RETRACTED: Energy Efficiency Maximization for Hybrid-Powered 5G Networks with Energy Cooperation

Abstract

The extensive deployment of 5G cellular networks causes increased energy consumption and interference in systems, and to address this problem, this paper investigates the optimization problem of joint energy harvesting and energy cooperation to maximize energy efficiency (EE). First, considering user equipment (UE) quality of service (QoS) constraints, cellular base station power constraints, and renewable energy harvesting constraints, we construct a mixed-integer nonlinear programming problem for joint resource allocation. This problem is difficult to solve directly, thus we combine the fixed-variable method to solve the complex original problem in three less difficult subproblems of user association, power allocation, and energy cooperation by solving them separately using Lagrangian method, improved particle swarm optimization algorithm, and matching theory, respectively. Finally, the final solution to the original problem is obtained by combining the above three algorithms through convergent iterative algorithms. The simulation results show that the joint algorithm proposed in this paper has a better performance in throughput and energy efficiency compared with the comparison algorithms.

1. Introduction

The proliferation of network devices and the increasing demand for network services are leading to a dramatic increase in network data traffic. The mobile communication technology of 5th Generation (5G) is a promising technology with high-speed, low-latency and large-connectivity features to effectively meet the demand of network capacity growth [1,2,3]. Among the technologies to achieve a high capacity, millimeter-wave communication and densified BSs deployment are two important technologies. Millimeter-wave technology can significantly increase the available bandwidth from 30 GHz to 300 GHz [4], and 5G systems can provide higher communication rates. However, the transmission range of millimeter-wave signals is much shorter compared to conventional wireless technologies. Therefore, the density of small base stations (BSs) must be increased to ensure communication quality. However, the dense deployment of BSs leads to a great increase in energy consumption and serious channel interference problems for communication networks. In fact, the energy consumption of the BSs forms the main energy consumption part of the traditional wireless network system, accounting for 60–80% of the total energy consumption [5], and the problem of high carbon emissions is becoming increasing prominent. Therefore, improving energy efficiency (EE) has become a key technical indicator that must be considered when developing green communication systems [6].

To achieve a green mobile communication, in addition to EE and resource optimization in a system with algorithms, renewable energy (RE) sources (e.g., solar, wind, etc.), which power BSs, can be used in 5G networks by introducing energy harvesting techniques to further reduce the carbon emissions. As an ecologically and economically friendly technology, energy harvesting can recover cheap and clean RE from the surrounding environment and has attracted extensive attention and intensive research from both academia and the industry [7]. In cellular networks with energy harvesting, the issue of resource allocation has been extensively studied to maximize the system EE, while saving energy consumption at the BSs. In [8,9], resource allocation problems with energy harvesting networks are optimized considering the heterogeneity of traffic and the volatility of collected energy. The authors of [10] studied the problem of maximizing EE in dense networks with two layers and proposed a Dinkelbach-based Lagrangian decoupling algorithm to improve the throughput and system efficiency of radio frequency (RF) terminals. In [11], in a dense BSs network scenario with energy harvesting, a joint optimal power allocation and energy management method was proposed on the basis of the Lyapunov framework, which improves overall system throughput and optimizes the EE on satisfying the energy management equilibrium.

Energy harvesting devices were applied in the field of communication. For example, about 2/3 of the BSs deployed by China Mobile in Tibet are powered by RE sources [12]. Huawei has designed solar cellular base stations around the world with a total output of 20 million KW·h [13]. However, in practice, it is difficult to obtain accurate information about the time-varying energy harvesting process. Unlike conventional power generation, RE generated in nature is highly variable in time and space depending on different factors, such as climate and geological location, leading to its intermittency and randomness. Energy harvesting technologies are difficult to apply to a single powered energy source for cellular networks. Therefore, how to deal with the time-varying behavior of the energy harvesting process is a key issue.

To overcome the stochastic and intermittent nature of RE sources, energy cooperation is considered a promising solution to increase the usage of RE sources [14]. The converter is used to integrate distributed renewable energy into the aggregator of the smart grid. Energy cooperation between any two BSs can be achieved through the smart grid infrastructure by one BS injecting additional RE into the aggregator, while the other BS draws power from the aggregator. The energy management framework, as one of the important components within the smart grid, serves to achieve green energy redistribution. The energy management framework of BSs enables energy transfer, and thus overall energy saving [15]. Therefore, the optimization of energy management is crucial at the BS, i.e., how much energy is shared between the BS and the energy obtained from the grid and storage systems.

Recently, the potential of energy cooperation in RE cellular networks has been explored, and various energy cooperation optimization problems have been studied. Considering real-time electricity price and pollution issues, these papers consider the demand-side management of loads and optimization of energy management to reduce grid energy consumption [16]. In [17], the adaptive power management of wireless BSs is studied in the stochastic nature of energy harvesting, where each BSs acts as a consumer. The variability of RE generation, grid cost, and power consumption of wireless BSs due to different traffic loads are considered to reduce the energy cost. The authors of [18] propose an offline algorithm that considers RE dynamics, inter-cell interference, and time-varying fading channels to enhance the EE of the network through efficient resource allocation and energy sharing among cells by the smart grid. It also adjusts the electrical load according to the smart grid request. This scenario is studied by a Markov model with model parameters based on real data of smart grid demand and traffic, and real energy simulations generated by solar panels [19].

Resource allocation schemes in wireless communication, such as power allocation, sub-channel allocation, and bandwidth allocation, can effectively suppress channel interference to improve the communication rate of UEs and are important elements of communication research. Studies were conducted to introduce energy cooperation to improve the EE of communication systems. The authors of [20] considered a two-layer heterogeneous network model with on-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) technology and energy cooperation to maximize the EE of the entire system by optimizing user association and power control. They also proposed a stepwise optimization algorithm to jointly optimize transmit power and user association to improve the EE, but the algorithm did not consider the allocation of RE among BSs. In [21], the authors proposed an optimal power allocation and energy management system to optimize the energy consumption of hybrid-powered heterogeneous networks, and they proposed a meta-heuristic optimization algorithm to reduce the average power consumption of BSs. The authors of [22] investigated the energy consumption minimization problem of heterogeneous networks with caching and proposed a low-complexity hierarchical solution algorithm to effectively reduce system power consumption by optimizing the UE bandwidth and energy cooperation mechanisms. In [23], the multi-objective optimization problem of energy cost and the energy consumption was studied in a two-tier heterogeneous network with energy cooperation, which was converted into two single-objective problems by convex optimization theory. A distributed algorithm with variable substitution was also proposed, and this method effectively reduced the energy consumption and energy cost of the system.

Although many studies were devoted to the optimization of resource allocation and energy cooperation, these aspects were usually studied separately and rarely considered jointly for optimization. Recognizing the great potential of RE and the challenges of resource allocation, this paper addresses the problem of joint optimization of resource allocation and energy cooperation in 5G dense cellular networks. The main contributions of this work can be summarized as follows:

• We consider the downlink transmission model in millimeter-wave BSs, each powered by RE sources and smart grids, and maximize the system EE as the optimization metric and measuring system performance in bits/s. Considering the BSs transmit power constraints, UE quality of service constraints, and collection energy constraints, a resource optimization problem—maximizing the total system EE as the optimization objective and jointly optimizing user association, power allocation, and energy cooperation—is studied.
• Considering that this optimization problem is a mixed-integer nonlinear programming problem, which is not easy to solve directly, combined with the fixed variable method, we use the decomposition method to decompose the original problem into three lower-level problems, i.e., user association, power allocation and energy cooperation. For these three subproblems, we combine the fixed variable method with the Lagrangian method to solve the user association problem and propose an improved particle swarm method to solve the power allocation problem. Then, a bilateral stable matching algorithm is proposed to obtain the solution of energy cooperation. Finally, a convergent iterative algorithm is proposed to combine the above three algorithms to jointly solve the original optimization problem to further improve the system EE.
• The simulation results confirm that the proposed algorithm can achieve more EE than the comparison scheme. Additionally, the simulation results also verify the effectiveness and convergence of our proposed algorithm, and our algorithm has a better channel interference suppression effect compared with the existing power allocation algorithm and has a higher performance in terms of throughput and EE than the comparison algorithm.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the system model and the formulated problem. Section 3 proposes a solution algorithm. The simulation results and conclusions are given in Section 4 and Section 5, respectively.

2. System Model

2.1. Transmission Model

As shown in Figure 1, we consider a dense network of multiple millimeter-wave-based base stations coexisting in downlink transmission scenarios. In such a network, all BSs are powered by conventional grid and RE sources, and energy can be shared among the BSs through a smart grid. It is assumed that the BS can serve multiple user equipment (UE) at the same time, and all BSs are assumed to share the same frequency band and to have perfect channel state information (CSI) in a low mobility environment. Let $m\in \left\{1,2,3,\cdot \cdot \cdot ,M\right\}$ be the m-th BS.

Let $j\in \left\{1,2,3,\cdot \cdot \cdot ,N\right\}$ index the j-th (UE) $(M<N)$. Assuming that each UE can adaptively select the associated BS, $x_{jm}=1$ when the j-th UE is associated with the m-th BS; otherwise, it is zero. $S_m=\sqrt{P_{jm}}{s}_m$ is the j-th UE-stream with $E\left[|s_m{|}^2\right]=1$. $P_{jm}$ is the corresponding allocated transmit power. When the j-th UE is associated with the m-th BS, its received signal can be expressed as:

$$y_m=h_{jm}\sqrt{P_{jm}}{s}_m+{\displaystyle \sum }_{m^{\prime }=1,m^{\prime }\ne m}^M{\displaystyle \sum }_{j^{\prime }=1}^N{h}_m^{m\prime }\left(\sqrt{P_{j^{\prime }m\prime }}{s}_{j^{\prime }m\prime }\right)+{\varpi }_0$$

(1)

where ${\varpi }_0$ is the additive white Gaussian noise, $h_{jm}\sqrt{P_{jm}}{s}_m$ is useful signals received, and ${\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{m\prime =1,m\prime \ne m}^M}{h}_{jm}^{m^{\prime }}\left(S_{m\prime }\sqrt{P_{j^{\prime }{m}^{\prime }}}{s}_{m\prime }\right)$ is interference signal. ${\left|h_{jm}\right|}^2$ is the channel coefficient from the associated BS m, where ${\left|h_{jm}\right|}^2$ = $d^{-\beta }g$, $d^{-\beta }$ is the large-scale fading, with $d$ and $\beta$ being the distance between one BS and one served UEs and the path loss exponent, respectively. $g$ is small-scale fading, which follows a Rayleigh distribution with a mean value of zero and a variance of one; $h_{jm}^{m\prime }$ is the interfering channel coefficient from the BS $m^{\prime }$.

Co-channel interference exists due to the presence of multiple spectra sharing UEs within the network. The signal to interference plus noise ratio (SINR) of UEs during the downlink transmission is expressed as:

$${\gamma }_{jm}=\frac{x_{jm}{P}_{jm}{\left|h_{jm}\right|}^2}{{\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{m^{\prime }=1,m^{\prime }\ne m}^M}{\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{j^{\prime }=1}^N}{\left|h_{jm}^{m^{\prime }}\right|}^2{x}_{j^{\prime }{m}^{\prime }}{P}_{j^{\prime }{m}^{\prime }}+{\sigma }^2}$$

(2)

where ${\sigma }^2$ is the noise power, $x_{jm}{P}_{jm}{\left|h_{jm}\right|}^2$ denotes the useful signal strength received by UE j associated with BS, and m, ${\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{m^{\prime }=1,m^{\prime }\ne m}^M}{\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{j^{\prime }=1}^N}{\left|h_{jm}^{m^{\prime }}\right|}^2{x}_{j^{\prime }{m}^{\prime }}{P}_{j^{\prime }{m}^{\prime }}$ indicates co-frequency interference from other BSs $m^{\prime }$.

According to the Shannon formula [9], the data rate of the UE j associated with the BS m is expressed as:

$${\tau }_{ij}=W{\log }_2(1+{\gamma }_{jm})$$

(3)

where W is the system bandwidth.

Table 1. List of symbols list with description.

Symbol	Description
$m$	BS index
$j$	User index
$P_{jm}$	Transmission power from $m$ to $j$
$h_{jm}$	Channel gain between $m$ and $j$
$h_{jm}^{m\prime }$	Interfering channel coefficient from $m^{\prime }$
$y_m$	Received signal
${\gamma }_{jm}$	Signal to interference plus noise ratio
${\tau }_{ij}$	Data rate of j associated with m
$x_{ij}$	User association indicator
W	System bandwidth
${\sigma }^2$	Noise power
${\varpi }_0$	Additive white Gaussian noise
$P_m^{total}$	Energy consumed
$E_m$	Renewable energy sources from m
$E_{\mathit{loss}}$	Lost energy
$\alpha$	Energy transfer efficiency factor
$T_{mm\prime }$	Energy received by BS m from other BS m′
$T_{m\prime m}$	Energy received by BS m′ from other BS m
$\zeta$	Power amplifier efficiency
$P_m^c$	Circuit power consumption of each BS
$x_{id}$	Position of particle i in d-dimensional space.
$v_{id}$	Velocity of particle i in d-dimensional space.
$\mathit{w}$	Inertia weight
${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$	Set of BSs that have excess energy
${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$	Set of BSs that do not collect enough energy

lists the symbols used in this paper and their description.

2.2. Energy Model

Each BS is capable of harvesting RE from the environment through solar panels or wind turbines. Due to the volatility and unreliability of the energy harvesting process, conventional grid energy should also be provided as a supplement to ensure reliable transmission, assuming that each BS is powered by the smart grid and RE sources and that energy cooperation between BSs can be achieved using the smart grid. In other words, BSs can transfer energy to each other via the smart grid. The energy cooperation between BSs is implemented in the framework of the smart grid. In a smart grid, an aggregator is a virtual entity that allows BSs to draw or inject energy into it under different demand/supply conditions. Moreover, the whole process of energy harvesting, consumption and extraction/injection at each BS can be coordinated by the order of smart meters [16]. Considering practical factors, such as the limited capacity and high cost of existing batteries, we make the same assumption as in [22], that the harvested energy cannot be stored for dynamic energy management. If not utilized in a timely manner, the harvested energy will be wasted, and the excess collected energy will be passed directly into the aggregator. The energy drawn by the m-th BS from the conventional grid is denoted as $P_m^{total}$ . The energy harvested by the m-th BS from renewable energy sources is denoted by $E_m$. Renewable energy is lost in the process of transmission. This paper only considers that the transmission efficiency is mainly affected by the resistance of the power line [23]. The greater the resistance, the greater the energy loss; its lost energy can be expressed as:

$$E_{loss}=I^{2}R\left(l\right)$$

(4)

where $I$ is current in a power line, $R(l)$ is total resistance of power line, $R(l)=\rho l$, $\rho$ is resistance coefficient, $l$ is power line length. It is known that the lost energy is positively related to the length of the power line.The energy transfer efficiency factor between two BSs is denoted as $\alpha$, which can be expressed as:

$$\alpha =\frac{T_{m\prime m}}{T_{mm\prime }}=\frac{T_{mm\prime }-E_{loss}}{T_{mm\prime }},\alpha \in \left[0,1\right]$$

(5)

where the energy transferred from BS m to BS $m^{\prime }$ is denoted as $T^{mm\prime }$, and the energy received by BS $m^{\prime }$ from other BS m is denoted as $T^{m\prime m}$ for differences in ${\alpha }^{mm\prime }$ between BSs due to different power line lengths.

The energy consumed by the system is expressed as:

$${\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M{P}_m^{total}={\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M{P}_m^c+\zeta {\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M{P}_m-{\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M{E}_m$$

(6)

where ${\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{j=1}^N}{x}_{jm}{P}_{jm}=P_m$, $\zeta$ is the power amplifier efficiency, $P_m^c$ is the circuit power consumption of each BS (signal processing module, power supply, refrigeration, etc.), and ${\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M}{P}_m^{total}$ is the power grid energy consumption consumed by the whole system.

2.3. Problem Formulation

We consider the UE quality of service (QoS) constraints, the maximum transmit power constraint for small-cell BSs, and the energy harvesting constraint. Our aim is to maximize the EE of system. The EE (bits/joule) is defined as the ratio of the total network transmission rate to the total grid energy consumption, i.e., the EE optimization problem can be formulated as:

$$\begin{array}{ll}\mathrm{P}1:& \max \eta \left(\mathit{X},\mathit{P},\mathit{T}\right)={\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{n=1}^N{\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M}{x}_{jm}{\tau }_{jm}/{\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M}{P}_m^{total}\\ \mathrm{s}.\mathrm{t}.& C1: x_{jm}\in \left\{0,1\right\}\\ & C2:{\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M}{x}_{jm}=1\\ & C3:{\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M}{x}_{jm}{\tau }_{jm}\ge {\tau }_{min}\\ & C4:{\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{j=1}^N}{x}_{jm}{P}_{jm}=P_m\\ & C5:P_m^{total}{}_m\ge 0,T_{mm\prime }\ge 0,T_{m\prime m}\ge 0\\ & C6:0\le P_m\le P_{\max }\\ & C7:T_{m\prime m}\cap T_{mm\prime }=\varnothing \end{array}$$

(7)

where $\mathit{X}=\left[x_{jm}\right]$, $\mathit{P}=\left[P_{jm}\right]$, and $\mathit{T}=\left[T_{mm\prime }\right]$. C1 indicates the user association (UA) coefficient, expressed in binary numbers.C2 ensures that each UE cannot be associated with multiple BSs, only one BS can be associated. Constraint C3 guarantees the QoS; C4 represents the power allocation (PA) to other UEs under a BS. C6 is the transmit power constraint, C5 indicates that the grid energy consumption and transferred energy are non-negative values, and C7 indicates that the energy transfer and reception of the BS cannot be simultaneously performed in energy cooperation (EC). To visually express their functions, each constraint is expressed as C1(UA), C2(UA constraint), C3(QoS), C4(PA), C5(constraint), C6(PA constraint), and C7(EC).

3. Joint Optimization of User Association, Power Allocation and Energy Cooperation

Since the original problem has multiple continuous and discrete variables, the original problem is a mixed-integer nonlinear fractional programming problem. The problem contains the solution variables, user association $\mathit{X}$, transmit power $\mathit{P}$ and energy cooperation $\mathit{T}$, which are coupled with each other and difficult to solve directly. To deal with the optimization problem, the original problem is broken down into three lower-level problems: user association, transmit power, and energy cooperation. For the first user association subproblem, given two sets of variables, transmit power $\mathit{P}$ and energy cooperation $\mathit{T}$, the user association subproblem is solved, while the QoS constraint is satisfied. For the second power allocation subproblem, given the energy cooperation variables $\mathit{T}$, and based on the solution of user association, the transmit power subproblem is solved. The energy cooperation subproblem is solved based on the $\mathit{X}$ and $\mathit{P}$. Finally, the solution of problem P1 is jointly solved for the three subproblems.

3.1. User Association Problem

P1 is a mixed-integer non-linear programming (MINLP) problem. In this section, we assume that the transmit power and energy cooperation is fixed, and the original problem is converted into a subproblem of solving user associations, requiring only a set of variables $\mathit{X}$ to be solved. Considering that the traditional distance-based greedy algorithm, although simple and easy to implement, can cause serious interference to the remote UEs, resulting in the degradation of the communication quality of the remote UEs. This section uses the Lagrangian method to solve for the optimal BS selection by UEs under the consideration of co-channel interference to ensure that UEs achieve better QoS.

Given the two sets of variables for the transmit power and energy cooperation, the constraints on the two sets of variables—C5, C6, and C7—associated with $\mathit{P}$ and $\mathit{T}$ are no longer considered. The optimization problem is reduced to solving only the set of variables $\mathit{X}$. Therefore, the original optimization problem, P1, can be rewritten as:

$$\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{P}2:\max \eta \left(\mathit{X}\right)\\ \mathrm{s}.\mathrm{t}. \mathrm{C}1, \mathrm{C}2, \mathrm{C}3, \mathrm{C}4\end{array}$$

(8)

Since the user association indicator $X_{jm}$ is a binary variable, the problem P2 is a non-convex mixed-integer programming problem. To solve this problem, we can let $X_{jm}$ be continuous. Let $0\le X_{jm}\le 1$; then, the problem is converted to solve a continuous convex optimization problem. The transformed solution problem and the constraints are convex functions, then the problem can be considered as a convex optimization problem, and for continuous convex optimization problems, there exists a local maximum of function, which is the global optimal solution. According to the Lagrangian property [24,25], we use the Lagrangian method to solve the problem. First, we introduce the Lagrangian multipliers ${\lambda }_j$ and ${\theta }_m$, and construct the Lagrangian function of P2 according to the two constraints. The Lagrangian function can be written as:

$$L(x,\lambda ,\theta )={\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^N{\displaystyle \sum _{m=1}^M{x}_{jm}^{}{\tau }_{jm}/{\displaystyle \sum _{m=1}^M{P}_m^{total}}}}-{\displaystyle \sum _{j=1}^N{\lambda }_j({\tau }_{\min }-{\displaystyle \sum _{m=1}^M{x}_{jm}{\tau }_{jm}})}-{\displaystyle \sum _{m=1}^M{\theta }_m({\displaystyle \sum _{j=1}^N{x}_{jm}{P}_{jm}-P_m})}$$

(9)

where, ${\lambda }_j$ and ${\theta }_m$ are non-negative Lagrange multipliers.

Then, the dual function is given by:

$$g\left(\lambda ,\theta \right)=\{\begin{array}{l}\max L\left(x,\lambda ,\theta \right)\\ s.t.C1,C2,\end{array}$$

(10)

Additionally, the dual problem of P2 is expressed as:

$$\min g\left(\lambda ,\theta \right)$$

(11)

Furthermore, according to the Lagrangian dual method property [25], the derivative of the Lagrangian is derived, and the result is expressed as:

$$\frac{\partial L\left(x,\lambda ,\theta \right)}{\partial {\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M}{x}_{jm}}={\tau }_{jm}/{\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M{P}_m^{total}+{\lambda }_j{\tau }_{jm}-{\theta }_m{P}_{jm}$$

(12)

The optimal user association function ${\eta }_{jm}$ is constructed based on the results of Equation (9). Each user association function is calculated ${\eta }_{jm}$ separately. The optimal user association function is expressed as:

$$\frac{\partial L\left(x,\lambda ,\theta \right)}{\partial {\displaystyle {\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M}{x}_{jm}}={\tau }_{jm}/{\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M{P}_m^{total}+{\lambda }_j{\tau }_{jm}-{\theta }_m{P}_{jm}$$

(13)

The UE selects the BS with the largest value of the association function ${\eta }_{jm}$. According to the user association function, the discriminant formula for the UE to select the optimal BS is:

$$x_{jm}^{*}=\{\begin{array}{c}1,\mathrm{if} m=m^{*}\\ 0, \mathrm{otherwise}\end{array}$$

(14)

where $m^{*}=\arg \max \left({\eta }_{jm}\right)$

When updating the ${\lambda }_j$ and ${\theta }_m$ Lagrangian multipliers, we also updated the two Lagrangian multipliers using subgradient iterations [26], which are given by:

$${\lambda }_j\left(t+1\right)={[{\lambda }_j\left(t\right)-{\delta }_1\left(t\right)\left({\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M{x}_{jm}{\tau }_{jm}-{\tau }_{\min }\right)]}^{+}$$

(15)

$${\theta }_j\left(t+1\right)={\left[{\theta }_j\left(t\right)-{\delta }_2\left(t\right)\left(P_m-{\displaystyle \sum }_{j=1}^N{x}_{jm}{P}_{jm}\right)\right]}^{+}$$

(16)

where Equations (12) and (13) need to satisfy ${\left[a\right]}_{+}=\max (a,0)$, i.e., the result of the iteration needs to be compared with 0. When the iteration value is greater than 0, the value is taken as a positive iteration value; when the iteration value is negative, the result is taken as 0. δ(t) is the update step of the Lagrange multiplier and t is the number of iterations; we use the nonsummable diminishing step length. The update step must satisfy:

$${\displaystyle \sum }_{t=1}^{\infty }{\delta }_i\left(t\right)=\infty , \underset{t\to \infty }{\lim }{\delta }_i\left(t\right)=0, \forall i=\left\{1,2\right\}$$

(17)

We use a Lagrangian-based algorithm to obtain the solution to the user association by iteration, as summarized in Algorithm 1.

Algorithm 1 Lagrangian-Based User Association Algorithm

1: Input: Transmit power $P^m$, Lagrange multiplier ${\lambda }_j$ and ${\theta }_m$, Maximum number of iterations ${\theta }_{out}$, Update step $\delta (t)$, QoS threshold ${\tau }_{\min }$, number of iterations t = 1

2: Output: UE selection of base stations $x_{jm}^{*}$

3: for $1<t<T_{out}$

4: for $j=1:1:N$

5: Calculated ${\eta }_{jm}$ according to the formula, UEs choose the largest ${\eta }_{jm}$, and the User association parameters are $x_{jm}(t)$

6: update ${\lambda }_j$ and ${\theta }_m$ according to (15) and (16)

7: if $x_{jm}(t)=x_{jm}(t+1)$, obtain the optimal associated base station $X_{jm}^{*}$, exit loop;

8: break

9: end if

10: end for

11: end for

3.2. Power Allocation Problem

In this section, the power allocation subproblem is solved after fixing two sets of variables for user association and BSs’ energy cooperation. Power allocation is an important research topic of communication systems as it will directly affect the quality of service of UEs and system energy consumption. The traditional equal power allocation method is a wasteful method of power consumption. Additionally, the fractional transmit power allocation (FTPA) scheme, in which UEs are graded according to the inter-cell interference to noise ratio, has the disadvantage of remote UEs suffering from severe inter-cell interference [20]. Power allocation is a nonlinear problem, and the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm, as a bionic intelligent algorithm, is widely used in nonlinear planning problems due to its fast convergence and efficient global search capability [27].

After fixing the two sets of variables for the user association $\mathit{X}$ and energy cooperation $\mathit{T}$, a set of variables $\mathit{P}$ for transmit power must be solved. The original optimization problem P1 is downscaled to solve the one-dimensional power allocation problem P3, and the problem is reformulated as:

$$\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{P}3: \max \eta \left(\mathit{P}\right)\\ s.t. \mathrm{C}3, \mathrm{C}4, \mathrm{C}6\end{array}$$

(18)

Problem P3 is a nonlinear fractional optimization problem, which is difficult to solve directly. Additionally, the difficulty of its solution increases with the increase in the number of UEs. Therefore, we consider the PSO algorithm to solve the power allocation subproblem. In the following, the solution analysis of the standard PSO algorithm and the improved PSO algorithm are given, respectively.

3.2.1. Standard PSO Algorithm

In the standard PSO algorithm, the positions of the particles are iteratively updated along the direction of the best position. Each particle is evaluated by the fitness function to determine the optimization performance. To achieve the best global position, the best individual and global positions are tracked in each iteration to calculate the updated particles. Each particle can be considered as a feasible solution, and each particle computes the fitness function to obtain the global optimal position gBest of the population particles, and the local optimal position pBest. $x_{id}(t+1)$ is the position of the t + 1 iteration of the particle i in d-dimensional space, and $v_{id}(t+1)$ is the velocity of the iteration of the particle in d-dimensional space. The velocity and position of the individual particle are continuously and iteratively updated based on the global optimal solution and the local optimal solution [28], the $v_{id}(t+1)$ and $x_{id}(t+1)$ are updated as:

$$\begin{gathered} v_{id}\left(t+1\right)=w{v}_{id}\left(t\right)+c_{1}rand\left(pBes{t}_{id}\left(t\right)-x_{id}\left(t\right)\right) \\ +c_{2}rand\left(gBes{t}_{id}\left(t\right)-x_{id}\left(t\right)\right) \end{gathered}$$

(19)

$$x_{id}\left(t+1\right)=v_{id}\left(t+1\right)+x_{id}\left(t\right)$$

(20)

where $i=1,2,\cdots Q,d=1,2,\cdots D$, $c_1$ is the individual learning factor, and $c_2$ is the group learning factor. $w$ is inertia weight standard PSO, which generally sets the weight of the larger PSOs to aid the algorithm’s global search. rand is the random parameters within (0,1). We abstract the particle positions $x_{id}$ as a set of feasible solutions to the variables $\mathit{P}$ in the power allocation optimization problem, expressed as a vector $\mathbf{\Theta }=(P_{11},P_{12},\cdots ,P_{NM})$, and the d-dimensional space represents the number of UEs, i.e., d = N.

According to the system objective function $\max \eta (\mathit{P})$, PSO under the constraint of the fitness function can be expressed as:

$$f\left(P\right)=\max \eta \left(\mathit{P}\right)={\displaystyle \sum }_{n=1}^N{\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M{x}_{jm}{\tau }_{jm}/{\displaystyle \sum }_{m=1}^M{P}_m^{total}$$

(21)

Since the standard PSO has defects, this paper proposes an improved PSO to solve these defects:

3.2.2. Improved PSO Algorithm

The standard PSO algorithm is prone to fall into local optimal solutions and has the defects of a poor search accuracy and slow convergence of its algorithm when solving in higher dimensions and nonlinear functions [28]. In response to the above-mentioned defects of the standard PSO algorithm, many studies have proposed improvement schemes for it. The authors of [29,30,31] and others have improved update parameters, which include dynamic trajectory, weight and learning factors in order to improve the convergence performance and search accuracy of the algorithm. Inspired by the above-mentioned literature, three improvements are made in this section, which constitute the improved PSO algorithm.

(1)

A two-stage dynamic trajectory scheme: The particle velocity $v_{id}$ directly affects the dynamic position of the particles $x_{id}$, and choosing a reasonable velocity $v_{id}$ helps to speed up the particle swarm search and reduce the number of iterations of the algorithm [29]. We suggest that in the early stage of particle search, the particle velocity should be kept at a large value, which helps to improve the global search ability of the particles, prevent the particles from falling into the local optimal solution, and effectively reduce the number of iterations of the later search. In the late stage of the particle search, the particle velocity should be kept smaller to make the particle have a better local search ability. Below are the following equations:

$$\begin{array}{l}\text{if} t<J:\\ v_{id}(t+1)=\left({\chi }_{\max }\right)\times \left[\begin{array}{l}w{v}_{id}(t)+c_{1}rand(pBes{t}_{id}(t)-x_{id}(t))\\ +c_{2}rand(gBes{t}_{id}(t)-x_{id}(t))\end{array}\right]\\ \text{else}:\\ v_{id}(t+1)=({\chi }_{\max }-rand))\times \left[\begin{array}{l}w{v}_{id}(t)+c_{1}rand(pBes{t}_{id}(t)-x_{id}(t))\\ +c_{2}rand(gBes{t}_{id}(t)-x_{id}(t))\end{array}\right]\end{array}$$

(22)

where ${\chi }_{\max }>1$, t is the number of iterations, and J is the set interval of the number of iterations of the two stages. Our proposed motion trajectory update scheme ensures a faster global search capability for the particle swarm in the early iterations of the search, in the later iterations, the particle swarm slows down, which helps the local search capability of the swarm and improves search accuracy, so its convergence speed is accelerated.

(2)

A two-stage dynamic inertia weighting scheme: Particle movement is very sensitive to inertia weights, and the inertia weights need to be reasonably controlled to balance the local and global search ability of the algorithm. In the standard PSO, the inertia weights are fixed values, and its local search ability is poor. The linear decreasing weight strategy improves local searchability, but the global search ability is poor. Therefore, we consider a two-stage dynamic inertia weighting strategy. In the early iteration, the control is in a larger interval to gives its particle swarm a better global search ability; in the late iteration, the non-linear decreasing strategy is used to improve its local search ability:

$$\omega (t+1)=\{\begin{array}{l}{\omega }_{\max }t<J\\ {\omega }_{\max }-({\omega }_{\max }-{\omega }_{\min })\times {\left(\frac{t}{T_{out}}\right)}^{dnl}t>J\end{array}$$

(23)

where ${\omega }_{\max }=0.8,{\omega }_{\min }=0.3$, dnl = 0.4 is the nonlinear coefficient [31]; T_out is the maximum number of iterations. The improved strategy has a stronger global search capability in the early stage and stronger local search capability in the later stage, so the algorithm is in an efficient search state and its solution has better accuracy.

(3)

Nonlinear asynchronous acceleration coefficients: The acceleration coefficients $c_1$ and c₂ of the particle swarm is mainly reflected as the learning ability of the individual particles and the group particles, reflecting the quantitative relationship between the individual particles, the whole particles and the optimal position of the previous stage. Their role is reflected in controlling the continuous approximation of the optimal position of the individual particles to the global optimal position [29]. On the one hand, in the standard PSO, the acceleration coefficients, c₁ and c₂, are synchronized fixed values that cannot guarantee the efficient searchability of the particle swarm. To increase the search capability of the particles, an asynchronous acceleration coefficients strategy is used. In the pre-particle swarm search process, we want the individual particles to traverse the whole problem space to enhance the global search capability and the local search capability in the later stage. To this end, we introduce a nonlinear dynamic acceleration factor update mechanism [30] that can effectively balance the ability of particles in a global search and local search. The acceleration coefficients update formula is as follows:

$$c_1=-\left(c_{1f}-c_{1i}\right)\times \left(\frac{t}{T_{out}}\right)+c_{1f}$$

(24)

$$c_2=c_{1i}\times {(1-\frac{t}{T_{out}})}^2+c_{1f}\times \frac{t}{T_{out}}$$

(25)

where $c_{1f}$ = 2.5, $c_{1i}$ = 0.5, t is the number of iterations, and T_out is the maximum number of iterations.

In this section, the improved PSO algorithm is used to iteratively obtain the solution of power allocation, as summarized in Algorithm 2.

Algorithm 2 Improved PSO-Based Power Allocation Algorithm

1: Input: initialize particle swarm size $Q$, Maximum number of iterations $T_{out}$, weighting $w$, acceleration coefficients $c_1$ and $c_2$, initial particle position and velocity $x_{\mathrm{id}}$ and $v_{\mathrm{id}}$ 2: Output: global optimal allocation of power and energy efficiency $\mathit{P}$ and max η(P) 3: for t = 1: 1: Tout 4: Calculate the pBest of each particle, obtain the current maximum fitness function max η(P), treat the result as a global optimal solution gBest 5: Update $W$, $c_1$ and $c_2$ according to (24) and (25) 6: Update $v_{\mathrm{id}}(t+1)$ and $x_{\mathrm{id}}(t+1)$ according to (22) and (20) 7: Number of iterations $t=t+1$ 8: end for

3.3. Energy Cooperation Problem

In this section, we solve the energy cooperation problem. Given the user association $\mathit{X}$ and power allocation $\mathit{P}$, the original problem is downscaled to solve the less difficult energy cooperation subproblem. Energy cooperation is an important technique to effectively solve the uneven distribution of renewable energy, and the energy sharing among BS can be centrally coordinated through the aggregator of the smart grid. In this way, excess energy is shared to other BSs through the smart grid to improve the utilization of renewable energy [15].

Given two sets of variables for User association and transmit power, only one set of variables for energy cooperation needs to be solved. The original optimization problem P1 can be degraded to the optimization problem P4:

$$\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{P}4: \max \eta \left(\mathit{T}\right)\\ \mathrm{s}.\mathrm{t}. \mathrm{C}5, \mathrm{C}7\end{array}$$

(26)

The energy cooperation subproblem is a combinatorial optimization problem. Considering that the problem involves the optimization of integer combinations with continuous constraints, matching theory was used in existing studies to solve the matching optimization problem for wireless networks, and it was demonstrated that matching theory was characteristic of a fast convergence and stable configuration results [22,32]. Inspired by these works, we used matching theory to solve the energy cooperation problem for smart grid architectures. Firstly, two groups of categories of base stations need to be defined. In this paper, energy cooperation can be classified into two categories of BSs with excess energy and insufficient energy. Let ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}=\left\{m^{+}\in M|E_m-P_m-P_m^c\rangle 0\right\}$ denotes the set of BSs that have excess energy, while satisfying their own power consumption, i.e., energy output side, and ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}=\{m^{-}\in M|E_m-P_m-P_m^c<0\}$ denotes the set of BSs that do not collect enough energy to sustain their own power consumption, i.e., the energy receivers. Each ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ can share energy with one or more ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$, and ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$ can receive renewable energy from one or more of the ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$. Mathematically, many-to-many matching is defined as follows:

Definition 1.

A matching μ is denoted as mapping from the BSs with excess RE (i.e., ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$) to the BSs with lack of RE (i.e., ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$), $m^{+}\in {\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ and $m^{-}\in {\mathit{Z}}^{-}$ satisfy the following properties [22,33]:

$$\begin{array}{l}\mu (m^{+})\subseteq {\mathit{Z}}^{-}and\mu (m^{-})\subseteq {\mathit{Z}}^{+};\\ \left|\mu (m^{-})\right|\le \left|{\mathit{Z}}^{+}\right|,\forall m^{-}\in {\mathit{Z}}^{-};\\ \left|\mu (m^{+})\right|\le {\mathit{Z}}^{-},\forall m^{+}\in {\mathit{Z}}^{+};\\ m^{-}\in \mu (m^{+})iff{m}^{+}\in \mu (m^{-});\end{array}$$

(27)

where, μ(m⁺) denoted as the partners set (i.e., SBSs m⁺) of BS m⁻; likewise, μ(m⁻) denoted as the partners set for SBSs m⁺ under the matching state μ. $\left|\mathit{Z}\right|$ is the cardinality of the set Z.

Definition 2.

Each BS $m^{-}\in {\mathit{Z}}^{-}$, has a transferable, strict, and complete preference relation over the members in ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$, and vice versa [22].

According to the matching theory, the BS needs to set the utility function, i.e., the preference degree, corresponding to each other with other base stations. Since there is energy loss in the process of energy transmission, the different settings of the preference function will affect the convergence and complexity of the algorithm, as well as the utilization rate of the collected energy. Therefore, setting a suitable preference function can effectively reduce the loss of collected energy and improve the energy utilization of the system.

Based on the principle of matching bilateral benefits [22], the utility functions (preference degrees) corresponding to each other between the two types of BSs are established, and the matching of their two sets is shown in Figure 2. Each BS in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ corresponds to all BSs in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$, respectively, with a list of preferences corresponding to it. Similarly, the BS in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$ have their own preferences with those in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$. The premise of matching is first to match the corresponding BS to complete the energy cooperation based on its preference size. The preference is established based on the transmit power P_m and the collected energy E_m. The preference of the BS in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ to the BS in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$ is expressed as:

$$\mathrm{P}\left({\mathit{Z}}^{+},{\mathit{Z}}^{-}\right)=\frac{T_{mm\prime }-E_{loss}}{T_{mm\prime }}, m^{-}\in {\mathit{Z}}^{-}$$

(28)

When the BS $m^{-}$ sends an energy request to the base stations in the set ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$, the base stations in the set ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ will select the BS with the highest ranking according to the preference ranking in Equation (27) and receive its request to pass the energy to the BS $m^{-}$.

The preference of the BS in the set ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$ for the BS in the set ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ is expressed as:

$$\mathrm{P}\left({\mathit{Z}}^{-},{\mathit{Z}}^{+}\right)=E_m-P_m, m^{+}\in {\mathit{Z}}^{+}$$

(29)

The BS$m^{-}$ is ranked according to the preference degree of Equation (28), and the BS$m^{-}$ selects the BS$m^{+}$ with the highest preference degree in the set ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$.

We propose a bilateral matching algorithm to solve the energy cooperation problem. First, we know the important parameters of each BS, such as the extra or deficit energy, and energy transfer efficiency factors. Then, we divide the BS into two sets, and each BS calculates its own preference, according to the preference degree, the BS lacking energy sends a request to the base station with excess energy, the surplus energy is shared by the BS to the BS with the largest preference according to the preference, until all BS requests are met or the excess energy is used up. The scheme based on matching theory is summarized as Algorithm 3.

Algorithm 3 Energy Cooperation Algorithm Based on Matching Theory

1: Input: Classify the base station as set ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ and ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$, classify the base station as $P_m$, Collected energy $E_m$, maximum number of iterations $T_{out}$ 2: Output: Consumption of grid energy $P_m^{total}$ 3: for t = $1:1:T_{out}$ 4: Calculate the preference of all the base stations in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ over those in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$, respectively, and rank them 5: Calculate the preference of all the base stations in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$ over those in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$, respectively, and rank them 6: BS$m^{+}$ selects the BS with the largest preference in set ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$ to complete the energy cooperation. 7: if BS$m^{-}$ request is satisfied or the BS$m^{+}$ has no redundant RE 8: BSm will be removed from the set 9: end if 10: update set ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$ and ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ 11: Until the set ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$ or ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ is the empty set Exit loop 12: end for

3.4. Joint User Association, Power Allocation and Energy Cooperation Scheme

As described above, the optimization problem P1 is broken down into three lower complexity subproblems of user association, power allocation and energy cooperation by the fixed variable method. Since each subproblem is given a fixed variable, the obtained analysis is not the global optimal analysis. In order to further improve the system energy efficiency, the final solution of system energy efficiency is obtained by combining the above three algorithms through the convergent iterative algorithm. Algorithm 4 can be used to solve the problems of joint user association, power allocation and energy cooperation optimization.

Algorithm 4 Joint User Association, Power Allocation and Energy Cooperation Algorithm

1: Input: given transmit power $P_m$ and collected energy $E_m$, convergence threshold $\epsilon$, Maximum number of iterations Iout 2: Output: energy efficiency $\eta (\mathit{X},\mathit{P},\mathit{T})$ 3: while 1 < t < Iout 4: Given transmit power $P_m$ and collected energy $E_m$, Solve user association according to Algorithm 1 5: Update the power allocation according to Algorithm 2 6: if $\eta (t+1)-\eta (t)|\le \epsilon$ 7: When the global optimal User association, transmission power solution and energy cooperation solution are obtained, exit the cycle 8: end if 9: end while 10: After obtaining the X and P, the energy cooperation problem is solved according to Algorithm 3, obtain grid energy consumption $P_m^{total}$

3.5. Complexity and Convergence Analysis

The complexity of the energy efficiency optimization algorithm proposed in this paper is mainly composed of three parts: user association, power allocation, and energy cooperation. The specific complexity analysis is as follows. The problem of user association is solved by using the Lagrange dual method. The complexity of the algorithm is mainly composed of UEs, the number of base stations, and update parameters. number of UEs is N, the number of base stations is M, Lagrange multiplier is $K$, $U_{\max }$ is the number of outermost iterations. The maximum complexity of Algorithm 1 is $O(U_{\max }(NMK))$.

Based on the improved PSO algorithm, its complexity is mainly related to the particle swarm size $Q$, particle swarm dimension $N$ and the number of outer iterations $T_{out}$, the maximum complexity of Algorithm 2 is $(T_{out}QN)$.

In the energy cooperation algorithm based on matching theory, the complexity of the algorithm will increase with the increase in the number of base stations. The solving process of matching algorithm is a linear operation, and its complexity is positively correlated with the number in sets ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$ and ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$. $Z_1$ is the number of sets ${\mathit{Z}}^{+}$, $Z_2$ is the number of sets ${\mathit{Z}}^{-}$. The maximum complexity of Algorithm 3 is $O(Z_1{Z}_2)$.

Finally, the iterative convergence algorithm is used to maximize the system energy efficiency of the P1 problem. The maximum number of convergence iterations of the outer layer of the algorithm is $I_{out}$, and the inner layer is used to solve the user association and power allocation problems in turn. Therefore, the maximum complexity of the algorithm is $O(I_{out}((U_{\max }(NMK))+(T_{out}QN))+(Z_1{Z}_2))$.

4. Performance Analysis

In this section, we evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm. Considering the characteristics of millimeter-wave signal coverage and large bandwidth, we consider that BSs and UEs are evenly distributed in a square area of 100 × 100 m², and the bandwidth is set as W = 1GHz. There are five base stations and thirty UEs in the system. Both large-scale fading and small-scale fading are taken into account in the simulations; the path loss exponent is $\beta =2$ [34], and $g$ is small-scale fading, which follow Rayleigh distributions with mean values of zero and a variance of one. We set the minimum QoS as ${\tau }_{\min }=10\mathrm{Mbit}/\mathrm{s}$. Furthermore, the power amplifier and the static circuit power consumption of each BS are set to $\zeta =2.6$ and $P_m^c=10\mathrm{W}$ [35], and their energy harvesting rates $E_m$ are randomly generated in an interval (30–40) dBm, energy transfer efficiency factor $\alpha$ are randomly taken values in [0.7,0.9] [36]. The simulation parameters are detailed in

Table 2. System parameters.

Parameter	Value
System bandwidth	1 GHz
Noise power density	−174 dBm/Hz
Max transmit power of BS	30 dBm
Particle swarm size	80
Maximum number of iterations	70

.

In the comparison scheme, Algorithm 4 is compared with other algorithms and each part utilizes a different algorithm, composing different joint resource allocation schemes. In the user association section, Algorithm 1 is compared with the greedy algorithm (min-distance). In the power allocation section, Algorithm 2 is compared with the standard particle swarm optimization (SPSO) algorithm [29], the nonlinear weight particle swarm optimization (NLPSO) algorithm [29], equal power (EP) allocation algorithm and FTPA [20] were compared. In the energy cooperation section, Algorithm 3 is compared with the energy consumption-based DES algorithm [22]. The joint resource allocation algorithms are shown in

Table 3. Joint resource allocation scheme.

Scheme	User Association	Power Allocation	Energy Cooperation
Algorithm 4	Algorithm 1	Algorithm 2	Algorithm 3
UPE-SPSO-DES	Min-Distance	SPSP	DES
UPE-NLPSO-DES	Algorithm 1	NLPSO	DES
UPE-FTPA-DES	Min-Distance	FTPA	DES
UPE-EQ-DES	Min-Distance	EQ	DES

.

4.1. User association under Fixed Transmit Power and Energy Cooperation

Figure 3 shows the relationship curve between the number of UEs and EE. When the transmit power is fixed, the EE decreases with the increase in the number of UEs, which is because, at a fixed same transmit power, the energy consumption of transmit power increases with the increase in the number of UEs; therefore, the energy efficiency decreases. From the figure, it can be seen that the Lagrangian algorithm proposed in this paper outperforms the minimum distance algorithm and the random association algorithm. The greedy algorithm selects the base station only from the distance factor when associating and ignores the interference caused to other UEs, while the Lagrangian algorithm proposed in this paper, considering the EE of the UEs globally, can effectively reduce the interference to other UEs when associating UEs and improve the system throughput, thus improving the system EE.

4.2. Energy Cooperation under Fixed Transmit Power and User Association

The curve of the effect of the number of BSs on the system energy consumption is given. From Figure 4, it is observed that the system EE decreases as the number of BSs increases, because the circuit power consumption of the BSs increases accordingly. The algorithm proposed in this paper is significantly better than the DES algorithm and the case without energy cooperation. The DES algorithm mainly allocates RE from two aspects: the energy consumption of the BS and RE, while the impedance consumption is the main factor of energy loss in energy cooperation. For this reason, the algorithm in this paper considers that the energy is mainly affected by the line resistance value in the transmission process. The proposed preference matching scheme can effectively improve the energy utilization, and therefore outperforms the DES algorithm in terms of energy consumption. Meanwhile, the scheme without energy cooperation causes high energy consumption values of the system because the excess RE is not fully utilized.

4.3. Joint User Association, Transmit Power and Energy Cooperation

Figure 5 shows the relationship curve between the number of UEs and EE. At the rate threshold, it can be seen from the figure that the system EE increases with the increase in the number of UEs. Because the number of UEs increases, the throughput obtained by its system increases, and thus the system energy efficiency increases. When the number of UEs increases, the impact of channel interference increases, so it is necessary to effectively control the transmit power between each BS to reduce channel interference. FTPA and equal power allocation schemes, which allocate more power to UEs with poor channel conditions, increase the power consumption of the system, thus causing the system to be less energy efficient. From the figure, it is shown that Algorithm 4 is significantly better than the other schemes in terms of EE, and it has a better performance for user association and power allocation, which is due to the improved PSO in solving the power allocation problem with a higher solution accuracy. By improving the update formula of particle swarm parameters, the accuracy of the particle swarm search is effectively improved, so it can ensure that UEs can obtain the QoS, while its consumption of energy is lower and search for better power allocation points. Therefore, this solution is more suitable for dense UE scenarios.

Figure 6 shows the relationship curve between the number of UEs and the throughput. At the rate threshold, it can be seen from the figure that the system throughput increases with the number of UEs, because as the number of UEs increases, the throughput obtained by its system increases accordingly. The FTPA and equal power allocation schemes, which allocate more power to UEs with poor channel conditions, exacerbate the channel interference with other UEs, thus affecting the high UE throughput. The figure shows that the Algorithm 4 is significantly better than the other schemes in terms of throughput performance, which is mainly influenced by the power allocation algorithm due to the improved PSO in solving the power allocation problem with higher solution accuracy, which can effectively suppress the channel interference and improve the overall throughput, while ensuring the quality of service for the UEs.

Figure 7 shows that the convergence performance of Algorithm 4 is better than other algorithms. We set number of UEs and BSs N = 25, $M$ = 5. The iterative performance is mainly affected by the number of iterations of the power allocation algorithm. In Algorithm 4, the improved PSO power allocation algorithm improves the inertia weights, which improve the global search ability of the particle swarm in the early stage of the search, avoiding the disadvantage of only finding local solutions. In the late stage of the search, it improves the particle search accuracy in the local search accuracy; therefore, the EE obtained is higher. On the other hand, the improved trajectory strategy improves the speed of particle search, so the convergence speed of the algorithm is accelerated.

Figure 8 shows the iterative convergence plots of each scheme in terms of throughput. The convergence performance and throughput of Algorithm 4 are better than other algorithms. We set the number of UEs and BSs $N$ = 25, $M$ = 5. In Algorithm 4, the improved PSO power allocation algorithm improves the inertia weights to improve the search accuracy, and the allocated transmit power can effectively suppress the co-channel interference and effectively improve the UE throughput. On the other hand, the improved trajectory strategy improves the speed of particle search, so the convergence speed of the algorithm is accelerated.

Figure 9 show that the EE of the system decreases as the rate threshold increases. Because the increase in QoS will make the base station transmit more power to meet the QoS of each UE, and the increase in transmit power will cause the increase in system energy consumption, so the energy efficiency of the system decreases. On the other hand, the scheme Algorithm 4 in this paper outperforms other schemes in terms of its energy efficiency, while the FTPA scheme will significantly increase the power consumption to meet the quality of service for UEs with poor channel conditions, which will not only increase the system energy consumption, but also cause serious channel interference, so the throughput of UEs decreases. While the algorithm proposed in this paper is mainly influenced by the power allocation algorithm in terms of EE, the improved particle swarm algorithm outperforms other schemes in terms of search accuracy, so the scheme obtains higher EE.

From Figure 10, it can be seen that the EE of the system decreases as the number of BSs increases because the power consumption of the circuits at the base stations increases and the EE decreases. The simulations show that the EE of Algorithm 4 is better than that of the same algorithm in a no-cooperation scenario, while the EE of several other joint energy cooperation schemes is significantly better than that of the non-energy cooperation schemes. This is because energy cooperation can efficiently use RE and transfer excess energy to other base stations. In the non-energy collaborative scheme, the excess RE is wasted, and thus consumes energy from the grid, reducing the EE of the system. Although the EE advantage of the system is not clear with the increase in the number of BSs, AL Algorithm 4 is more suitable for high-density base station scenarios because it outperforms the other schemes.

5. Conclusions

With the aim of achieving a successful 5G network with energy harvesting and energy cooperation, this paper studied the resource allocation problem of energy efficiency maximization. Considering the QoS constraints of UEs, power constraints of cellular base stations and renewable energy harvesting constraints, three problems of user association, power allocation and energy cooperation were jointly optimized. We propose a fixed variable iterative algorithm, which uses a Lagrange dual method, improved particle swarm optimization method and matching algorithm to solve these three sub problems. The simulation results show that a base station with energy cooperation has lower power grid energy consumption. In addition, compared with the comparison algorithm, the proposed algorithm has a faster convergence performance and better search accuracy and can effectively improve energy efficiency. Simulation results demonstrate for the scenario of multi-UE and multi base station, the joint algorithm proposed in this paper has a good adaptability, can effectively coordinate the interference between cells and meet the QoS of UEs.

Our proposed algorithm is able to obtain a good resolution through iterative convergence, and the algorithm can be applied to hybrid energy supply networks with different network architectures, such as 4G networks, which are the most widely deployed today. To further extend this work, load balancing is also a problem that needs to be solved for current user associations. In addition, this paper considers perfect CSI conditions, while imperfect CSI may have a significant impact on the outage probability and average data rate in the network. Under imperfect CSI conditions, a robust and optimized design is needed. On the other hand, the energy collaboration scheme outlines in this paper only considers the optimization of energy consumption from a base station perspective, while ignoring the issue of mutual economic benefits between two subjects, the operator and the grid intermediary. In future work, energy management needs to be traded off in terms of energy consumption and economic benefits.