Antibiotics in Food Chain: The Consequences for Antibiotic Resistance
Abstract
:1. Introduction and Background
2. Drug Resistance Continuum
3. The Detrimental Effects of Antibiotics Misuse
4. Livestock as a Major Contributor of Antibiotic Resistance
Sl. No. | Bacterial Species | Infection | Antibiotic Resistance Pattern | Sources of Human Infection | Genes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Campylobacter spp. | Gastrointestinal sequelae: Guillain-Barré syndrome | Fluoroquinolones, erythromycin | Food-producing animals (poultry) | tetO, gyrA [39,40] |
2 | Enterococcus spp. | Sepsis, urinary tract | Aminoglycosides ampicillin vancomycin | Food-producing animals (poultry); People exposed to hospital care, food animals | Tuf, VanC-1, VanC-2-VanC-3, pbp5 [41,42,43,44,45] |
3 | E. coli | Gastrointestinal, urinary tract, diarrhoea | Quinolones sulphonamides trimethoprim | Childcare facilities | Bla, qnrS, frdD [46,47,48] |
4 | Salmonella spp. (non-typhoidal) | Gastrointestinal, diarrhoea | Cephalosporins quinolones tetracyclines | Food-producing animals (pigs, cows, poultry) | IntI1, qnrA [49,50,51,52] |
5 | S. pneumoniae | Otitis media, pneumonia, sinusitis, meningitis | Penicillin, macrolides, cephalosporins, tetracyclines | Childcare facilities, paediatric populations | erm(B), mef [53,54,55,56] |
6 | S. pyogenes | Pharyngitis, impetigo, cellulitis | Macrolides, tetracyclines | Childcare facilities, paediatric Populations, schools | ermB, ermA and mefA [57] |
7 | S. aureus | ||||
Community-associated | Skin, soft tissue, pneumonia, sepsis | Methicillin, cephalosporins, macrolides | Childcare facilities, injections, drug users | erm(A), erm(C), tetK, tetM, aacA-aphD, vat(A), vat(B) and vat(C) [58,59] | |
Healthcare-associated | Endocarditis, pneumonia, sepsis | Methicillin, cephalosporins, quinolones, aminoglycosides, macrolides | People exposed to healthcare facilities such as nursing homes, dialysis, recent surgery or hospitalization | ||
8 | N. gonorrhoeae | Urethritis, pelvic inflammatory disease | Penicillin, cephalosporins, quinolones | Commercial sex workers | penA, penB, NorM [60,61] |
5. Scale of Antibiotic Use in Animals and Humans
6. Anthropogenic Contamination of Environment with Antibiotics and ARGs
7. Alternative Strategies to Combat Antibiotic Resistance
7.1. Phage or Bacteriophage Therapies
7.2. Predatory Bacteria
Causative Agent | Model/Route | Condition | Type of Phage | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|
Shigella dysenteriae | Human/Oral | Dysentery | Cholera Bacteriophage | Recovered after 24 h [92] |
P. aeruginosa | Murine/Oral | Sepsis | Phage strain KPP10 | 66.7% mortality reduction [93] |
Vancomycin-resistant E. faecium | Murine/Intraperitoneal injection (i.p.) | Bacteremia | Phage strain C33 & ENB6 | 100% mortality reduction [94] |
C. difficile | Hamster/Oral | Lleocecitis | Phage strain 135I | Prevented infection [95] |
Vibrio cholera | Human/Oral | Cholera | Cholera Bacteriophage | 93% survival in treated group vs. 37% in control group [92] |
Imipenem-resistant P. aeruginosa | Murine/I. p. injection | Bacteremia | Phage strain Ø9882 | 100% mortality reduction [96] |
B-lactamase producing E. coli | Murine/I. p. injection | Bacteremia | Phage strain Ø9882 | 100% mortality reduction [96] |
S. aureus | Rabbit/Subcutaneous injection | Wound Infection | Phage LS2a | Prevented infection [97] |
Salmonella Typhi | Human/Oral | Typhoid | Pyophage, Intestiphage, Staphylococcal bacteriophage, PhageBioDerm | 5 fold decrease in typhoid incidence compared to placebo [98] |
MDR S. aureus | Human/Tropical | Diabetic foot ulcer | Staphylococcal Phage Sb-1 | 100% recovery [99] |
Antibiotic-resistant P. aeruginosa | Human/Oral | Chronic otitis | Biophage-PA | Improved symptoms in double-blind, placebo-controlled phase I/II trial [85] |
E. coli | Murine/I. p. or subcutaneous injection | Meningitis and sepsis | Lytic Phage EC200PP | 100% and 50% mortality reduction meningitis and sepsis, respectively [100] |
7.3. Immunotherapeutics
7.4. Haemofiltration Devices
7.5. Quorum-Sensing Inhibitors
- (1)
- (2)
- Furanosyl borate (Autoinducer-2, AI-2),
- (3)
- N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs),
- (4)
- Methyl-dodecanoic acid, and
- (5)
7.6. Antimicrobial Adjuvants (AA)
- (a)
- Biofilm disruption.
- (b)
- Augmenting the uptake of antimicrobial in the target cell.
- (c)
- Enhancing the oxidative stress in bacteria.
- (d)
- Supressing the ARG.
- (e)
- Inhibition of bacterial efflux pumps.
7.7. Faecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT)
7.8. Nanoantibiotics
S.No. | Metal Nanoparticles Used | Action against Bacteria |
1 | Silver | E. coli, M. tuberculosis, MRSA, S. aureus, S. pyogens, K. pneumonia, [166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175]. |
2 | Titanium | K. pneumonia, S. aureus, A. baumannii, E. coli, Morganella morganii [152] |
3 | Gold | MRSA, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, Enterococcus spp., B. subtilis [151,176,177] |
S.No. | Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Used | Action against Bacteria |
1 | Zinc oxide | MRSA, Streptococcus agalactiae [155] |
2 | Manganese oxide | MRSA [178] |
3 | Manganese oxide | E. coli [156] |
S.No. | Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Composite Used | Action against Bacteria |
1 | Zinc doped copper oxide nanocomposite | MRSA, E. coli [154] |
2 | Copper doped zinc oxide nanocomposite | E. coli, S. aureus [179] |
S.No. | Metal Oxide Nanoparticles in Combination with Antibiotics Used | Action against Bacteria |
1 | ZnO and Antibiotics (cefotaxime, ampicillin, ceftriaxone, and cefepime) | E. coli, K. pneumoniae, Sphingomonas paucimobilis, and P. aeruginosa, respectively [180] |
2 | TiO2 nanoparticles in combination with antibiotics (β-lactams, cephalosporin, glycopeptides, aminoglycosides, flouroquinolones, azlides, macrolides, lincosamides, and sulphonamides) | Showed improved antibacterial activity [181] |
S.No. | Metal Nanoparticles in Combination with Antibiotics | Action against Bacteria |
1 | Gold nanoparticles and Ampicillin | MDR P. aeruginosa, E. aerogenes, and MRSA [182] |
2 | AgNPs with ciprofloxacin, imipenem, gentamycin, trimethoprim, and vancomycin | MDR E. coli, P. aeruginosa, E. faecalis, S. aureus, Micrococcus luteus, A. baumannii, K. pneumoniae, and Bacillus spp. [183] |
7.9. Plant-Derived Antimicrobials and Essential Oils
7.10. Probiotics, Postbiotics and Synbiotics
S.No. | Essential Oils (Components) | Active against Bacteria |
---|---|---|
1 | Mentha (menthol, isomenthone, limonene, iso-menthanol, menthol acetate, carvone, β-pinene, α-pinene, 1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, isopulegol, pulegone, piperiton, piperitone oxide, and β-phellandrene.) | S. aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, B. cereus, and E. coli, S. pyogenes, P. aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, C. albicans, and V. cholerae, [200,201,202] |
2 | Basil (Linalool, epi-α-cadinol, α-bergamotene, γ-cadinene, germacrene D, camphor. methylchavikol, methylcinnamat, linolen, eugenol, cis-geraniol, 1,8-cineole, α-bergamotene, β-caryophyllene, viridiflorol.) | S. aureus and B. subtilis, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, and Enterococcus genera, L. monocytogenes and B. cereus Vibrio spp. and Aerobacter hydrophila [203,204,205] |
3 | Oregano (thymol, carvacrol, ρ-cymene, thymoquinone, and γ-terpinene.) | Sarcina lutea, S. aureus, C. albicans, E. faecalis, and B. cereus [206,207] |
4 | Rosemary (α-pinene, myrcene, 1,8-cineole, camphor, camphene, α-terpineol, and borneol.) | S. epidermidis, S. aureus, B. subtilis, Proteus vulgaris, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli. [208,209,210,211] |
7.11. RNA Therapy
7.12. Development and Use of Vaccines
8. Mitigation Steps to Curb the Menace of Antibiotic Resistance
- Strengthening of surveillance data.
- Improving awareness of antibiotic resistance.
- Improving the practices of antibiotic prescription.
- Improvement of poor sanitation, malnutrition, and endemic infections.
- Optimizing the use of antimicrobial medicines and restricting over the counter sale of antibiotics.
- Improving the public awareness and government commitment.
- Reducing the incidence of infection by various means.
- Reducing clinical trial risk.
- Boosting market value for not feeding animals antibiotics.
- Strengthening the regulation of farm feeding of antibiotics.
- Ensuring the quality of generic antibiotics.
- Early sharing of data.
- Organizing world antibiotic awareness week.
- Implementation of the global antimicrobial resistance surveillance system (GLASS).
- Establishing the global antibiotic research and development partnership (GARDP).
- Establishing the interagency coordination group on antimicrobial resistance (IACG).
9. Future Strategies, Challenges, and Outlooks
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Urgent | Serious | Concerning |
---|---|---|
1. A. baumannii, P. aeruginosa, carbapenem-resistant 2. Clostridium difficile (CDIFF) 3. N. gonorrhoeae-3rd generation cephalosporin-resistant, fluoroquinolone-resistant 4. Carbapenem- and 3rd generation cephalosporin resistant Enterobacteriaceae: K. pneumonia, E. coli, Enterobacter spp., Serratia spp., Proteus spp., and Providencia spp., Morganella spp. | 1. Streptococcus pneumonia, penicillin-non-susceptible 2. Haemophilus influenzae, ampicillin-resistant 3. Shigella spp., fluoroquinolone-resistant 4. Enterococcus spp., vancomycin resistant 5. Multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter 6. Drug resistant Campylobacter 7.Extended-spectrum β-lactamase producing Enterobacteriae (ESBLs) 8. Multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa 9. Drug-resistant non-typhoidal Salmonella 10. Drug-resistant Salmonella serotype Typhi 11. Drug resistant M. tuberculosis 12. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) | 1. Group B Streptococcus (GBS), clindamycin resistant 2. Group A Streptococcus (GAS), erythromycin resistant 3. S. aureus, vancomycin resistant |
Mechanism of Action | Name of Antibiotic Families |
---|---|
Inhibition of protein synthesis | Tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, streptogramins, ketolides, macrolides, lincosamides, daptomycin |
Inhibition of DNA synthesis | Fluoroquinolones, daptomycin |
Inhibition of RNA synthesis | Rifampin and other metronidazoles, daptomycin |
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis | Penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, monobactams, glycopeptides |
Disrupt functions of bacterial outer membrane | Daptomycin, polymyxin B, colistin, and lipopetides |
Competitive inhibition of folic acid synthesis | Sulfonamides, trimethoprim |
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Kumar, S.B.; Arnipalli, S.R.; Ziouzenkova, O. Antibiotics in Food Chain: The Consequences for Antibiotic Resistance. Antibiotics 2020, 9, 688. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9100688
Kumar SB, Arnipalli SR, Ziouzenkova O. Antibiotics in Food Chain: The Consequences for Antibiotic Resistance. Antibiotics. 2020; 9(10):688. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9100688
Chicago/Turabian StyleKumar, Shashi B., Shanvanth R. Arnipalli, and Ouliana Ziouzenkova. 2020. "Antibiotics in Food Chain: The Consequences for Antibiotic Resistance" Antibiotics 9, no. 10: 688. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9100688
APA StyleKumar, S. B., Arnipalli, S. R., & Ziouzenkova, O. (2020). Antibiotics in Food Chain: The Consequences for Antibiotic Resistance. Antibiotics, 9(10), 688. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9100688