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Article

Flexible Carbon Fiber/SnO2@rGO Electrode with Long Cyclability for Lithium-Ion Batteries

by
Wenjie Zhang
1,*,
Yongqi Liu
1,
Zhouyang Qin
2,
Lingxiao Yu
2,
Jiabiao Lian
1,*,
Zhanliang Tao
3 and
Zheng-Hong Huang
2,4,*
1
Institute for Energy Research, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
2
State Key Laboratory of New Ceramics and Fine Processing, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
3
Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (Ministry of Education), Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
4
Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials (MOE), School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Batteries 2024, 10(12), 412; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10120412
Submission received: 20 October 2024 / Revised: 13 November 2024 / Accepted: 22 November 2024 / Published: 25 November 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Materials for Rechargeable Batteries)
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Abstract

:
Flexible electrodes are highly desirable for next-generation wearable lithium-ion batteries. To achieve high-capacity flexible electrode materials, SnO2 with high theoretical capacity has been introduced into electrodes and shows promising capacity. However, the electrodes are still confronted with major challenges in terms of inferior rate capability and cycling stability, which are caused by large volume changes of SnO2 during the lithiation/delithiation process. Here, we adopt an adsorption assembly strategy to fabricate a flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode that effectively stabilizes the volume changes of SnO2 and enhances the charge transport kinetics in electrodes. The sandwich-like structure endows the electrode’s high flexibility and succeeds in improving both rate capability and cycling stability. The flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode delivers a high capacity of 453 mAh g−1 at 50 mA g−1 and outstanding capacity retention of 88% after 1000 cycles at 2 A g−1.

1. Introduction

As demand for wearable lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) escalates, flexible electrodes have excellent prospects for future energy storage materials [1,2,3,4]. Compared with conventional powdered electrode materials, flexible electrode materials can be directly assembled into batteries without the need for a current collector, polymeric binder, or conductive additive [5,6,7]. In addition to its unique flexibility, it is also crucial to achieve the optimized high capacity, rate capability, and cycling stability. High-capacity flexible electrode materials are often prepared by combining flexible conductive substrates with high theoretical capacity materials, such as transition-metal oxides, transition-metal sulphides, MXenes, and silicon-based materials [8,9,10,11]. Among them, SnO2 with high theoretical capacity (782 mAh g−1) has been introduced into electrodes and shown attractive capacity [12,13,14,15]. However, the low conductivity and drastic volume expansion of SnO2 during cycling give rise to electrode pulverization and high charge-transfer resistance, resulting in inferior cyclability and rate capability [16,17,18].
To achieve desirable electrochemical performance, it is crucial to mitigate the volume expansion of SnO2 and enhance charge transport kinetics. Significant efforts have been made to address these issues through nanoengineering and structural design. Nanoengineering effectively increases electrode-electrolyte contact area and enables fast access for lithium ions, thereby enhancing charge transport kinetics [19,20,21,22]. Meanwhile, nanosizing reduces internal stresses during volume change and improves cyclability [20,23]. Consequently, researchers have synthesized SnO2 at the quantum dot scale to improve electrochemical performance [24,25,26]. Recent studies also demonstrated the importance of structural design in improving electrochemical performance [27,28,29]. Pre-reserve cavities in SnO2 particles are helpful for the alleviation of the mechanical strain of SnO2 during the lithiation/delithiation process [30]. Therefore, SnO2 with hollow or porous structures has been explored to buffer the volume expansion [31,32,33]. Deliberate structural design of the entire electrode via hybridizing SnO2 with carbonaceous materials or conductive polymers is also effective for improving conductivity and structural stability [34,35,36]. Various electrode structures have been designed and constructed, including SnO2@polypyrrole [37], expanded graphite@SnO2@polyaniline [38], lotus-seed-pod-like SnO2@CNF [2], nanosheet-like SnO2@C/expanded graphite [39], cubic hollow SnO2@C [40], dual carbon shells C@SnO2@C [41], bowl-like SnO2@carbon [42], C-SnO2 nanofibers [43], and yolk-shell structured SnO2@void@C porous nanowires [44]. The above findings demonstrate that nanoengineering and structural design can effectively alleviate the volume expansion and enhance the charge transport kinetics in electrodes. However, most of the reported materials either are in the form of powders or require complex fabrication technologies. Electrospinning, hydrothermal synthesis, hard template method, and chemical vapor deposition are widely employed techniques in the nanoengineering and structural design of electrode materials [37,45,46,47]. However, electrospinning necessitates high voltage and stringent experimental conditions, which can be significantly influenced by solution concentration and environmental factors, including temperature and humidity. Hydrothermal synthesis requires elevated temperature and pressure, limiting its application to certain flexible substrates; for instance, the flexibility of filter paper substrates is compromised during the hydrothermal process. The hard template method typically involves complex synthesis procedures, such as an additional post-processing step for the removal of templates, which hinders scalable production. Chemical vapor deposition necessitates expensive equipment, thereby increasing the overall cost of electrode materials. Therefore, simple fabrication technology is highly demanded in the synthesis of flexible SnO2-based electrodes with desirable electrochemical performances.
In this study, we adopt a simple adsorption assembly strategy to fabricate a flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode, effectively addressing these challenges. The filter paper was sequentially immersed in SnCl2 solution and graphene oxide (GO) solution, followed by carbonization to produce the sandwich-like flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode. The filter paper serves as both the precursor for carbon fiber and the substrate for anchoring guest materials. Its excellent absorbent property facilitates the infiltration of precursor solutions, enabling effective adsorption of Sn2+ and GO onto the paper surface during the adsorption assembly process. The sandwich-like configuration, with rGO encapsulating SnO2, mitigates the volume expansion of SnO2 and enhances charge transport kinetics. Consequently, the flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode exhibits high-rate capability and outstanding cycling stability, retaining 88% of its capacity after 1000 cycles at 2 A g−1. Additionally, this simple adsorption assembly strategy has the advantage of solving the crucial problem caused by volume change and shows potential for practical applications.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials Preparation

The filter paper utilized in this study is the medium-speed qualitative variety (New Star, 102) produced by Hangzhou Special Paper Industry Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, China. Its pore size and thickness are 7–8 µm and 0.15 mm, respectively. This filter paper is made of α-cellulose derived from cotton fibers. The ash content is less than 0.15%. The filter paper was first immersed in 0.03 M SnCl2 (Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co. Ltd., Shanghai, China) aqueous solution and subsequently dried in an oven at 100 °C. Following this, the dried filter paper was immersed in 2 mg ml−1 GO aqueous solution and again dried in the oven at 100 °C. The resulting filter paper was then calcined at 500 °C for 4 h in Ar. After calcination, the flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode was obtained. The control carbon fiber/SnO2 electrode was obtained under the same conditions without immersion in the GO solution.

2.2. Material Characterizations

Crystal structures of the samples were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD, Bruker D8-ADVANCE, Bruker, Karlsruhe, Germany) under an accelerating voltage of 40 kV. Morphologies and elemental energy spectra were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Dual-beam FIB 235, FEI Strata, Hillsboro, OR, USA) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEM-2100F, JEOL, Akishima, Tokyo). To evaluate the electrochemical performances, coin-type cells were assembled with the prepared samples as the working electrode, lithium foil as the counter electrode, and 1 M LiPF6 in EC/DMC/EMC (1:1:1 in volume) as the electrolyte. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were performed using an electrochemical workstation (VMP3, Bio-Logic, Knoxville, TN, USA). CV curves were recorded at a scan rate of 0.5 mV s−1 over a potential range of 0.01 to 3 V. EIS measurements were conducted with an AC amplitude of 10 mV across a frequency range of 100 kHz to 0.01 Hz. The potentials for the EIS measurements of the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode and carbon fiber/SnO2 electrode were approximately 2.24 V and 1.72 V, respectively, corresponding to the open circuit potentials of the coin-type cells. Galvanostatic discharge/charge curves were obtained using a Land battery testing system (Jinnuo Electronics Co., Wuhan, China) between 0.01 and 3 V.

3. Results and Discussion

Figure 1 illustrates the preparation process of the flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode. Initially, the filter paper was immersed in an aqueous SnCl2 solution, allowing Sn2+ cations to adhere to the surface of the filter paper fiber (Figure 1a,b). The soaked filter paper was subsequently dried in an oven at 100 °C. Following this, the filter paper was immersed in a graphene oxide (GO) solution and again dried in the oven at 100 °C (Figure 1c). Finally, the resultant filter paper was calcined to produce the flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode (Figure 1d). During the calcination process, the filter paper fiber, Sn2+ ions, and GO were converted into conductive carbon fiber, SnO2, and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), respectively. For comparison, the control carbon fiber/SnO2 electrode was prepared using the same method, omitting the immersion in GO solution (Figure 1a,b,e).
Figure 2 shows the transformation from filter paper to carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. Filter paper has excellent absorbent ability for easy infiltration of the precursor solution. Following an adsorption process, filter paper transitions from white to dark (Figure 2a,b), and its surface becomes rough due to the adsorption of Sn2+ ions and GO onto the filter paper fiber (Figure 2e–i). Morphological and elemental energy spectra analyses indicate that Sn2+ and GO have successfully adsorbed onto the filter paper fiber after the adsorption process (Figure 2f,g,i). After carbonization, the resulting filter paper is transformed into a carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode (Figure 2c). The presence of rGO is beneficial to enhance the overall flexibility of the electrode. As shown in Figure 2d, the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode exhibits excellent flexibility and can be bent without compromising its structural integrity.
Figure 3a shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the obtained flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO and carbon fiber/SnO2. For the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO, the broad peak observed between 16° and 24° is indexed to carbon and rGO [48,49]. For the carbon fiber/SnO2, the broad peak around 16° is related to carbon. The other diffraction peaks correspond to the SnO2 phase (JCPDS No. 41-1445). Figure 3b presents the elemental energy spectra of the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. The result indicates that there are no Cl elements present in the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO, confirming that Cl- ions were eliminated during the carbonization process at 500 °C.
Figure 4a shows the morphology of the pure carbon fiber which was obtained by directly carbonizing filter paper without any prior adsorption treatment. SEM shows that the surface of the carbon fiber is smooth and there are no other substances on the surface. Compared to pure carbon fiber, the low-magnification SEM images of carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO indicate that the outermost layer is entirely covered by rGO (Figure 4b,c). High-magnification SEM further demonstrates that the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO has a sandwich-like structure (Figure 4d). The SnO2 particles located on the carbon fiber are well coated by rGO. The microstructure was further characterized by HRTEM (Figure 4e). It reveals the well-crystallized SnO2 particles with a lattice fringe of 0.33 nm, which corresponds to the d-spacing of diffraction planes (110) [50]. Additionally, the HRTEM image also confirms the structure of SnO2 encapsulated by rGO, while for the carbon fiber/SnO2, the bare SnO2 particles are located on the surface of the carbon fiber without rGO coating (Figure 4f).
The electrochemical performances of the samples as anodes for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) were evaluated by cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS), and galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD). The flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO was directly used as the working electrodes without additives and binders. Figure 5a shows the CV curves of carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO at a scan rate of 0.5 mV s−1. In the first cathodic process, a peak around 0.5 V corresponds to the formation of a solid electrolyte interface (SEI) and the decomposition of SnO2 to form Sn [51,52]. This peak disappears in the subsequent cycles to be replaced at a higher potential of 1.0 V, which corresponds to the reduction of SnO2, i.e., SnO2 + 4 Li+ + 4e− → Sn + 2 Li2O [46]. The broad cathodic peak below 0.25 V is attributed to the formation of LixSn alloys, i.e., Sn + xLi+ + xe- → LixSn (0 ≤ x ≤ 4.4), and the insertion of Li+ into carbon and rGO [53,54]. In the anodic process, two anodic peaks at 0.7 V and 1.3 V are observed. The peak at 0.7 V represents the dealloying of LixSn, i.e., LixSn → Sn + xLi+ + xe- (0 ≤ x ≤ 4.4) [46]. The peak at 1.3 V is due to the partial reversible oxidation of Sn into SnO2, i.e., Sn + 2 Li2O → SnO2+ 4 Li+ + 4e− [7,54]. Figure 5b shows the discharge/charge curve of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO at 50 mA g−1. The initial discharge and charge capacities are 501.5 and 428 mAh g−1, respectively, corresponding to an initial coulombic efficiency of 85.3%. The capacity drop in the first cycle can be attributed to the formation of SEI. The coulombic efficiency is above 94% in the subsequent three cycles at the current density of 50 mA g−1.
Figure 5c shows the rate capabilities of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO and carbon fiber/SnO2. The flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO delivers outstanding capacities of 453, 393, 290, 234, 125, and 90 mAh g−1 at 0.05, 0.2, 1, 2, 5, and 10 A g−1, respectively, which significantly outperform that of carbon fiber/SnO2. The higher capacity and better rate capability of carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO can be attributed to the introduction of rGO and the formation of a sandwich-like structure. The introduced rGO sheets provide lithium storage sites and yield extra capacity. In addition, the structure of SnO2 encapsulated by rGO overcomes the intrinsically poor electronic conductivity of SnO2 and establishes a conductive network. These features facilitate rapid electrochemical reactions and enhance ion/electron transport kinetics. Additionally, the coulombic efficiency of carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO remains above 92% since the second cycle at the current densities ranges from 50 mA g−1 to 10 A g−1 (Figure 5c).
The electrochemical kinetics of the electrodes were further investigated by EIS measures. An equivalent circuit model was applied to fit the EIS curves (Figure 6a), where Rs, Rf, and Rct represent the current collector and electrolyte resistance, the SEI layer resistance, and the charge transfer resistance. CPE1 and CPE2 represent the constant phase elements corresponding to the surface layer capacitor and the double layer capacitor. W represents the Warburg impedance associated with the Li+ diffusion. The EIS curves reveal that the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode exhibits a smaller semicircle diameter. The Rf and Rct values of the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode are lower than those of the carbon fiber/SnO2 electrode (Table 1), indicating the lower resistance and faster charge transfer. To gain further insight into Li+ movement inside the electrodes, the Li+ diffusion coefficient (DLi+) was calculated by evaluating the Warburg coefficient (σ) from the low-frequency plot of Z′ vs. ω−1/2 (Figure 6b) and using Equations (1) and (2) [55,56],
Z′ = Rs + Rct + σω−1/2
DLi+ = (R2T2)/(2A2n4F4C2σ2)
where ω denotes the angular frequency, R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, A is the electrode contact area, n is the number of transferred electrons, F is the Faraday constant, and C is the concentration of lithium ions. The value of σ can be determined from the slope of the Z′ vs. ω−1/2 plots (Figure 6b). The DLi+ values of the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode and the carbon fiber/SnO2 electrode calculated from Equation (2) are 2.7 × 10−14 cm2 s−1 and 2.2 × 10−14 cm2 s−1, respectively. The larger DLi+ of the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode indicates faster Li+ diffusion. These EIS results suggest that the sandwich-structured construction enhances the ion/electron transport kinetics. As a result, higher capacity and better rate capability are possible for carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrodes.
Moreover, the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode demonstrates excellent cycling stability. After 1000 cycles at 2 A g−1, the capacity retention of carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode remains as high as 88% (Figure 7). In contrast, the carbon fiber/SnO2 electrode experiences rapid capacity degradation in the initial stages, with a poor capacity retention of 13% after 300 cycles. Compared to the carbon fiber/SnO2 electrode, the structure formed by rGO encapsulating SnO2 helps mitigate the large volume expansion of SnO2 particles and enhances the cycling stability of the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode. Table 2 shows the performance comparison between this work and previous work in the literature. The carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode demonstrates outstanding cycling stability. The low capacity of the flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode can be attributed to its heavier carbon fiber substrate. To achieve a flexible electrode, the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode in this study was prepared at a lower carbonization temperature of 500 °C. This reduced temperature results in less decomposition of the filter paper, leading to the increased weight of the carbon fiber substrate. The capacity reported in this study was calculated based on the total mass of the electrode. The heavier carbon fiber substrate consequently diminishes the overall capacity of the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode.

4. Conclusions

Herein, a flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode with a sandwich-like structure was prepared via adsorption assembly. This sandwich-structured construction effectively enhances ion/electron transport kinetics and mitigates the large volume expansion. These merits endow the carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode with high capacity, excellent rate capability, and superior cycle performance. In addition, the flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO electrode avoids the use of a current collector, a polymeric binder, and conductive additive, making it a promising anode for wearable and lightweight electronics applications.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, W.Z.; methodology, W.Z.; validation, W.Z., J.L. and Z.-H.H.; investigation, W.Z. and Z.-H.H.; resources, Z.Q., L.Y., Y.L., J.L., Z.T. and Z.-H.H.; data curation, W.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, W.Z.; writing—review and editing, Z.-H.H. and Z.T.; supervision, Z.-H.H.; project administration, Z.-H.H.; funding acquisition, Z.-H.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52172047). W.J. Zhang acknowledges Jiangsu Provincial Program for High-Level Innovative and Entrepreneurial Talents Introduction.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the preparation process of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. (a) filter paper. (b) Filter paper fiber after being immersed in SnCl2 solution. (c) Filter paper fiber/Sn2+ after being immersed in GO solution. (d) Carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. (e) Carbon fiber/SnO2.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the preparation process of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. (a) filter paper. (b) Filter paper fiber after being immersed in SnCl2 solution. (c) Filter paper fiber/Sn2+ after being immersed in GO solution. (d) Carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. (e) Carbon fiber/SnO2.
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Figure 2. Photographs of (a) filter paper, (b) filter paper after adsorption assembly, and (c,d) flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. (e,h) SEM image of filter paper fiber. (f,i) SEM image of filter paper fiber after adsorption. (g) Elemental energy spectra of filter paper fiber after adsorption.
Figure 2. Photographs of (a) filter paper, (b) filter paper after adsorption assembly, and (c,d) flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. (e,h) SEM image of filter paper fiber. (f,i) SEM image of filter paper fiber after adsorption. (g) Elemental energy spectra of filter paper fiber after adsorption.
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Figure 3. (a) XRD pattern of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO and carbon fiber/SnO2. (b) Elemental energy spectra of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO.
Figure 3. (a) XRD pattern of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO and carbon fiber/SnO2. (b) Elemental energy spectra of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO.
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Figure 4. (a) SEM image of pure carbon fiber. (b–d) SEM image of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. (e) HRTEM image of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. (f) SEM image of carbon fiber/SnO2.
Figure 4. (a) SEM image of pure carbon fiber. (b–d) SEM image of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. (e) HRTEM image of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO. (f) SEM image of carbon fiber/SnO2.
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Figure 5. (a) CV curves and (b) discharge/charge curves of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO for the initial four cycles, (c) rate capability.
Figure 5. (a) CV curves and (b) discharge/charge curves of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO for the initial four cycles, (c) rate capability.
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Figure 6. (a) EIS curves and the corresponding fitting plots of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO and carbon fiber/SnO2, with the inset showing the equivalent circuit used to fit the EIS curves. (b) Z′ vs. ω−1/2 plots in the low-frequency range and the corresponding fitting plots.
Figure 6. (a) EIS curves and the corresponding fitting plots of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO and carbon fiber/SnO2, with the inset showing the equivalent circuit used to fit the EIS curves. (b) Z′ vs. ω−1/2 plots in the low-frequency range and the corresponding fitting plots.
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Figure 7. Cycling performance of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO and carbon fiber/SnO2.
Figure 7. Cycling performance of flexible carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO and carbon fiber/SnO2.
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Table 1. Relevant parameters of the samples simulated from the equivalent circuits.
Table 1. Relevant parameters of the samples simulated from the equivalent circuits.
SampleRf (Ω)Rct (Ω)σ (Ω cm2 s−1/2)DLi+ (cm2 s−1)
carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO228.6100.91722.7 × 10−14
carbon fiber/SnO2321.4464187.52.2 × 10−14
Table 2. Electrochemical performance comparison for the SnO2-based electrodes for LIBs.
Table 2. Electrochemical performance comparison for the SnO2-based electrodes for LIBs.
ElectrodesCapacity RetentionRate CapabilityReferences
carbon fiber/SnO2@rGO88% (1000 cycles at 2 A g−1)453 mAh g−1 (0.05 A g−1);this work
393 mAh g−1 (0.2 A g−1);
290 mAh g−1 (1 A g−1);
234 mAh g−1 (2 A g−1);
125 mAh g−1 (5 A g−1)
SnO2@graphene@graphene60% (120 cycles at 0.08 A g−1)658.2 mAh g−1 (0.16 A g−1);[57]
466.5 mAh g−1 (0.4 A g−1);
308.2 mAh g−1 (0.8 A g−1);
212.8 mAh g−1 (4 A g−1)
SnO2/C84.5% (1000 cycles at 1 A g−1)705 mAh g−1 (0.2 A g−1);[58]
213 mAh g−1 (5 A g−1)
CGN/SnO2-C71% (200 cycles at 0.1 A g−1)686.5 mAh g−1 (0.05 A g−1);[59]
361.1 mAh g−1 (0.4 A g−1);
270.2 mAh g−1 (0.8 A g−1)
SnO2/CNT-GN87% (100 cycles at 0.2 A g−1)1033 mAh g−1 (0.5 A g−1);[60]
887 mAh g−1 (2 A g−1);
787 mAh g−1 (5 A g−1)
SnO2@OSA-CNFs75% (100 cycles at 0.1 A g−1)601 mAh g−1 (0.5 A g−1);[45]
505 mAh g−1 (1 A g−1);
470 mAh g−1 (2 A g−1);
208 mAh g−1 (5 A g−1)
3D SnO2/graphene73.9% (50 cycles at 0.2 A g−1)770.5 mAh g−1 (0.2 A g−1);[61]
582.8 mAh g−1 (1.5 A g−1);
480.3 mAh g−1 (3 A g−1)
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MDPI and ACS Style

Zhang, W.; Liu, Y.; Qin, Z.; Yu, L.; Lian, J.; Tao, Z.; Huang, Z.-H. Flexible Carbon Fiber/SnO2@rGO Electrode with Long Cyclability for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Batteries 2024, 10, 412. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10120412

AMA Style

Zhang W, Liu Y, Qin Z, Yu L, Lian J, Tao Z, Huang Z-H. Flexible Carbon Fiber/SnO2@rGO Electrode with Long Cyclability for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Batteries. 2024; 10(12):412. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10120412

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Wenjie, Yongqi Liu, Zhouyang Qin, Lingxiao Yu, Jiabiao Lian, Zhanliang Tao, and Zheng-Hong Huang. 2024. "Flexible Carbon Fiber/SnO2@rGO Electrode with Long Cyclability for Lithium-Ion Batteries" Batteries 10, no. 12: 412. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10120412

APA Style

Zhang, W., Liu, Y., Qin, Z., Yu, L., Lian, J., Tao, Z., & Huang, Z. -H. (2024). Flexible Carbon Fiber/SnO2@rGO Electrode with Long Cyclability for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Batteries, 10(12), 412. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10120412

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