Standards, Volume 1, Issue 2 (December 2021) – 7 articles

The main motives for implementing standards are external and internal. External motives are related with aims to enter new markets, export new goods, meet customer requirements, achieve better corporate image, gain market share, or increase customer satisfaction. Internal motives occur when the organization itself wants to improve the internal system and when processes and benefits depend on the internal motives of the organization. In order to disclose the benefits of quality standards, an empirical study was conducted with quality representatives from organizations in different fields of business activity in Lithuania. The research aimed to investigate what quality management systems prevail in organizations and to reveal the motives and benefits of implementation. The empirical study found that after the implementation of quality management standards (QMS), the quality level improved; the number of incidents and defects (complaints) decreased; employee involvement and perception of quality increased; company profits increased; customer satisfaction increased; and company management was improved. Full article

In late 2017, the Malaysian National Annex (NA) to Eurocode 8 (EC8) was released and enacted following some 13 years of deliberations and preparations. The authors of this paper aim to use this article to share their experiences and reflections during this period of developing the first national standard for the seismic design of buildings for Malaysia. To begin with, there were major challenges in implementing the 20-year-old EC8 framework for a country so far away from Europe. The first challenge was adapting the probabilistic seismic hazard assessment (PSHA) methodology in a low-to-moderate seismicity region where the paucity of representative seismic data presented a great deal of uncertainties. To address this situation, imposing a minimum level of seismic hazard was recommended. The second challenge was about dealing with the outdated EC8 site classification scheme, which poorly represents the potential effects of soil amplification in certain geological settings. To address this situation, an alternative site classification scheme in which the site natural period is an explicit modelling parameter was introduced. The third challenge was concerned with difficulties generated by the EC8 provisions mandating Ductility Class Medium (DCM) detailing in certain localities where the level of seismic hazard is predicted to exceed a certain threshold. To address this situation, the viable option of using strength to trade off for ductility was recommended, or in cases where ductility design is needed, a simplified set of code-compliant DCM designs was presented. The fourth challenge was about handling the requirements of EC8 that the majority of buildings are to involve dynamic analysis in their structural design when the majority of practising professionals did not have the skills of exercising proper use of the requisite software. To address this situation, a generalized force method was introduced to control the use dynamic analysis in commercial software. It is hoped that, through sharing the lessons learnt, code drafters for the future would be able to find ways of circumventing the multitude of challenges with clear thinking and pragmatism. Full article

Ice accretion is a serious problem in cold climates, causing automobile and airplane accidents, as well as severe economic losses throughout various sectors. To combat these issues, many solutions have been developed, such as de-icing materials, which can delay or prevent the adhesion of ice to a surface through chemical, temperature, or physical means. To effectively assess the properties of a de-icing material, ice adhesion testing must be conducted, of which there are numerous types, each with their own characteristics. Unfortunately, the same material, tested with different methods, may provide very different ice adhesion values. This makes it difficult to properly characterize a material’s de-icing properties and compare values across the literature. In this review, we identified the main ice adhesion testing methods and compared ice adhesion values for a particular material with different testing methods. We then discussed some of the main issues with current ice testing methods and identified some of the main factors that may affect ice adhesion values, namely ice quality and the use of a mold, which may significantly affect the final ice adhesion results. Finally, we proposed a new, simple standard testing method, in an attempt to eliminate some of the issues with current ice testing methods. Full article

This article discusses the need for standards for the assignment of importance to criteria and the measurement of interaction between them in multiple criteria analyses of complex systems. A strategy for criteria evaluation is considered that is suitable to account for the interaction among a wide variety of imprecisely assessed criteria applied simultaneously. It is based on the results of collecting sample information on preferences according to the specified criteria instead of merely an abstract comparison of the criteria. The comparison of alternatives is based on objectives that determine the formation of preferences. It is facilitated by a rating in terms of preference probabilities. Probabilistic standards grant homogeneity of measurements by different criteria, which is useful for the combination of the criteria. These standards apply to a sampling evaluation conducted via pairwise trichotomic comparison of the alternatives according to each criterion, followed by the combination of these multiple evaluations into a single global score by means of the Choquet Integral with respect to a capacity determined by applying preference concentration to the sets of probabilistic assessments. Examples of practical application are discussed. Full article

Technology standards are considered important tools for increasing bargaining power and licensing revenues by combining the strategies of firms with the standard-setting organizations (SSOs) standardization processes. The essential patents declared by members of the SSOs play a critical role in such standardization processes. Some former researchers have found that, when using network analysis for measuring the knowledge positions in the “main-path” of standards-based markets, the essential patents did not match very well with the actual knowledge positions of the firms, in most cases. In this paper, we focus on the essential patents declared by the member firms in JTC1, an SSO that provides a standards development environment related to the development of the worldwide information and communication technology (ICT) standards for business and consumer applications, and that employs social network analysis techniques to investigate the knowledge positions of the patents, not only in the “main-path” discussed in the earlier literature, but also in the brokerage processes. We found that the brokerage-process approach helped us to better understand the roles of the essential patents that dominate transactions, relations, and the exchange of knowledge in the patent citation network than that of the main-path. Our findings suggest that claiming essentiality depends on the strategic behavior not only of the patents’ owners, but also of the SSOs. Full article

Rating the potential land use for crop production and/or ranching is typically a process where production gains counterbalance environmental losses. Whereas the production gains are often easy to verify, the environmental losses may render visibility through the changes in the ecosystem service, such as water and habitat quality, carbon storage, etc., thus, leaving the decision maker with a multi-criteria problem. The present study demonstrates how partial-order methodology constitutes an advantageous tool for rating/ranking land use that takes trade-offs into account. It is demonstrated that not only the optimal choice of area, on an average basis, e.g., for crop production, is disclosed, but also the relative importance of the included indicators (production gains, ecosystem losses). A short introduction is given, applying data from a recent Chinese study looking for the optimal monoculture as a function of ecosystem tradeoffs. A more elaborate system applying data from the esgame was used, disclosing the most beneficial area for crop production and for ranching, as well as the relative indicators’ importance. The study further demonstrates that a single composite indicator obtained by simple aggregation of indicator values as a ranking tool may lead to a result where gains are optimized; however, this comes at the expense of the environment. Full article

Explore3DM will be an online resource to explore the diverse interests behind three-dimensional measurement and three-dimensional metrology (3DM). The motivation has been the development of large-volume and portable 3D methods and systems for applications in manufacturing, an activity which has been growing for the past 40 years. However, the measurement spectrum in Explore3DM will be wider and include, for example, as-built process plant at the large-object end and X-Ray CT inspection at the small-object end. This wider spectrum will support cross-sector research at University College London (UCL) to transfer 3DM developments from one sector to another. Initially, Explore3DM will have a core directory incorporating systems manufacturers, service suppliers, research groups and disseminators of metrology knowledge. Mechanisms for solving end users’ measurement tasks will add to further growth of 3DM. The resource is intended to be free to use and the directory free to join at a basic level. Premium directory sponsorship by commercial companies is expected to provide revenue to sustain and develop the resource and support 3DM development. With regard to standards, LVM and PCM systems and techniques can be difficult to assess with a standardized approach because of the highly flexible ways they can be applied. However, some standards have been developed and there is scope for more, for example in the terminology used. A dictionary will be a component of Explore3DM’s future knowledge base. By presenting a first version in a centralized resource, standardized terminology will be encouraged. Full article