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Article

Fan Mussel (Pinna nobilis L.) Spat Collection, Monitoring of Early Growth and Conservation Implications by Deploying Conventional Aquaculture Methodology

by
John A. Theodorou
1,*,
Efthimios Spinos
1,2,
Alexis Ramfos
1,3,
Ioannis E. Tsamadias
4,
Vlasoula Bekiari
1,5,
Maria Kamilari
1,6,
Maria-Myrto Ntouni
1,3,
Dimitrios Tsotsios
1,
Konstantinos Feidantsis
1,
Athanasios Lattos
2,7,
Ioannis A. Giantsis
7 and
Basile Michaelidis
2
1
Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, University of Patras, 30200 Mesolonghi, Greece
2
Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Department of Zoology, School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
3
Department of Biology, University of Patras, 26504 Rio Patras, Greece
4
Directorate of Agricultural Economy, Region of Central Greece, 35100 Lamia, Greece
5
Department of Agriculture, University of Patras, 30200 Mesolonghi, Greece
6
Department of Plant Protection Patras, Institute of Industrial and Forage Crops, Hellenic Agricultural Organization ‘DIMITRA’, 26441 Patras, Greece
7
Laboratory of Ichthyology and Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(11), 2070; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12112070
Submission received: 5 October 2024 / Revised: 31 October 2024 / Accepted: 7 November 2024 / Published: 15 November 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coastal Ecological Restoration: Techniques and Novel Approaches to Living Shorelines and Oyster Reef Construction)
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Abstract

:
Pinna nobilis, endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, has been experiencing a gradual population decline over recent decades due to anthropogenic pressures on its ecosystems. However, since 2016, its populations have suffered significant reductions because of pathological issues affecting the species across all its habitats. Aquaculture techniques to support the limited natural recruitment P. nobilis efforts is examined. Artificial substrates for larval attachments in aquaculture infrastructures promote the survival of the juveniles that is further enhanced through protected pre-growing “nursery” farming conditions. Specific spat collectors were placed in 2 cage-fish farms in SW Amvrakikos Gulf. The harvested spats from were transferred to pre-grow in trays hanged on a long line farm mussel that is acting as a protected “nursery”, avoiding predation and any human accidentally disturbance. The survival and growth of 12 juveniles P. nobilis spat (shell length 38.1 ± 9.2 mm) in captivity (31 October 2023–15 March2023) was investigated. Out of the 12 individuals collected, 3 were examined for the presence of pathogens; only 7 survived, exhibiting enhanced growth (shell length 54.3 ± 11.6 mm) after 134 days in the nursery. The results highlight the significant role of aquaculture techniques in efforts to conserve a threatened species as well as the need for the creation of a protocol to ensure the conservation of P. nobilis.

1. Introduction

The critically endangered bivalve Pinna nobilis, endemic to the Mediterranean Sea [1], has experienced a significant decline in the past decade. This decline, characterized by mass mortalities, has been attributed not only to anthropogenic pressures but also to a range of hosted pathogens ([2], and references therein). These pathogens are regionally spread via surface currents, with the disease affecting species when water temperatures exceed 13.5 °C and when salinity is within a range of 36.5–39.7 psu [3,4,5]. However, the mode of transmission of the pathogens and the existence of an intermediate host, as well as the role of each of the identified pathogens, has not been clarified yet, making the phenomenon of species mortality more complex. Considering the lack of healthy individuals and the lack of sufficient animals for the investigation of the above, we can understand the extent of this complexity. Since 2018, when the first Mass Mortality Event (MME) regarding fan mussel populations was confirmed in Greek waters [6,7], a range of methodological tools for assessing population health status in coastal ecosystems were investigated, especially where salinity tends to decelerate disease spread, thus providing a temporal window for species protection and recovery [7,8,9,10,11,12].
Several field surveys were conducted in regions where P. nobilis populations have been historically reported close to fish and shellfish farms: in the Aegean Sea, in mussel long line farms in the Maliakos Gulf [13,14,15,16] and in mussel farms in Thermaikos Gulf; and in fish and mussel farms in the Ionian Sea (Argostoli Gulf, Amvrakikos Gulf, Sagiada Strip) [17]. These surveys aimed to evaluate the status of P. nobilis populations. Furthermore, a parallel effort to enhance potential fan mussel recruitment was carried out through promoting the survival of young spat attached as biofouling in marine farming infrastructures by using aquaculture techniques “www.pinnasos.upatras.gr (accessed on 21 Sepember 2024)”. Mass mortalities were reported in all the examined regions except the Amvrakikos Gulf, where an overall recent mortality rate was estimated at 6.2% (excluded old dead animals) and where the present work is focused [6].
In the Mediterranean Sea, bivalve larvae collectors, also known as artificial structures for assisted recruitment, have often been used in the past for oysters [18,19,20] to meet the needs of shellfish aquaculture [21]. Several studies concerned commercially valuable species (Ostrea sp.) for which natural recruitment could not meet the needs of aquaculture farms in terms of spat quantity, and these studies proposed solutions to address this specific issue. While these research approaches focused on commercial aquaculture, the recently defined term [21] conservation aquaculture has gained ground and mostly involves the targeted cultivation of species that need implementation of protection measures. Research [17,21,22,23,24] advocates for deployment of conservation aquaculture to protect a specific natural resource, either a species or an ecosystem type.
Efforts to collect fan mussel larvae have been carried out in the past, both before and after the onset of the MME [6,13,25,26,27,28]. Thus, an extensive network of spat collectors has recently been developed in multiple locations to attract fan mussel larvae. Larvae are attached to collectors, preferably placed in exposed positions in open waters, where fan mussel larvae are transported by currents. The presence of adults is not a prerequisite for collector network development. Therefore, collectors may be placed in locations where a species is not historically present (since larvae can travel long distances carried by currents) or in areas where MME occurred. In the Western Mediterranean, the primary reproductive period of the studied species is from May to August, and the main settlement period is estimated between July and September. These periods may vary depending on environmental conditions (e.g., water temperature) in different Mediterranean regions [8]. In aquatic ecosystems, temperature fluctuations result in changes in all biological and physiological functions of animals, such as reproduction, growth, mortality, and, ultimately, geographic distribution [29,30,31,32].
This study had a two-fold aim: first, to present the growth of juvenile fan mussels, a critically endangered species, caught by installed artificial spat collectors, and, second, to discuss how conservation aquaculture may contribute to the protection of an endangered marine invertebrate species. Thus, the equipment was specifically designed to ensure it did not harm attached larvae. Additionally, aquaculture farmers were informed about the necessary actions to take if they found young fan mussels attached to their facilities (such as mussel longlines or fish cages) from accidental settlement on their equipment (e.g., ropes, moorings, anchors, nets, etc.), which unintentionally may act as spat collectors during sorting and maintenance work. The generalized protocol is simple and is based on primary material, the practical experience of the working group, and the documented International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) guidelines [33]. A primary selection criterion for the locations of both the collectors and the monitoring of the growth site was the profile of the aquaculture farmers [14].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Amvrakikos Gulf Profile

Amvrakikos Gulf, a semi-enclosed embayment located in Western Greece, is characterized as a wetland (including the two river estuaries Arachthos and Louros and numerous lagoons) of unquestionable national importance that is included in the Ramsar Convention, and its largest part is included in the Natura 2000 network.
Amvrakikos is a fjord like semi-enclosed gulf where the seasonal distribution of temperature, salinity and density indicates an intense stratification in the water column almost throughout the year, except for autumn, either due to salinity or temperature. This forms the surface layer (up to 3 m), where salinity in the east is usually low (25–27 psu), while in the western part of the gulf and near its entrance, it is approximately 34–35 psu. In the thermocline (10–25 m), which seasonally changes, salinity does not exceed 36 psu. In the fourth layer below the thermocline, salinity is higher and shows small fluctuations (36–38 psu) [34]. Pollution from nutrients (nitrogen, N and phosphorus, P) and organic matter is a major source of degradation of coastal waters and causes excessive growth of planktonic organisms. Concentrations of biologically available N and P are known to play a significant role in determining the ecological status of aquatic systems [35]. Dissolved oxygen provides an indication of water quality in coastal areas and is used as a tool to assess the condition of coastal ecosystems [36]. Microorganisms are among the key biological factors of the marine environment involved in the recycling of nutrients and carbon flow in marine ecosystems. Thus, acidification of seawater affects microbial diversity, primary productivity and trace elements in the oceans. In addition, it can also affect microbial activities, extracellular enzyme activities and nitrogen recycling [37].

2.2. Farm Sites Description

In July 2022, arrays of spat collectors were placed at two locations (one array in each location) in the southern part of the Amvrakikos Gulf (Figure 1) in cage on-growing sea bass/bream fish farms: (a) A. Lat 38.941639 Lg 20.928798, site depth: 22 m, bag depths: 6 m, 8 m, 10 m, deployment: 28 July 2022, retrieval: Lost, (b) B. Lat 38.926346 Lg 21.026885, site depth: 20 m, bag depths: 6 m, 8 m, 10 m, deployment: 28 July 2022, retrieval: 31 October 2022.
Each array of larval collectors comprised of three settlement bags, tied on a polyethylene rope (4 mm thick, 12 m long) in 2 m distances from each other. Each settlement bag consisted of an onion mesh bag (40 × 60 cm), filled in with entangled nylon mussel-packaging nets according to Kersting & Garcia-March, 2017 [38] and Kersting et al., 2020 [27]. The collectors were installed by scuba divers on fish farming facility buoys (Figure 2A).
By October 2022, the collectors at one site were lost (location B), but at the other site (location A), 12 fan mussel specimens were retrieved. Nine individuals were immediately transferred into the pre-growing trays suspended at a depth of 5 m on a longline mussel farm in the northwestern part of the Amvrakikos Gulf (location C). The three dead individuals were transferred to the laboratory in absolute alcohol and used for species genetic identification. In November 2022, 18 days after reintroduction, as well as in March 2023 (134 days overall), the individuals were measured, and their survival was estimated.

2.3. Environmental Parameters

Physicochemical parameters of the water surface were recorded on site using a digital oxygen thermometer and a thermometer–salinometer (WTW 1970i Portable conductivity, dissolved oxygen and temperature Meter, Berlin, Germany). Salinity (psu), temperature (°C) and dissolved oxygen (mg/L) were recorded in field, while water samples were collected for pH, total organic carbon (mgC/L) and chlorophyll-a (mg/m3) analysis and transferred to the laboratory. The total organic carbon (TOC) analysis was conducted using a Shimadzu TOC-VCSHTOC analyzer (Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan). This system enables simultaneous analyses, where TOC analysis is performed using the Combustion-Infrared method, Standard Method (SM) 5310B [39]. A portable HACH HQ 40D (HACH LANGE Dusseldorf, Germany) was used for measurement of pH and salinity and a Shimadzu UV 1800 spectrophotometer (Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan) was utilized for the trichromatic determination (630 nm, 647 nm, 664 nm and 750 nm) of chlorophyll-a. The concentration of chlorophyll-a was calculated according to the equations provided in [40].

2.4. P. nobilis Spat Collection

Τo run the “nursery stage” of the pre-growing trial of Fan mussel specimens were harvested only from larvae attached to artificial spat collectors avoiding any disturbance of the benthic stock populations. Spat collectors, are constructed similarly to those used for pectenids [18]. They were made from polyethylene ropes attached of woven nylon threads sacks, typically used for packaging agricultural products (onions, potatoes) and are durable in underwater conditions. Polyethylene or similar plastic containers were placed in these sacks to increase the substrate surface for larvae settlement (Figure 2A). P. nobilis spats were carefully detached from collectors avoiding the damaging of the byssus gland. Then the spats were gently covered with a water-moistened towel to prevent temperature and humidity fluctuations and transported in a styrofoam box without seawater to the mussel farm that hosts the “nursery stage” of the critical endangered bivalve. Spat pre-growth is carried out according to the relevant protocols [41,42] (Table 1).
Jmse 12 02070 g002
Figure 2. Fan mussel spat collectors: construction from onion netting bags and rope (A), hanging on fish farm mooring/anchoring ropes (B) and spat collector with attached biofoulants (C).
Figure 2. Fan mussel spat collectors: construction from onion netting bags and rope (A), hanging on fish farm mooring/anchoring ropes (B) and spat collector with attached biofoulants (C).
Jmse 12 02070 g002

2.5. Species Identification–DNA Extraction and PCR Amplification

Genetic analysis was implemented to positively identify the collected juveniles as P. nobilis and not the congeneric P. rudis that is disease resistant with a high presence in the Ionian Sea [43,44,45]. Prior to DNA extraction, shells were meticulously cleaned of adhered foreign materials. Additionally, the shells were initially treated with a TE9 solution for hydration. The total DNA from each sample was isolated using a modified CTAB protocol [46] (proteinase K with a final concentration 1 mg/mL and overnight incubation at 56 °C). Following isolation, 1 μL of DNA was utilized in a nested PCR for the amplification of the COI gene (Cytochrome c oxidase subunit I). For the initial PCR, the universal primers from [47] and were used, followed by a nested PCR with primers PnCOI_F_MK22 and PnCOI_R_MΚ22 [6]. The PCR reactions were carried out in a total volume of 25 μL, consisting of 1x KAPA2G Fast Multiplex PCR Mix (Kapa Biosystems, Wilmington, MA, USA), 10 μM of each primer and 10 ng of genomic DNA (or PCR product for nested PCR), adjusted to a final volume of 25 μL with ultrapure water (ddH2O). The PCR protocol was initiated with an initial stage involving DNA denaturation at 95 °C for 2 min, followed by 37 cycles at 94 °C for 30 s, 48 °C for 30 s and 72 °C for 1 min, with a final extension stage at 72 °C for 10 min. The PCR products were analyzed on a 2% agarose–TAE gel stained with Midori Green (Nippon Genetics, Düren, Germany). Successfully amplified samples were sequenced with sequencing performed on an ABI 3700 Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystems™, Waltham, MA, USA) using the primers PnCOI_F_MK22 and PnCOI_R_MK22. Purification of the PCR products was carried out using commercially available spin columns (Macherey–Nagel, Düren, Nordhein-Westfalen, Germany). Chromatograms were visually examined using FinchTV 1.3.1 (Geospiza, Inc.; Seattle, WA, USA; http://www.geospiza.com), and the sequences, after correction, underwent multiple alignment through CLUSTAL-W v1.4 [48]. For each sample, the consensus sequence was derived after aligning and comparing the alignment results from the forward and reverse sequencing results, taking into consideration the alignment quality of each nucleotide base.

3. Results

3.1. Environmental Parameters

Field data collected (Figure 3) agree with previous studies on salinity in the Amvrakikos Gulf [49]. Salinity in the area is relatively low, below the 36.5–39.7 psu range that is associated with the fatal disease caused by Haplosporidium pinnae. These relatively low levels of salinity are found at shallow depths common to all coastal areas where fan mussels are normally distributed.

3.2. P. nobilis Growth

A total of 12 live juvenile P. nobilis individuals (nt0) with shell length 38.1 ± 9.2 mm were de-attached from the spat collectors. On 31 October 2022, 9 live individuals (nt1) were transferred to rearing trays in a mussel farm installation located in the northwest part of Amvrakikos Gulf. Thereafter, on 18 November 2022 (18 days on growing in the rearing trays), the trays were inspected for the condition of the juvenile fan mussels. Only 7 individuals (nt2) survived, with a shell length of 46.0 ± 7.4 mm. Finally, on 15 March 2023 (134 days in captivity), all 7 individuals (nt3) were found to have survived, with a shell length of 54.3 ± 11.6 mm (Figure 4). The shell growth of the young individuals during the period 31 October 2022 to 15 March 2023 is presented in Figure 5. The initial P. nobilis rapid shell length growth, followed by slower growth thereafter (Table 1).

3.3. Genetic Analysis

The final PCR reactions yielded a product of approximately 400 bps. Samples were identified as P. nobilis. The identification procedure involved amplifying a segment of the COI sequence through the PCR method (approximately 400 bps). This genomic region is commonly utilized for distinguishing various organisms, including bivalves, at the species level, facilitating the classification and phylogenetic identification of samples that might pose challenges in morphological identification, especially if they are unknown or in early developmental stages [50].
The corrected sequences were subjected to a BLAST search (National Center for Biotechnology Information Basic Local Alignment Search Tool NCBI BLAST; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) against the COI region of the submitted Pinna spp. in the GenBank database. The analyzed sequences showed similarity exceeding 99.55% with the GenBank accession KY321794.1. Finally, using the Sequence Manipulation Suite platform [51], the sequences were translated into amino acids using the invertebrate mitochondrial code (translation table 5) from the third codon position to the reverse clone, and no stop codons were observed in the reading frame. Newly derived haplotypes were submitted in the GenBank database, and the accession numbers PP501661 and PP501662 have been assigned to the sequences identified in this study.
The genetic identification of the samples herein, as well as the adult individuals previously studied in the Amvrakikos Gulf, confirmed that the species of the bivalve mollusc collected and reared in the area was P. nobilis. Genetic confirmation was deemed necessary given that a closely related species, Pinna rudis, is continuously expanding [43,44,45], suggesting the potential for future hybridization of the species [52].

4. Discussion

In Amvrakikos’ geomorphological and hydrological multi-diverse marine environment, despite being affected by agricultural, industrial and urban run-off, the fan mussel has historically found a place to thrive. The fan mussel pandemic disease caused by H. pinnae, Mycobacterium sp. and other potential pathogens that has expanded since 2016 was determined as a heavy stressor to all Mediterranean populations of the species and the Amvrakikos Gulf’s subpopulation was no exception.
This study, due to its limited study period, partially confirmed the species’ initial rapid shell growth, followed by slower growth thereafter. The latter has also been observed in P. nobilis populations along the Turkish coastline [41] and in the Adriatic Sea [42], as indicated in Table 1. Likewise, lab experiments [15] demonstrated that, up to a certain shell length (around 5.82 cm, approximately nt2 in our study), fan mussels initially exhibit preferential growth in the length direction in shell length, then the shell widens, and the shape of the shell finally elongates again.
The phenomenon of fan mussel mass mortality has motivated research teams across the Mediterranean, resulting in a notable increase in the relevant literature. Beyond the initial estimation that H. pinnae is exclusively to be “blamed” for the disease, other interpretations have emerged. For example, the presence of potentially pathogenic microorganisms such as Vibrio spp. [9,53] and Mycobacterium spp. [10,11,54], alone or in synergy [7,12] with H. pinnae, has been proposed as a causative factor of infection and subsequent mortality. Today, beyond a shadow of doubt, H. pinnae is the primary factor responsible for P. nobilis morbidity and mortality [55,56]. It is highly plausible that some environmental parameters account for the fact that pen shell populations show greater resilience in lagoons, estuarine systems or semi-closed bays [3,55,57]. The selection of the Amvrakikos Gulf as the site for the placement of spat collectors and the rearing site met the parameter of reduced salinity.
The methodology that was followed may need improvements in order to increase the attraction and survival of as many fan mussel larvae as possible. In this context, a key aspect that should be explored in future attempts is the deployment of various types of collectors [25]. Spat collectors were placed on mooring/anchor ropes of floating aquaculture installations, around which suitable environmental conditions were met for the survival, growth and maintenance of bivalves such as Atrina zelandica [58] and the fan mussel. In general, aquaculture conservation involves assisted recruitment/reproduction and aims to enhance the survival of species at risk of extinction due to climate change and anthropogenic impacts. While global conservation policy has primarily focused on adopting regulatory measures and access prohibitions to habitats where endangered species are endemic (e.g., protected areas), which are rather passive measures, conservation aquaculture is an active form of protection that deserves, if proven effective, to be adopted as a restoration practice by managers and scientists in the future.
When it comes to re-establishing a habitat type through conservation aquaculture, e.g., a coral or an oyster reef, local stakeholders should be part of the design and implementation phase [17]. Currently, known and potential aquaculture-associated risks have recurrently hindered the implementation of analogous actions. In the Amvrakikos Gulf, the present field experiment was implemented close to a local fishing [16] and marine farming community which consisted of fish farm companies, long line mussel aquaculture units and local Shellfish and fish harvesters–divers. All these stakeholders were fully aware of the experimentation protocol and, subsequently, provided their expertise, their equipment and their facilities [59].
Deploying aquaculture in conservation and biodiversity, using the former to enhance the latter, could help bridge the gap between environmentalists and aquaculture entrepreneurs. There is strong opposition to settlement and operation of fish and mussel farms in protected areas. The present study highlights the opportunity and, possibly, the need for the potential integration of pursuing goals of both aquaculture and protection of biodiversity. Thus, it was a pilot-scale attempt to collect larvae and monitor their growth, placing them in a rather protected place inside a mussel farm. It did not involve a hatchery but provided a substratum, first for settlement and then for rearing. In the case of an endangered species such as the fan mussel, collecting and rearing larvae is equally important as growth/age studies [41], biogeography or physiology of the studied organism.

5. Conclusions

The species P. nobilis plays a vital role in the ecosystems it inhabits. Beyond serving in food chain for other species, it also provides a critical habitat for a wide range of organisms, including crustaceans and bivalve mollusks. However, direct human pressures, such as illegal fishing and habitat destruction, along with the indirect effects of climate change, have caused a sharp decline in its populations. Adding to these challenges, diseases are further depleting the species, making it evident that an immediate conservation plan is essential to preventing its extinction. The aquaculture techniques explored in this study have proven effective in both the collection and growth of the species. These findings should be leveraged to develop conservation protocols that will support the recovery of P. nobilis in its natural habitats.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and methodology, J.A.T., A.R., D.T. and E.S.; resources, J.A.T., A.R., E.S., M.-M.N., D.T. and A.L.; formal analysis, E.S., K.F., I.E.T. and A.L.; investigation, E.S., D.T., V.B. and I.E.T.; genetic analysis, M.K. and I.A.G.; writing—original draft preparation, E.S., M.K., I.E.T., A.R., M.-M.N., V.B., M.K. and D.T.; writing—review and editing: E.S., M.K., K.F., I.A.G. and J.A.T.; project administration, B.M. and J.A.T.; funding acquisition, B.M. and J.A.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study is part of the EU-Greece EMFF 2014–2020 program titled “Innovative actions for monitoring-recovery-assistance in recruiting the endangered species Pinna nobilis” with project code: 5052394.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank shell fishers/farmers, for their kind assistance in implementing this project. We also thank the three reviewers and the editor for their useful and constructive remarks.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Jmse 12 02070 g001
Figure 1. Farm sites in the Amvrakikos Gulf used for P. nobilis recruitment enhancement and pre-growing trials. Spat collectors were attached on seabass/bream cage farms (A,B), while the pre-growing was carried out on hanging trays in the mussel farm (C).
Figure 1. Farm sites in the Amvrakikos Gulf used for P. nobilis recruitment enhancement and pre-growing trials. Spat collectors were attached on seabass/bream cage farms (A,B), while the pre-growing was carried out on hanging trays in the mussel farm (C).
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Figure 3. Water physicochemical parameters in the Amvrakikos Gulf: (A) salinity (psu), (B) dissolved oxygen D.O. (mg/L), (C) temperature (°C), (D) Chl-a (mg/m3), (E) pH, (F) total organic carbon (mgC/L).
Figure 3. Water physicochemical parameters in the Amvrakikos Gulf: (A) salinity (psu), (B) dissolved oxygen D.O. (mg/L), (C) temperature (°C), (D) Chl-a (mg/m3), (E) pH, (F) total organic carbon (mgC/L).
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Figure 4. Number of P. nobilis individuals (nt3 = 7) surviving after 134 days pre-growing in trays suspended in a longline mussel farm on the NW Amvrakikos Gulf (331 October 2022–19 March 2023).
Figure 4. Number of P. nobilis individuals (nt3 = 7) surviving after 134 days pre-growing in trays suspended in a longline mussel farm on the NW Amvrakikos Gulf (331 October 2022–19 March 2023).
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Figure 5. Shell length growth of the reared fan mussels in suspended trays in a long line mussel farm N.W. Amvrakikos Gulf. Number of live individuals (n) on sampling time (t): nt1 = 9 (31 October 2022), nt2 = 7 (18 November 2022), and nt3 = 7 (15 March 2023).
Figure 5. Shell length growth of the reared fan mussels in suspended trays in a long line mussel farm N.W. Amvrakikos Gulf. Number of live individuals (n) on sampling time (t): nt1 = 9 (31 October 2022), nt2 = 7 (18 November 2022), and nt3 = 7 (15 March 2023).
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Table 1. Data on fan mussel initial growth.
Table 1. Data on fan mussel initial growth.
Study AreaSpeciesDaysNo of IndividualsRearing Depth (m)Mean Shell Length (cm)Reference
Amvrakikos Gulf, Ionian SeaP. nobilis18754.6 ± 0.7This study
Amvrakikos Gulf, C. Ionian SeaP. nobilis134755.4 ± 1.2This study
Karantina Island,
N. E. Aegean Sea		P. nobilis455120514.2 ± 1.5[26]
Mali Ston Gulf, Adriatic SeaP. nobilis8012054.4 ± 1.5[42]
Mali Ston Gulf, Adriatic SeaP. nobilis14012055.9 ± 1.3[42]
Mali Ston Gulf, Adriatic SeaP. nobilis330120513.6 ± 1.6[42]
Mali Ston Gulf, Adriatic SeaP. nobilis730120523.1 ± 2.3[42]
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MDPI and ACS Style

Theodorou, J.A.; Spinos, E.; Ramfos, A.; Tsamadias, I.E.; Bekiari, V.; Kamilari, M.; Ntouni, M.-M.; Tsotsios, D.; Feidantsis, K.; Lattos, A.; et al. Fan Mussel (Pinna nobilis L.) Spat Collection, Monitoring of Early Growth and Conservation Implications by Deploying Conventional Aquaculture Methodology. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 2070. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12112070

AMA Style

Theodorou JA, Spinos E, Ramfos A, Tsamadias IE, Bekiari V, Kamilari M, Ntouni M-M, Tsotsios D, Feidantsis K, Lattos A, et al. Fan Mussel (Pinna nobilis L.) Spat Collection, Monitoring of Early Growth and Conservation Implications by Deploying Conventional Aquaculture Methodology. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2024; 12(11):2070. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12112070

Chicago/Turabian Style

Theodorou, John A., Efthimios Spinos, Alexis Ramfos, Ioannis E. Tsamadias, Vlasoula Bekiari, Maria Kamilari, Maria-Myrto Ntouni, Dimitrios Tsotsios, Konstantinos Feidantsis, Athanasios Lattos, and et al. 2024. "Fan Mussel (Pinna nobilis L.) Spat Collection, Monitoring of Early Growth and Conservation Implications by Deploying Conventional Aquaculture Methodology" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 12, no. 11: 2070. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12112070

APA Style

Theodorou, J. A., Spinos, E., Ramfos, A., Tsamadias, I. E., Bekiari, V., Kamilari, M., Ntouni, M. -M., Tsotsios, D., Feidantsis, K., Lattos, A., Giantsis, I. A., & Michaelidis, B. (2024). Fan Mussel (Pinna nobilis L.) Spat Collection, Monitoring of Early Growth and Conservation Implications by Deploying Conventional Aquaculture Methodology. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 12(11), 2070. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12112070

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