines or processing facilities [1]. Some examples are overburdens, waste rocks, tailing, process by-products, slag, and effluents [2,3]. Due to the production of dust and the potential leaching of heavy and toxic metals, these wastes pose serious storage issues on-site and threats to both the health and the environment. Massive amounts of mine waste are produced annually by mining operations. The Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development Project reports that there are roughly 3500 current mineral waste facilities around the world, mostly dams and dumps [4]. Global mining generates more than 100 billion tons of solid waste every year, which presents serious environmental problems that require effective management techniques [5]. An estimated 4 gigatons of waste is produced annually from metal mining globally [6].
The growing global demand for construction materials and the rapid expansion of the mining industry have presented a significant challenge in efficiently managing and repurposing mining wastes. In response, researchers have dedicated considerable efforts to exploring the reuse and value-adding potential of mine wastes in the production of construction materials, particularly concrete. These endeavors have shed light on the promising environmental and economic benefits that can be achieved through such practices.
Innovative concepts are being created for the management, recycling, and upcycling of waste in order to implement the principles of circular economy in the mining sector. Mine wastes have been recycled for several applications that include the removal of metals from wastewater and the capture of CO2 [7,8]. Additionally, these wastes have been shown to be new resources in other technologies, such as those of the construction industry, particularly in the production of building materials like concrete, geopolymers, and bricks and mortar. The valorization concept is a sustainable method for storing, managing, recycling, or reprocessing these wastes, improving mining’s environmental performance, and maximizing its social and economic advantages.
This paper reviews previous scientific studies on using mining waste as substitutes for traditional concrete materials. The main goal of this review is to identify the possible challenges and limitations related to the use of mine wastes in concrete. The influence of factors such as chemical composition and geotechnical properties on the performance of concrete are explored. Furthermore, the principle of waste recycling is discussed as an important factor in promoting a circular economy and sustainable development in the mining industry [9].

2. Methodology

A descending order search was carried out to research mining waste management, and recycling/valorization/reuse of mining waste in concrete. For this purpose, the authors selected a sample of more general topics, then carried out more specific searches on that sample until identifying representative papers. Firstly, the research was performed based on the parameters <Title–Abstract–Keywords> “recycling, OR reuse, OR valorization, AND mine AND waste, OR tailings, AND concrete” to cover all the papers related to the recycling of mining waste in concrete technology. The selected sample period was between 2002 and 2023. The final sample covered 106 papers including reviews and articles. To analyze papers on the management of mining waste and circular economy, a second search was performed based on the same parameters <Title–Abstract–Keywords> “mine AND waste AND reuse OR valorization OR recycling AND circular AND economy”. The result was a sample of 134 published articles from 2013 to 2023. In terms of studies from 2002 to 2022, researchers have been more interested in this subject in the last 6 years, surpassing the limit of 100 published papers. The distribution of published papers by year and country/territory is presented in Figure 1.

3. Mining Sector between Waste Management and Sustainability

The waste produced by mining could be solid or slurry. Typical waste types are tailings, waste rock, and slag. Waste is stored and deposited in ponds and dams following the local legislation on waste management treatment, applicable to each mining area [10]. This is mainly to prevent adverse environmental consequences. However, the stability of the tailings, acidity generation, and heavy metal release are the main environmental problems posed by these structures [11].
Catastrophic tailings dam failures have occurred in several countries, including Spain, Romania, China, and Brazil [12]. About 277 people died when a dam tragedy occurred in China in 2008 [13]. While the Vale iron tailings dam accident claimed the lives of 206 individuals in 2019 [4]. Additionally, the leaching of contaminants from waste rock and tailings results in serious human health concerns and environmental issues. A major problem with mining is acid mine drainage (AMD), which releases a huge quantity of sulfates, iron, and heavy metals. This phenomenon has a negative effect on groundwater quality and restricts how much water can be used downstream. While the expense of remediation for this continues to be high—approximately USD 1.5 billion each year [14].
Various mine waste disposal techniques are investigated, including conventional disposal, waste reuse, recycling, and reprocessing, as well as proactive management within the context of the United Nation’s SDGs and the implementation of the Paris Agreement. Recycling mining wastes is quite compatible with green technologies when considering low-carbon applications that adhere to the SDGs. By reducing waste output, mine tailings valorization contributes significantly to SDGs 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) and 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production). The current approach to managing mining waste is a linear system of “take-make-waste”. To address the problems of environmental pollution and waste minimization while generating financial gains, the mining sector must implement the circular economy model.
In conclusion, the recycling of mine waste within the construction industry stands as a testament to the interconnectedness of the Sustainable Development Goals. By addressing environmental concerns, fostering innovation, promoting responsible consumption, and creating economic opportunities, this practice exemplifies a comprehensive approach towards achieving a more sustainable and resilient future.

4. Concrete Industry and Environmental Challenges

Recent population growth, urbanization, industry, and globalization has increased society’s needs for clean water, clean air, safe transportation, and natural energy sources for public, industrial, and residential buildings [15]. Concrete, one of the most largely used building materials, requires enormous amounts of natural resources including sand, stone, and gravel, in addition to causing carbon emissions and energy usage. Both coarse and fine particles comprise ~60 to 75% of the overall volume of concrete [16]. Since 2019, the worldwide demand for concrete aggregates has increased by ~5.2% yearly, reaching 51.7 billion metric tons, with China continuing to be the world’s largest user, accounting for nearly half of the demand [17]. As a result, aggregates have a considerable impact on both the sustainability of structures and the environment. The concrete industry needs to change its focus to implement environmentally friendly and highly sustainable technology [16]. The use of natural resources improperly can lead to a high level of pollution, which can be balanced against the need to maintain human life and the planet’s ecosystem. Due to the threat to the way of life posed by environmental contamination and the loss of natural resources, a viable solution must be found.
To balance the economic, social, and environmental effects of the expanding human population, efforts for sustainable development and environmental preservation are required. Global warming, an elevation in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and seas as a result of the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, is one of the most interesting problems facing industries. While the world’s concrete infrastructure is still expanding, research proposes the use of waste from other industries as a substitute for raw materials. This could be a productive way to produce eco-friendly building materials with low embodied energy and low CO2 emissions in order to achieve circular economy goals. Mine wastes are regarded as a sustainable supply of substitute materials for use in buildings. These wastes are turned into clinker, bricks, aggregates, mortars, concrete, and geopolymers and used as raw materials [18].

5. Properties of Mine Waste as Secondary Resources in Concrete Production

Several wastes have been used in concrete production including iron, copper, gold, coal, phosphate, and others. To obtain a better understanding of the chemical composition of different mine waste types, the collected data were projected onto four ternary plots alongside different types of mine wastes used for concrete from the literature presented in Table A1 (Appendix A). The data were projected onto four configurations ternary plots (SiO2/Al2O3/CaO), (SiO2/Al2O3/MgO), (SiO2/Al2O3/Fe2O3), and (CaO/MgO/Fe2O3), which were chosen to represent the main chemical components of all mine wastes (Figure 2). It can be observed that SiO2 and Al2O3 content do not vary drastically among all mine waste types in comparison to other component contents (CaO, MgO, and Fe2O3). Most mine wastes are situated in the range of high SiO2 content (60–100%), low Al2O3 and CaO content (Figure 2a), low MgO content (Figure 2b), and low Fe2O3 content (Figure 2c). However, some exceptions that are related to the nature of the mine waste source can be detected in the three plots, such as in the case of limestone wastes in the (SiO2/Al2O3/CaO) plot, indicating a very high CaO content for limestone wastes with very low Al2O3 content. The same conclusion could be applied to chromite and limestone wastes in the (SiO2/Al2O3/MgO) plot and to copper mine tailings in the (SiO2/Al2O3/Fe2O3) plot. On the other hand, the mine waste projected dots are clearly scattered all over the (CaO/MgO/Fe2O3) plot (Figure 2d), which means that the content of those three components may vary from one mine waste type to another.
As a matter of conclusion, a mine waste is very likely to serve as aggregate for concrete if its SiO2 content ranges from 60% to 100%, and its Al2O3 content ranges from 0% to 40%, despite its CaO, MgO, and Fe2O3 contents. This affirmation points out that the SiO2 content is a key element for mine waste materials to be used in the concrete industry, which is very reasonable where a higher SiO2 content can be translated to a higher aggregate strength leading to higher concrete strength. On the other hand, mine waste materials have been used to produce different concretes with different target strengths ranging from 0.25 MPa to 151 MPa (Figure 3a), using different w/c ratios depending on the desired application (Figure 3b).
Mine waste and tailings were mostly used as FA and CA in concrete, as shown in Table A1 (Appendix A). For this reason, studying their physical and geotechnical properties remains important as it strongly affects the strength of the produced concrete. These properties vary from FA to CA. As shown in Table 1, the most important properties for defining the quality of CA are the Los Angeles (LA) and Micro Deval (MDA) coefficients, flakiness index, and water absorption, while for FA it is necessary to evaluate the water absorption and fineness modulus. Moreover, the LA coefficient varies from 17% for gold tailings to 41% for phosphate waste rocks, giving compressive strengths of 41 MPa and 15 MPa, respectively [19,20]. Thus, as LA and MDE increase, the mechanical strength of concrete decreases. In addition, water absorption is a key parameter that influences the strength of concrete. The high water absorption of the aggregates causes a decrease in paste workability. [39]. Moreover, to compensate for this absorbed water in the mix design, a higher W/C ratio is required, leading to high workability that could produce the segregation of concrete. In the hardened state, the concrete is more porous, decreasing the mechanical strength and increasing the permeability. [40]. Iron ore tailings present the highest water absorption of 11%, giving a compressive strength of 22 MPa [41]. However, limestone waste has the minimum water absorption of 0.16%, requiring a w/c ratio of 0.65, which leads to good workability (130 mm) and, thus, a strength of concrete of ~42 MPa [21].

6. Properties of Mine Waste-Based Concrete

The construction sector is a huge contributor when it comes to natural resources consumption. Concrete is the second most widely used material on Earth after water. It is a composite material consisting mainly of cement, water, and aggregates. These ingredients are directly or indirectly extracted from the Earth’s crust, and the increase in demand for these materials has been growing over time since the use of concrete is becoming very extensive. Indeed, it is imperative that global attention be directed towards identifying alternatives to natural resources. This is a crucial step in averting the complete exhaustion of the Earth’s crust.
Many solutions have been sought for this problem, but the use of mining-related wastes remains the most promising concept to solve this issue. The use of mine wastes in construction applications such as mortars and concrete offer several significant benefits, from economical to environmental aspects, including durability-related properties. The European Commission, in its Roadmap for Resource Efficiency, has drawn up requirements that, by the year 2020, waste will be managed as a resource [43]. Furthermore, mining activities generate more and more solid wastes during mining, processing, and metallurgical processes, which include mainly waste rock, tailings, and slag [44]. This nomenclature is relative to the specific process step in which the waste is generated as shown in Figure 4. However, this industry gives birth to important environmental issues and ecological disruptions such as underground water contamination and acidic drainage [45,46,47]. In the context of sustainable development, alternative approaches for both mine waste management and the reduction in environmental problems related to the production of construction materials were studied. Much scientific research has been conducted recently on the use of mining wastes in concrete in different forms (fillers, fine and coarse aggregates) destined for a variety of concrete usages.
Also, the metric analysis of the literature based on Scopus data shows multiple works dealing with the recycling of various mine waste types in the concrete industry that are plotted according to the year of publication in Figure 5, and it shows a higher number of publications in terms of all of mine waste types this last decade. In addition, the recycling of IOT in concrete has been extensively studied, according to the number of publications, while publications dealing with the recycling of phosphate mine waste in concrete are less common.

6.1. Iron Ore Tailings (IOT)

Several studies discussed the use of iron ore wastes and tailings, yet recent research proved that IOT has a beneficial impact and can be used as geomaterials for concrete. Yellishetty et al. (2008) conducted a study about the possibility of reusing IOT as a complete substitution of CA for concrete [41]. The IOT-based concrete indicated good workability settings and a higher UCS of 22 MPa compared to the reference (20 MPa). In 2011, Tian et al. investigated the effect of natural FA and CA substitution by 36% and 54% IOT FA and CA, respectively, in the construction of hollow concrete blocks [25]. The results showed that the superfine slag in the tailings has a powder effect and can positively affect the concrete strengths by filling the pores and gaps between aggregates, making it more packed. A UCS of 58 MPa was reached with a w/c of 0.7. Other researchers [26,48,49] confirmed that the use of IOT may cause a decrease in concrete workability and an increase in w/c ratio due to the high water absorption of IOT [50], which is related to the particles’ surface texture.
Feng et al. studied the effect of using IOT as FA and CA as a complete substitute for natural aggregates on the drying shrinkage in two types of concrete (30 MPa and 60 MPa target concretes; C30 and C60) [42]. They concluded that the drying shrinkage of both types of IOT concrete was lower than the control, whereas C60 concrete showed higher values than C30 for both IOT and control. Later, in 2011, Liu et al. tested the feasibility of using IOT instead of natural sand to produce sprayed concrete [27]. The experimental plan was to test the effect of the substitution by 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% IOT content. The results showed that the IOT-sprayed concrete indicated good workability settings as the slump reached a maximum value of 130 mm for a 20% substitution ratio, 45 min of initial setting time, and a rate of resilience below 10%. On the other hand, the substitution ratio affected the UCS of the concrete, as it exceeded the 40 MPa limit by 20% and 40%, but with the increase in the substitution ratio (60% and 80%), the UCS decreased to reach 35 MPa and 32.2 MPa, respectively. The authors concluded that the 20% ratio is the optimal value of substitutions where concrete showed interesting behavior in fresh and hardened states.
The use of IOT in concrete can bring about an improvement in terms of strength and even workability by using the optimal ratio, but it also increases the specific density. Gayana et al. suggest that in order to reduce the density, some additives like perlite and rubber can be added to the mix [51]. In 2023, iron–sulfur tailings were used as aggregates for producing porous-insulation concrete [52]. The authors proved that the average thermal conductivity was 0.7045 W/mK at 28 days. The average strength at 28 days was 5.20 MPa, while the average density was 1327 kg/m3.

6.2. Gold Mine Tailings (GMT)

Gold mine tailings contain mostly sulfides, which can react with the water and air and cause severe environmental impact (acid mine drainage). Benarchid et al. carried out a study with the aim of assessing the effect of the complete replacement of natural FA and CA in concrete [28]. It was proven that GMT from a gold mining site in Quebec consists of 46% coarse material similar to the conventional CA and the remaining fraction is mainly FA. The results showed that the GMT concrete has better workability parameters as the slump of GMT concrete was 25 mm higher compared to the control, and this is because of the presence of a higher fine content in the waste rocks. It was observed that the GMT concrete reached the same UCS compared to the control at 28 days (~35 MPa). They also confirmed that this concrete was under the limits when it comes to the leaching of heavy metals and sulfate (Figure 6).
Pyo et al. conducted a study on the effect of the half and complete replacement of silica powder and sand by GMT produced in South Korea in order to produce UHPC [29]. The authors investigated different characteristics with tailings including the UCS, workability, and leachability of toxic elements. In general, this study demonstrated the promise of tailings to replace silica powder and sand in UHPC. It was concluded that the use of those tailings decreased the workability of formulated concrete due to the existence of platelet-shaped particles interlocking with each other. The authors linked the TCLP results, which are below the regulatory standards, to the higher content of cement in UHPC, leading to an improvement in the bonding of the toxic elements with hydration reaction products. In another study by Taha et al., the leaching behavior assessment of Canadian GMT-based concrete was evaluated [22]. The authors concluded that waste rocks did not generate acidity for raw and washed wastes. Other TCLP results showed that the leaching of contaminants from mine waste rock usually presents low concentrations compared to the required limits (Figure 7). Tank leaching tests (TLTs) demonstrated that the studied samples present the leaching of sulfate and heavy metals under the limit required by the Soil Quality Decree.
In 2022, Garcia-Troncoso et al. studied the substitution of natural FA in concrete by gold tailing with different percentages from 5% to 100% replacement [53]. The results indicate that concrete made of 5% tailings allows a strength of 21 MPa similar to the conventional concrete. When increasing the amount of replacement, the strength decreased significantly to 8 MPa when 100% of mine tailings were used. In addition, gold mine tailings were employed to fully substitute river sand in pavement concrete formulation [54]. Their results showed that the measured compressive strength was 27 N/mm2 at 7 days of curing.

6.3. Copper Mine Tailings (CMT)

Copper tailings are produced during the metallurgical process of copper extraction. The effluent pH may imply contamination from this type of waste, resulting in environmental issues because of toxic elements and heavy metals, which can be very hazardous to the environment if not controlled [55]. Fisonga et al. tested the performance of natural FA-replaced concrete samples using CMT [30]. The authors tested FA substitution at 30%, 50%, 70%, and 100% and assessed the UCS variation in relation to the substitution ratio (Figure 8). The results indicated a peak of UCS reaching 36 MPa with 30% replacement.
Recently, Lam et al. used CMT from a Chilean copper mine as FA to elaborate concrete paving stones [56]. The experience plan was to evaluate two FA substitution ratios (7% and 15%) with a fraction lower than 0.075 mm. In conclusion, the authors confirmed that the use of CMT at 7% replacement is the most beneficial, as it increases strength by 9% more than the 15% substitution ratio. On another hand, it was observed that the use of CMT FA increases water consumption as well as the w/c ratio, which is due to the excess in the CMT fine content. In other studies, a remarkable increase in concrete density has been identified when CMT is incorporated into the mixture with a given replacement fraction in mortar or concrete, and thus, it can be effectively used for radiation shielding. [57,58].
Benahsina et al. evaluated the replacement of natural sand with copper waste rocks for concrete C25 production. The work studied 50% and 100% replacement compared to conventional concrete [59]. The results showed that the copper waste rock is composed of 42 wt.% SiO2 as a major oxide with the presence of Al2O3, CaO, and MgO. The mechanical behavior demonstrated that using 100% copper waste rock leads to a compressive strength of 32.5 MPa at 28 days more than the required strength of 25 MPa. In addition, the density of this specimen is more important than the conventional concrete at 28 days. Furthermore, copper tailings were valorized as sand for the formulation of high-strength concrete [60]. The results indicated that using a 60% replacement of natural sand leads to a compressive strength of 85 MPa and a flexural strength of up to 12.5 MPa.

6.4. Phosphate Mine Wastes

The phosphate mining industry generates huge amounts of waste rocks and tailings through different extractions and beneficiation operations [61,62,63]. In terms of phosphate production, China is currently reaching ~46% of the world’s production, and Morocco is in second place with 15% of the world’s production [64]. The total estimation of phosphate mine waste generation in Morocco accounts for more than 100 Mt/year for waste rocks, and more than 15 Mt/year for tailings. Despite the huge amounts that this industry generates, the valorization and recycling research dealing with this type of mine waste remain scarce.
In 2011, Ahmed et al. investigated the recycling of over-screen rejects produced from upgrading phosphate ores from Egypt as CA in the concrete mix [31]. The authors concluded that the physical and chemical properties of phosphate aggregates are the same as the natural aggregates used in conventional concrete. Moreover, they obtained concrete with an average of 240 kg/cm2 (~19 MPa) of 28 days UCS, acceptable for ordinary buildings in local communities around the mining areas. In addition, the authors suggest that this approach can be helpful to overall critical environmental issues for the phosphate industry in Egypt.
Furthermore, recent studies begin to emerge in 2020 and 2021, dealing with the recycling of Moroccan phosphate mine waste as CA in concrete. In 2020, El Machi et al. studied the feasibility of using the stone-removal rejects from the pre-processing step as a complete replacement of CA in concrete [19]. The authors carried out a naked-eye petrographic recognition of the different lithologies in those materials and suggested that this type of waste rock consists mainly of limestone, flint, and marl with respective proportions of 49.5%, 28.2%, and 22.3%. This conclusion is consistent with the XRD patterns, showing peaks corresponding to quartz, dolomite, and fluorapatite phases. The authors tested the phosphate-based concrete performances and concluded that this concrete did not reach the required compressive strength of 25 MPa, as it showed an average UCS of 15.2 MPa after 28 days of curing. However, the authors suggested that this type of phosphate waste rock could be used as a replacement for natural CA to produce concrete for usages that will not require a strength of 25 MPa, and it can be beneficial to use it for pavement and enclosure walls for the mine and its surroundings.
In 2021, El Machi et al. investigated the feasibility of using flint from phosphate mine wastes as a complete replacement for CA in concrete [24]. The chemical and mineralogical analysis of this type of waste rock revealed higher SiO2 content (92%) corresponding to the quartz phase presented by a major peak in the X-ray diffraction pattern. Moreover, the geotechnical characterization of aggregates showed better performances for flint aggregates compared to the control aggregates. Consequently, the flint-based concrete indicated very good strength performance, reaching an average UCS of 29 MPa after 28 days of curing. In conclusion, the authors claimed that this type of phosphate mine waste could be used successfully to totally replace the natural aggregates in concrete. Figure 9 is a summary of the results presented in the literature dealing with the recycling of phosphate mine waste as aggregates in the concrete industry.
Recent studies by Safhi and colleagues have explored the innovative uses of phosphate mine waste products in sustainable construction materials. In their 2022 papers, they demonstrated the potential of these waste rocks and by-products in creating environmentally friendly construction binders and cement [3]. One study highlighted the development of a blended binder using marl from phosphate mines, suggesting a valuable application in reducing environmental impact [65]. Another paper detailed the synthesis of low-carbon clinker from phosphate mine waste rock and phosphogypsum, showcasing its superior early compressive strengths compared to traditional Portland cement [66]. These studies collectively underscore the feasibility of utilizing industrial by-products in construction materials, contributing to sustainability in the building sector while addressing waste management challenges.

6.5. Other Mine Wastes

Zemlyanskiy et al. tested the use of a derivative of coal mine wastes (Agloportie) as a complete replacement for sand and gravel in B5 concrete (target concrete of 5 MPa), and with a 68% replacement of sand and gravel in B15 concrete (target concrete of 15 MPa) [67]. The results showed that the w/c ratio increased within the increase in the replacement ratio (0.9 for 100% and 0.57 for 68%), which can be related to the relatively high-water absorption of the waste material. This directly affected the UCS, as the concrete strength decreased with the increase in the replacement ratio. However, the results remain promising and exceed the limit strength of each concrete target (7.8 MPa for B5 and 21.2 MPa for B15). Later in 2017, Bryenton et al. tested the use of coal waste from the United States as CA, which resulted in a UCS of 13.7 MPa at 28 days [68]. Eventually, the potential use of coal mining waste rocks as recycled aggregate in concrete was assessed by Thang et al. in 2021. The authors claim that the used coal mine waste rock was suitable for producing concrete with more than 30 MPa of compressive strength [69].
Different studies suggest the usage of chromite wastes or graphite tailings as fine aggregates for foam concrete. Kilinçarslan et al. studied the usage of chromite wastes as FA for foam concrete with a complete and half replacement ratio while setting the w/c to 0.42 for both mixtures. [37]. The results indicated that the UCS of foam concrete reached 2.25 MPa within a 100% replacement with the addition of an extra 80 kg/m3 of limestone powder. The UCS of the 50% replacement foam concrete reached 0.25 MPa. On the other hand, the complete replacement of chromite wastes had a better effect on the thermal conductivity than 50% replacement but was still lower than control.
Wang et al. carried out research on the effect of the use of graphite tailings as a partial replacement for FA in order to produce foam concrete [32]. During their experience plan, they decided to set the replacement ratio as 70%, with a w/c of 0.3. The graphite tailings-based concrete reached a UCS of 4 MPa at 90 d. They concluded that this type of waste had more benefits when used as foam aggregates. The effect of tungsten tailings usage as a half and complete replacement of FA as a substitute for silica powder and silica sand in UHPC was studied by Pyo et al. [29]. In order to correctly assess the UCS variations and workability settings, the w/c ratio was set to 0.25 in all mixes. The main conclusions were that both the half and complete replacement of silica powder generated a UHPC with a medium workability level. The UCS indicated that half replacement is more beneficial than complete replacement as the UCS decreased slightly with the increase in the tungsten tailings in the mixture (120 MPa for the 50% and 115 MPa for the 100% replacement of silica powder). On the other hand, good workability settings have been witnessed with both the half and complete replacement of silica sand. Similarly, the UCS of the produced concrete was 133 MPa for both half and complete replacement, which means that the substitution of the silica sand by tungsten tailings can be carried out at 100% in order to recycle more of the tailings.
The influence of the use of this type of waste in concrete on the durability and properties of SCC has been discussed by Jankovic et al. [26]. The authors proceeded to a partial replacement of FA by 10% and 20% because test results showed no pozzolanic activity. The w/c ratio was set to 0.51 and the produced concrete indicated higher UCS values than the reference for both replacement ratios at 28 days of age (~67 MPa for 10% and ~66 MPa for 20%). The investigation of SSC with both replacement ratios with tailings showed good results for frost resistance. It was concluded that this type of tailing can be used to partially replace FA in SCC while keeping most of the concrete’s properties. Valente et al. established an inventory of Mn mines in the Iberian belt and gave an evaluation of the mine wastes as potential resources for concrete production [70]. As a result, 149 abandoned Mn mines were counted scattered all over the Iberian belt, with 235 ha of land surface which are affected by the mining of manganese. The authors affirmed that these tailings had a total volume of ~1.20 Mm3, and it represents chemical and physical properties which make it a possible source to be used as filler for structural and bituminous concretes.
In 2014, Salguero et al. put the focus on recycling manganese gangue materials from those waste dumps as filler for concrete production [33]. They used material with particle size lower than 63 µm as filler with a 20% replacement ratio while setting the w/c ratio to 0.44. The new mix indicated higher a UCS (56 MPa) than the reference concrete (41 MPa). They demonstrated that the gangue material gives better properties to the concrete, and it allows the reduction of the amount of cement used in in situ safety barriers in road construction. Carvalho et al. 2022 studied the use of quartz mining waste was used as aggregates in concrete formulation [71]. The authors claimed a UCS of the quartz concrete of ~27 MPa. They evaluated the cost related to the production of quartz residue-based concrete, and they revealed a decrease of 49% when using this kind of waste.

6.6. Mine Wastes-Based High- and Ultra-High-Performance Concretes

Mine wastes have been demonstrated to be viable alternatives to fine aggregates and fillers in ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) production. UHPC is characterized by a UCS of over 120 MPa, exceptional durability properties, and a very low lower porosity [72]. The selection of materials is very important for obtaining these properties, such as the use of a high cement content (800–1000 kg/m3), the use of fine silica sand as FA, and an important quantity of filler or supplementary cementitious materials such as silica powder or silica fumes [73]. The mixture proportioning method is also important for obtaining the optimization of the packing density of particles and producing a minimum porosity, with a w/c ratio in the range of 0.15–0.25 [74]. Particularly, FA with particles such as silica sand and fillers such as silica powders constitutes an important portion of UHPC mixture in addition to OPC. On the other hand, mine tailings can be in this particle size range, which encourages their reuse as a replacement for either FA or fillers. The valorization of mine tailings in UHPC has received increased interest for two main reasons: it reduces its huge cost and important carbon emissions as well as the possibility of the solidification of heavy metals [75,76,77]. Iron ore tailings, gold mine tailings, copper tailings, and fluorite mine tailings have been used as replacements for fine particles for the production of UHPC. Pyo et al. substituted quartz powder and quartz sand with GMT and tungsten mine tailings [29]. The complete replacement of silica sand with tungsten mine tailings produced UHPC with a similar workability and UCS compared to the control: a flow equal to 200 mm and a 28 days UCS equal to 133 MPa. Both half and complete replacements of silica powder have generated a UHPC with a medium workability level. The UCS indicated that half a replacement of silica powder is more beneficial than a complete replacement as the UCS decreased slightly with the increase in the tungsten tailings in the mixture (120 MPa for 50% and 115 MPa for 100% replacement). The decrease in flowability was explained by the particle size, the packing density, and the shape of tailings that increased the water demand. Iron ore tailings were used as a substitute to natural FA to produce UHPC by Zhao et al. [78]. The substitution of silica sand with a 40% of IOT produced comparable UCS to the reference UHPC. When the substitution ratio was equal to 100%, the UCS decreased from 104 MPa to 92 MPa and the flowability was lower. This decrease was explained by the water added to the mix having an adequate flow diameter because these IOT have a higher specific surface, angular and irregular shape, and finer particle size distribution. Fluorite mine tailings have been used as a replacement for silica sand in UHPC by Suárez González et al. [79]. The slump and the UCS are comparable to control mixture at a complete substitution ratio, but the substitution ratio of 70% is recommended to obtain similar tensile and flexural strengths. These fluorite tailings exhibited favorable particle size and shape properties which increased the packing density and reduced the water demand.
High-performance concrete (HPC) is characterized by a 28 days UCS superior to 55 MPa and a higher slump value superior to >200 mm compared to conventional concrete. HPC usually contains strong and hard crushed aggregates [80]. On the other hand, stone mining discards high-quality rocks that can be substitutes for aggregates in HPC production. Granite cutting wastes were used in FA and CA to produce high-performance self-consolidating concrete by Ostrowski et al. [81], and the UCS at 28 days reached 87 MPa when using granite waste CA with irregular shapes. Copper tailings were used as FA in HPC at a 60% replacement ratio. The 28 days UCS and flexural strength reached 84 MPa and 12.5 MPa, respectively [60]. Xie et al. [79] successfully incorporated copper tailings in HPC to solidify heavy metals, as shown by the short- and long-term leaching rates of Cu, Cr, Zn, and Pb that were less than the environmental Chinese regulations limits.

7. Limitations and Gaps

Recycling mine waste in concrete technology can offer several environmental and economic benefits. However, some limitations and gaps need to be considered to achieve these goals. Here are some of the key limitations and gaps:
  • Quality and consistency of mining wastes: The quality and consistency of mine wastes can vary significantly depending on the type of ore and mining process. This variability can pose challenges when using waste rocks as concrete aggregates, as consistent material properties are essential for high-quality concrete production.
  • Contaminants and impurities: Mine wastes may contain contaminants and impurities that can affect the durability and performance of concrete. These contaminants, such as heavy metals and sulfides, can leach into the environment and pose risks to human health and ecosystems.
  • Lack of standardization: There is a lack of standardized guidelines and regulations for incorporating mine wastes into concrete. This hinders the widespread adoption of these materials in construction projects.
  • Technical challenges: Mine waste materials often have different physical and chemical properties compared to traditional concrete aggregates. Researchers and engineers need to develop suitable technologies and techniques to address these differences and ensure the desired structural and durability properties of concrete.
  • Costs and economic viability: The cost-effectiveness of recycling mine wastes in concrete is a crucial consideration. It may require significant investments in processing and treatment facilities to make these materials suitable for concrete production. The economic viability of such initiatives needs to be carefully evaluated.
  • Market acceptance: There might be resistance or hesitance from the construction industry and consumers to accept concrete made from mine waste due to concerns about performance, aesthetics, or perceived risks.
  • Social and community engagement: Engaging local communities and stakeholders in decision-making processes related to the use of mine waste materials is vital. This ensures that any potential negative social impacts are mitigated, and that the development aligns with SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) and SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions).
To overcome these limitations and address the gaps, interdisciplinary efforts involving researchers, industry experts, policymakers, and community stakeholders are essential. Additionally, robust regulatory frameworks and standards should be developed to guide the responsible use of mine waste materials in concrete technology while ensuring alignment with the SDGs.

8. Conclusions

The research into recycling mine waste for use in concrete technology is gaining momentum due to environmental concerns associated with both the mining and construction sectors. It is essential to thoroughly analyze mine waste for its mineralogical, physical, and chemical properties and to assess its environmental behavior, including potential heavy metal leaching, as evaluated by tests like the TCLP. The suitability of mine waste for concrete applications largely depends on these detailed classifications.
Mechanical treatments such as crushing and grinding are commonly employed to prepare mine waste for reuse, while calcination is beneficial when there is a high clay content. The impact of mine waste on concrete’s UCS varies significantly based on the waste’s type and characteristics. For instance, using mine tailings as FA can enhance UCS, though replacements should not exceed 30% to maintain structural integrity.
In conclusion, utilizing mine waste in concrete technology represents a viable environmental strategy for managing mine waste and conserving natural resources in the construction industry. However, the success of this approach depends on several factors, including the implementation of supportive policies for the use of such materials in concrete production, and a broader understanding and education about the benefits and potential risks. This knowledge is crucial for engaging local communities and stakeholders in decision-making processes concerning the use of recycled mine waste materials in concrete. This collective effort can lead to more sustainable practices in both mining and construction industries.

Author Contributions

For conceptualization, A.E.M., S.M. and Y.T.; methodology, A.E.M., S.M. and Y.E.B.; validation, A.E.M., S.M., Y.E.B. and A.e.M.S.; formal analysis, A.E.M.; investigation, A.E.M., S.M., Y.E.B. and Y.T.; data curation, A.E.M., S.M. and Y.E.B.; writing—original draft preparation, A.E.M., S.M., Y.E.B. and A.e.M.S.; writing—review and editing, A.E.M., S.M., Y.E.B. and A.e.M.S.; visualization, A.E.M. and A.e.M.S.; supervision, R.H. and M.B.; project administration, A.E.M., S.M. and Y.T.; funding acquisition, R.H. and M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors gratefully acknowledge the Moroccan Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research, and Innovation, as well as the OCP Foundation, for providing the funding for this research through the APRD Research Program.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Nomenclature

FAFine aggregate
CACoarse aggregate
SCCSelf-consolidating concrete
UHPCUltra-high-performance concrete
HPCHigh-performance concrete
SDGsSustainable development goals
UCSUniaxial compressive strength
IOTIron ore tailings
GMTGold mine tailings
w/cWater-to-cement ratio
TCLPToxicity characteristic leaching procedure
CMTCopper mine tailings

Appendix A

Table A1. Summary of the studies of mine waste-based concrete included in the ternary diagrams.
Table A1. Summary of the studies of mine waste-based concrete included in the ternary diagrams.
Mining Waste SourceUsageSubstitution Ratiow/cWorkabilityUCS, MPaSiO2Al2O3CaOMgOFe2O3Ref.
Coal wastesGeomaterials for light concrete100% for B50.9-7.8-----[67]
68% for B150.57-21.2-----
CA---13.7-----[68]
Chromite wastesFA for foam concrete50%0.42-0.255.110.23-10.522.17[37]
100%0.42-2.25
Graphite tailingsFA for foam concrete70%0.3-459.2412.986.523.915.8[32]
Iron ore tailingsCA100%-good21.93-----[41]
FA and CA36% FA
53–54% CA		0.7-57.977.942.770.51.6814.99[25]
FA and CA100% for B300.47-43-----[42]
100% for B600.32-65.1
FA40%0.49good (115 mm)40.4468.943.643.453.7714.54[27]
Binder100%--27.158.557.253.34.146.87[38]
FA40% for B300.46good (180 mm)35.52-----[82]
40% for B500.33good (170 mm)68.6
Manganese mine wastesFA20% of Mn filler (<63 µm)0.44-56.4436.096.5612.43.81-[33]
FA----74.97.980.830.466.31[70]
38.18.748.893.073.47
68.415.30.821.0215.3
Gold mine tailingsFA10%, 20%, 30%--------[83]
FA and CA100%0.4good (110 mm)34.956.1913.775.763.977.35[28]
FA for UHPC50%0.25low flowability13779.539.520.510.643.22[29]
FA for UHPC50%0.25low flowability15180.69.330.420.663.99
Fine aggregate100%0.4medium (75 mm)4064.5615.552.572.925.52[20]
CA100%0.4medium (95 mm)30
FA and CA100%0.4medium to good (80 to 110 mm)3656.1913.775.763.9713.77[22]
Copper mine tailingsFiller for SCC100%-high (670 mm)59.740.85.97.360.8641.72[34]
FA50%0.53-31.5146.298.849.845.852.02[30]
70%0.49-27.559.7311.94.0716.26
100%0.49-24.9554.279.32.843.759.3
FA15%0.5-25 KN-----[56]
LimestoneFA and CA100%0.65good (130 mm)42.110.110.0454.750.220.011[21]
FA85%0.45good (115 mm)36.1023.53.137.85-1.94[23]
Molybdenum tailingsMineral admixture30%0.61high (650 mm)2468.413.53.21.73.5[35]
Nickel slagCA100%--30.7152.662.721.2531.79-[36]
Tungsten tailingsFA for UHPC50%0.25medium12059.68.5710.941.8311.59[29]
Pb-Zn mine tailingsFA10%0.51high (600 m)66.743.2611.1120.014.3115.57[26]
Phosphate wasteCA100%0.5low (50 mm)18.97-----[31]
CA100%0.66good (140 mm)15.2032.230.5823.209.200.21[19]
CA100%0.5low (50 mm)22.4592.000.222.851.10.10[24]

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Figure 1. Number of research papers published from 2002 to 2023, denoted by issuing country/territory (A,B) and by year of publication (C). (KEY 1: “recycling, OR reuse, OR valorization, AND mine AND waste, OR tailings, AND concrete”; KEY 2: “mine AND waste AND reuse OR valorization OR recycling AND circular AND economy”) (Scopus data 30 May 2023).
Figure 1. Number of research papers published from 2002 to 2023, denoted by issuing country/territory (A,B) and by year of publication (C). (KEY 1: “recycling, OR reuse, OR valorization, AND mine AND waste, OR tailings, AND concrete”; KEY 2: “mine AND waste AND reuse OR valorization OR recycling AND circular AND economy”) (Scopus data 30 May 2023).
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Figure 2. Ternary plots show the projection of different mine waste types according to their SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, MgO, and Fe2O3 content.
Figure 2. Ternary plots show the projection of different mine waste types according to their SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, MgO, and Fe2O3 content.
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Figure 3. Comparison of different mine waste types used in the production of concrete from different studies in terms of (a) compressive strength and (b) w/c ratio [19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38].
Figure 3. Comparison of different mine waste types used in the production of concrete from different studies in terms of (a) compressive strength and (b) w/c ratio [19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38].
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Figure 4. Mineral extraction from mining to metal.
Figure 4. Mineral extraction from mining to metal.
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Figure 5. Number of scientific publications overtime for different types of mine wastes and tailings (Scopus data accessed on 30 May 2023).
Figure 5. Number of scientific publications overtime for different types of mine wastes and tailings (Scopus data accessed on 30 May 2023).
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Figure 6. Leaching behavior of C1 concrete sample made of GMT vs. C2 [28].
Figure 6. Leaching behavior of C1 concrete sample made of GMT vs. C2 [28].
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Figure 7. Results of SPLP, CTEU-9, and TCLP tests performed on raw and washed samples at diverse leaching parameters [22].
Figure 7. Results of SPLP, CTEU-9, and TCLP tests performed on raw and washed samples at diverse leaching parameters [22].
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Figure 8. Compressive strength of concretes with CMT as FA with different replacement rates, showing the optimum replacement ratio (30%) to achieve maximum UCS [30].
Figure 8. Compressive strength of concretes with CMT as FA with different replacement rates, showing the optimum replacement ratio (30%) to achieve maximum UCS [30].
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Figure 9. Summary of the collected data from papers dealing with the recycling of phosphate mine wastes in the concrete industry (A) in terms of aggregate properties and (B) in terms of concrete performance [19,24,31].
Figure 9. Summary of the collected data from papers dealing with the recycling of phosphate mine wastes in the concrete industry (A) in terms of aggregate properties and (B) in terms of concrete performance [19,24,31].
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Table 1. Geotechnical and physical properties of mine waste used as aggregates in concrete.
Table 1. Geotechnical and physical properties of mine waste used as aggregates in concrete.
Mining WasteUsageGrading, mmFlakiness Index, %LA, %MDA, %Surface Cleanliness, %Water Absorption, %Bulk Density, T/m3Fineness ModulusRef.
Iron ore tailingsCA12.5–20103029.42-11.002.50-[41]
FA0–4.75----8.502.782.50[42]
CA9.5–19-----2,85-
Gold mine tailingsFA0–5--17.10-2.201.773.08[20]
CA5–20-17.3012.6-0.702.73-
CA20----0.7013.77-[22]
LimestoneCA-25.6019.5512.13-0.162.73-[21]
FA-----2.982.702.68[23]
Phosphate wasteCA10–259.8041432.605.20--[19]
CA6.3–1514.30199.800.401.571.42-[24]
CA12.5–257.90199.800.301.681.38-[24]
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MDPI and ACS Style

El Machi, A.; El Berdai, Y.; Mabroum, S.; Safhi, A.e.M.; Taha, Y.; Benzaazoua, M.; Hakkou, R. Recycling of Mine Wastes in the Concrete Industry: A Review. Buildings 2024, 14, 1508. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061508

AMA Style

El Machi A, El Berdai Y, Mabroum S, Safhi AeM, Taha Y, Benzaazoua M, Hakkou R. Recycling of Mine Wastes in the Concrete Industry: A Review. Buildings. 2024; 14(6):1508. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061508

Chicago/Turabian Style

El Machi, Aiman, Yahya El Berdai, Safaa Mabroum, Amine el Mahdi Safhi, Yassine Taha, Mostafa Benzaazoua, and Rachid Hakkou. 2024. "Recycling of Mine Wastes in the Concrete Industry: A Review" Buildings 14, no. 6: 1508. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061508

APA Style

El Machi, A., El Berdai, Y., Mabroum, S., Safhi, A. e. M., Taha, Y., Benzaazoua, M., & Hakkou, R. (2024). Recycling of Mine Wastes in the Concrete Industry: A Review. Buildings, 14(6), 1508. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061508

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