Agriculture

Editorial

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6 pages, 209 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Current Status and Recent Developments in Biopesticide Use

by Christos A. Damalas and Spyridon D. Koutroubas

Agriculture 2018, 8(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8010013 - 12 Jan 2018

Cited by 250 | Viewed by 25295

Abstract

Biopesticides have attracted attention in pest management in recent decades, and have long been promoted as prospective alternatives to synthetic pesticides. Biopesticides have also attracted great interest in the international research community, with a significant increase in the number of publications devoted to [...] Read more.

Biopesticides have attracted attention in pest management in recent decades, and have long been promoted as prospective alternatives to synthetic pesticides. Biopesticides have also attracted great interest in the international research community, with a significant increase in the number of publications devoted to the subject. Recently, new substances, like strains of the fungus Talaromyces flavus SAY-Y-94-01, extracts of the plant Clitoria ternatea (butterfly pea), products of the fungus Trichoderma harzianum, products of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis strain Xd3 (Btt-Xd3), the alkaloid compound oxymatrine, fermentation products of the bacterium Lactobacillus casei strain LPT-111, stilbenes accumulated in grape canes, and olive mill wastes, have been reported in the literature as promising compounds for use as biopesticides, but more field research is required to assess the effects on specific pest problems under diverse cropping systems. Nevertheless, biopesticides have not yet reached the desired level of use, whereby they could displace the dominance of chemical pesticides, given that the commercialization of new products in the market is lagging behind. Currently, biopesticides comprise a small share of the total crop protection market globally, with a value of about $3 billion worldwide, accounting for just 5% of the total crop protection market. Fewer biopesticide-active substances are registered in the European Union (EU) than in the United States, India, Brazil, or China, due to long and complex registration processes in the EU, which follow the model for the registration of conventional pesticides. Nanoformulations and microencapsulation technologies can improve the stability and residual action of biopesticide products, and this could increase their field use. Regulations that promote registration of low-risk compounds with the provision of incentives could also facilitate commercialization and availability of biopesticides in the market. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

Research

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13 pages, 925 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Drivers of Personal Safety in Agriculture: A Case Study with Pesticide Operators

by Christos A. Damalas, Spyridon D. Koutroubas and Gholamhossein Abdollahzadeh

Agriculture 2019, 9(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture9020034 - 7 Feb 2019

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 7259

Abstract

Agriculture is a hazardous occupational industry for farmers and farm workers; therefore, decisions to improve safety in the working place require understanding behavior of farmers and farm workers and factors affecting it. This study examined factors influencing perceived importance of personal safety and [...] Read more.

Agriculture is a hazardous occupational industry for farmers and farm workers; therefore, decisions to improve safety in the working place require understanding behavior of farmers and farm workers and factors affecting it. This study examined factors influencing perceived importance of personal safety and safe behavior of farmers in terms of personal protective equipment (PPE) use in pesticide spraying. Data were collected from a previous survey of farmers in rural areas of northern Greece. Over half of the farmers (55.4%) perceived low importance of personal safety in pesticide spraying. Perceived importance of personal safety increased in young farmers, with high education level, and large land area as well as with high perception of risk, knowledge of pesticide toxicity, seminar in pesticide use, access to internet, and perceived usefulness of PPE. Most farmers showed unsafe behavior in PPE use in terms of using long-sleeved shirt, long pants, chemical resistant gloves, socks, and shoes (58.9%). Farmers perceived low risk of pesticides (65.2%), despite the fact that two out of three farmers (66.1%) perceived high usefulness of PPE. Safe behavior in pesticide use increased in young farmers, with high education level, and small land area as well as with high perception of risk, knowledge of pesticide toxicity, seminar in pesticide use, access to internet, and perceived usefulness of PPE. Binary logistic regression analysis showed that knowledge of pesticide toxicity, education, age, and farm size were significant predictors of perceived importance of personal safety. In addition, self-confidence in spraying, following colleagues’ behaviors, risk perception, knowledge of pesticide toxicity, and farm size were significant predictors of safe behavior in terms of PPE use during pesticide spraying. Findings highlight differences in how farmers perceive personal safety and how they finally respond in daily action with respect to personal safety measures. Perception of risk, knowledge of pesticide toxicity, and farm size were common significant predictors for both variables. Lifelong education targeting promotion of knowledge about pesticide risks among farmers should be always a priority. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

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10 pages, 448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring of Pesticides in the Cultivation of Nopal Vegetable (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.)) Mill, Morelos, México

by Irene Iliana Ramírez-Bustos, Víctor López-Martínez, Porfirio Juarez-Lopez, Irán Alía-Tejacal, Dagoberto Guillén-Sánchez, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Ismael León-Rivera

Agriculture 2018, 8(11), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8110174 - 6 Nov 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4140

Abstract

The presence of pesticide residues in vegetable and fruit products, as a consequence of inappropriate application in some cases, constitutes a risk to the health of the exposed population. In Mexico, the official norm, NOM-003-STPS-1999, only allows the use of pesticides with the [...] Read more.

The presence of pesticide residues in vegetable and fruit products, as a consequence of inappropriate application in some cases, constitutes a risk to the health of the exposed population. In Mexico, the official norm, NOM-003-STPS-1999, only allows the use of pesticides with the phytosanitary registry, the responsible state commission for the control of the process and use of pesticides and toxic substances, which recommends doses and permitted crops. Despite the above, it is still common to find pesticide residues in some vegetable products. In this study, the following were detected: Chlorpyriphos, Dimetomorph I, Malathion, Omethoate, Carbendazim, and Imidacloprid in Nopal. The study was carried out in two collection centers located in the state of Morelos. In total, sixty samples were taken, thirty for each collection center, for a period of 10 months. To determine the pesticide residues, the analytical methodology was used, according to the guide, SANTE/11945/2015; in a laboratory accredited by the Mexican Accreditation Entity A. C. in the norm, NMX-EC-17025-IMNC-2006. The procedure for extracting analytes was carried out using the method, QuEChERS. The highest concentration of the pesticides detected in the samples obtained from the non-Certified Supply Center were Chlorpyrifos 0.309 mg/kg (MRL 0.01), Dimetomorf I 0.029 mg/kg (MRL 0.01), Malathion 0.155 mg/kg (MRL 0.01), Omethoate 0.032 (MRL 0.01), Carbendazim 0.090 mg/kg (MRL 0.01), and Imidacloprid 0.058 mg/kg (MRL 0.01). Thirty percent of the samples analyzed showed pesticide residues; the most frequent were Carbendazim. The results for the estimated daily intake (EDI) oscillated between 6.5 × 10⁻⁵ and 1.3 × 10⁻⁴ mg/kg body weight for the vegetable, Nopal. In principle, it could be concluded that the consumption of Nopal with pesticide residues does not represent any toxicological risk for human health, however, the risk cannot be ruled out due to the intake of other vegetables and fruits that are cultivated in the Mexican Republic, which probably present pesticide residues, which together would raise potential risks to human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

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16 pages, 1673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pesticide Use in Northern Ireland’s Arable Crops from 1992–2016 and Implications for Future Policy Development

by Stephen Jess, David I. Matthews, Archie K. Murchie and Michael K. Lavery

Agriculture 2018, 8(8), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8080123 - 8 Aug 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5670

Abstract

Since the 1960s, the objective for the United Kingdom (UK) government policy and legislation on crop protection practices has been to minimise the impact of pesticide use in agriculture and horticulture to the wider environment. Subsequent European Union (EU) policy and legislation have [...] Read more.

Since the 1960s, the objective for the United Kingdom (UK) government policy and legislation on crop protection practices has been to minimise the impact of pesticide use in agriculture and horticulture to the wider environment. Subsequent European Union (EU) policy and legislation have also targeted this objective through a demanding approvals process, competency tests for users, maximum residue limits, regular post-registration monitoring and the promotion of integrated pest and disease management techniques. However, none of this substantive regulation refers to target reduction levels for pesticide use. Since 1992, the number of arable farms in Northern Ireland has decreased by 61% with a consequent reduction of 34% in the area of arable crops grown. Despite this reduction in area of arable crops grown, the area treated by the major pesticide groups increased by 49% due to intensification, but the weight of major pesticides applied to arable crops decreased by 37%. However, the intensity of application measured by the total quantity of all pesticides applied to the basic area of arable crops treated remained relatively constant at approximately 3.2 kg/ha. Pesticide usage trends and reduction policies in other geographic regions are also discussed for comparative purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

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13 pages, 2722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Economic Impacts of Pesticide Regulations

by Uwe A. Schneider, Livia Rasche and Bruce A. McCarl

Agriculture 2018, 8(4), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8040053 - 3 Apr 2018

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8604

Abstract

Economic impacts of pesticide regulations are assessed using five alternative methodologies. The regulations include crop supply-enhancing eradication programs and crop supply-decreasing pesticide bans. Alternative assessment methodologies differ regarding assumptions about market price and crop acreage adjustments. Results show that market and producer adjustments [...] Read more.

Economic impacts of pesticide regulations are assessed using five alternative methodologies. The regulations include crop supply-enhancing eradication programs and crop supply-decreasing pesticide bans. Alternative assessment methodologies differ regarding assumptions about market price and crop acreage adjustments. Results show that market and producer adjustments substantially impact conclusions about winners and losers from regulations, and estimated welfare effects can differ widely between the different methodologies. For small technological changes such as the hypothetical pendimethalin regulation, farm budgeting and sector modeling yield similar estimates. For more severe technological changes—like the boll weevil eradication program—simple budgeting approaches lead to a substantial bias. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

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11 pages, 2683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Translocation of Endosulfan from Soil to Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer)

by Jiyoon Kim, Manoharan Saravanan, Kumuduni Niroshika Palansooriya and Jang Hyun Hur

Agriculture 2018, 8(4), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8040052 - 3 Apr 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5336

Abstract

This study was conducted to examine the translocation of highly residual agrochemical in soil, the endosulfan (total), to ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer). The soil with the level of the amount of 5.0 mg kg⁻¹ of endosulfan (total) was prepared [...] Read more.

This study was conducted to examine the translocation of highly residual agrochemical in soil, the endosulfan (total), to ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer). The soil with the level of the amount of 5.0 mg kg⁻¹ of endosulfan (total) was prepared in a Wagner pot into which the seedling of ginseng was transplanted and then the specimens of ginseng (root, leaf, and stem) were collected quarterly and analyzed through GC-MS. The level of residual of endosulfan (total) in the soil has decreased from 4.28 mg kg⁻¹ (April 2013) to 1.94 mg kg⁻¹ (December 2014) while the level in the specimens of leaf and stem of ginseng respectively sampled according to its growth phase in June and September from 2013 and 2014 showed an increase from 0.56 mg kg⁻¹ (June 2013) to 2.46 mg kg⁻¹ (September 2013) and decrease from 0.29 mg kg⁻¹ (June 2014) to 0.18 mg kg⁻¹ (September 2014). For the case of the root of ginseng, the level of the amount of 10.77 mg kg⁻¹ of endosulfan (total) was detected in June 2013 and then, the level has decreased to the level of 4.88 mg kg⁻¹ in December 2014. The translocation of residual endosulfan (total) in soil to ginseng with time was identified. The amount of residuals of α-endosulfan and β-endosulfan was also decreased with time however, the ratio of endosulfan-sulfate, the main metabolite, was gradually increasing. The retention of metabolite (endosulfan-sulfate) in soil identified thereby thus suggests the potential of its translocation to plants in the case of the soils containing the residual of endosulfan (total). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

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14 pages, 254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determinants of Pesticide Use in Food Crop Production in Southeastern Nigeria

by Sanzidur Rahman and Chidiebere Daniel Chima

Agriculture 2018, 8(3), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8030035 - 28 Feb 2018

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 8735

Abstract

The present study examines pesticide use in producing multiple food crops (i.e., rice, yam, and cassava) and identifies the range of socio-economic factors influencing pesticide use by 400 farmers from Ebonyi and Anambra states of Southeastern Nigeria using a Tobit model. Results reveal [...] Read more.

The present study examines pesticide use in producing multiple food crops (i.e., rice, yam, and cassava) and identifies the range of socio-economic factors influencing pesticide use by 400 farmers from Ebonyi and Anambra states of Southeastern Nigeria using a Tobit model. Results reveal that 68% of the farmers grew at least two food crops. Overall, 41% of the farmers applied pesticides in at least one food crop, whereas 70% of the farmers producing both rice and yam applied pesticides. Pesticide use rates and costs vary significantly amongst farmers producing different food crops and crop combinations. Pesticide use rate is highest for producing yam followed by cassava estimated at 1.52 L/ha costing Naira 1677.97 per ha and 1.37 L/ha costing Naira 1514.96 per ha. Similarly, pesticide use rate is highest for the farmers that produce both yam and cassava followed by farmers that produce both rice and cassava. The inverse farm size–pesticide use rate exists in the study areas, i.e., the pesticide use rate is highest for the small farmers (p < 0.01). Farmers seem to treat pesticides as substitutes for labor and ploughing services, indicated by the significant positive influence of labor wage and ploughing price on pesticide use. Increases in yam price significantly increase pesticide use. Rice production significantly increases pesticide use, whereas cassava production significantly reduces pesticide use. Male farmers use significantly more pesticides. Farming experience is significantly positively related to pesticide use. Policy recommendations include land reform policies aimed at increasing farm operation size and investment in programmes to promote cassava production to reduce pesticide use in food crop production in Southeastern Nigeria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

16 pages, 267 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Farmers’ Criteria for Pesticide Selection and Use in the Pest Control Process

by Mohammad Sharif Sharifzadeh, Gholamhossein Abdollahzadeh, Christos A. Damalas and Rohollah Rezaei

Agriculture 2018, 8(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8020024 - 12 Feb 2018

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 14303

Abstract

Chemical pesticides have been widely overused by farmers in Iran, but farmers’ criteria for pesticide selection and use are not well understood. A field survey of 411 farmers was carried out in Mazandaran, Iran, to study farmers’ criteria for selecting and using pesticides [...] Read more.

Chemical pesticides have been widely overused by farmers in Iran, but farmers’ criteria for pesticide selection and use are not well understood. A field survey of 411 farmers was carried out in Mazandaran, Iran, to study farmers’ criteria for selecting and using pesticides in the pest control process and explaining differences in selection criteria among farmers. From a list with a total of 25 criteria, five main groups were identified as key decision criteria for pesticide selection and use, using factor analysis. These groups included: (i) performance and effectiveness criteria, (ii) awareness and information criteria, (iii) technical and operational criteria, (iv) environmental criteria, and (v) financial and accessibility criteria. Performance and effectiveness criteria had the highest importance for farmers when selecting and using pesticides (mean 3.45), followed by financial and accessibility criteria (mean 3.28). Farmers who received training regarding pesticide use (mean 2.23 vs. 1.90) and farmers who had experience with integrated pest management (IPM) practices (mean 2.46 vs. 1.79) tended to consider environmental criteria when selecting and using pesticides. Similarly, farmers who experienced health risks related to working with pesticides (mean 2.0 vs. 1.77), farmers who used protection when spraying (mean 2.58 vs. 1.87), and farmers who knew about natural enemies of pests (mean 2.11 vs. 1.85) tended to consider environmental criteria when selecting and using pesticides. Farmers without off-farm income tended to consider financial and accessibility criteria more than farmers with off-farm income (mean 3.40 vs. 3.18). Farmers with college education favored awareness and information criteria, whereas experienced farmers favored the criteria of performance and effectiveness. Farmers with a high income showed a tendency to prefer performance and effectiveness criteria more than farmers with less income. Farmers who thought that pesticides are hazardous preferred environmental criteria more than farmers who thought that pesticides are not hazardous. Farmers who believed in the effectiveness of alternatives to chemical pest control (e.g., use of biological control, pheromone traps, or cultural control) preferred performance and effectiveness criteria less than farmers who believed no effectiveness or slight effectiveness of alternatives to chemical pest control. The findings provide useful information for better understanding factors affecting farmers’ choices of pesticides and for improving future extension courses related to farmers’ decisions about pesticide use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

11 pages, 622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Farmers’ Knowledge on Pesticide Safety and Pest Management Practices: A Case Study of Vegetable Growers in Chitwan, Nepal

by Jhalendra P. Rijal, Rajendra Regmi, Rajan Ghimire, Krishna D. Puri, Sudan Gyawaly and Sujata Poudel

Agriculture 2018, 8(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8010016 - 22 Jan 2018

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 18050

Abstract

Farmers’ knowledge on pesticides and their safe use are critical for implementing effective pest management program. A household survey was conducted using the semi-structured questionnaire to evaluate vegetable growers’ knowledge on pesticide safety and pest management practices in Nepal. Results indicated that chemical [...] Read more.

Farmers’ knowledge on pesticides and their safe use are critical for implementing effective pest management program. A household survey was conducted using the semi-structured questionnaire to evaluate vegetable growers’ knowledge on pesticide safety and pest management practices in Nepal. Results indicated that chemical pesticides were the primary choice of over 80% growers for pest management. Notably, 90% growers were aware of adverse effects of pesticides on human health and to the environment. Over 84% growers used at least one form of personal protection equipment (PPE) during pesticide spray or handling, although the quality and appropriateness of the PPE warrants further investigation. Nearly 17% growers received at least one short-term training on integrated pest management (IPM); however, all of them neither knew the harmful effects of pesticide residues nor practiced proper pesticide disposal methods. Over 90% of growers rely on local pesticide retailers (i.e., Agro-vets) for technical know-how about pesticide selection, handling, and use. This study highlighted a need for immediate implementation of strict pesticide use regulations and recommended educational programs for pest control professionals, growers, and pesticide retailers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

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0 pages, 555 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

RETRACTED: Farmers’ Technical Knowledge about Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in Olive Production

by Mohammad S. Allahyari, Christos A. Damalas and Mehdi Ebadattalab

Agriculture 2017, 7(12), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture7120101 - 5 Dec 2017

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 9036 | Retraction

Abstract

While Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a sustainable approach of pest control, contributing to reduced use of pesticides and risks on human health and the environment, farmers have shown limited interest in practicing this method. The present study explored the levels of technical [...] Read more.

While Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a sustainable approach of pest control, contributing to reduced use of pesticides and risks on human health and the environment, farmers have shown limited interest in practicing this method. The present study explored the levels of technical knowledge about integrated management of the olive fly (Bactrocera oleae) among olive growers in Roudbar County of Iran and factors underpinning olive farmers’ technical knowledge of integrated management. Data were collected in a survey of olive farmers, on the basis of a structured questionnaire. Almost half of the farmers (48.4%) had good to excellent levels of technical knowledge of integrated management, while almost a third of the farmers (35.4%) had a moderate knowledge level. However, a noticeable portion of the farmers (15.9%) had poor knowledge of integrated management. Moreover, most farmers showed average knowledge of the adverse effects of pesticides on human health. While most farmers showed good levels of social participation, cooperation with institutes, and participation in extension activities, they showed low levels of community involvement (involvement in a group of people that have and share common interests with each other). Olive imports and the lack of a common action for olive fly control were perceived as the main barriers of IPM adoption among most farmers. Regression analysis revealed that increased community involvement, large area under olive farming, participation in education activities, and high farming experience promoted farmers’ technical knowledge of integrated olive fly control. Strengthening growers’ technical knowledge of IPM through community involvement and extension services among inexperienced small-scale olive farmers is recommended for reducing possible unnecessary insecticide sprays in olive production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

19 pages, 280 KiB

Open AccessReview

Methods for the Diagnosis of Grapevine Viral Infections: A Review

by Anatoly V. Zherdev, Svetlana V. Vinogradova, Nadezhda A. Byzova, Elena V. Porotikova, Anastasia M. Kamionskaya and Boris B. Dzantiev

Agriculture 2018, 8(12), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8120195 - 9 Dec 2018

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7613

Abstract

The yielding capacity of grapevine growth and the quality of the resulting product heavily depend on the health of the cultivated plants. The phytopathogens affecting the vineyards can cause a significant reduction in the yield and quality of the product. For this reason, [...] Read more.

The yielding capacity of grapevine growth and the quality of the resulting product heavily depend on the health of the cultivated plants. The phytopathogens affecting the vineyards can cause a significant reduction in the yield and quality of the product. For this reason, it is extremely important to use diagnostic methods that make it possible to identify the pathogens, and to choose the correct method of plant protection. This review considers the main viral grapevine pathogens, and the existing methods of their diagnosis. The limitations of conventional diagnostic methods that are based either on the visual assessment of symptoms, or on bio-testing, are analyzed. A major focus is placed on two intensively developed approaches of diagnosis, molecular genetic and immunochemical methods. Applications of amplification techniques and DNA chips are presented, as well as opportunities for next-generation sequencing. A reduction of assay duration and labor intensity in combination with the assay shifts from specialized laboratories toward the places of sampling are considered as the main factors influencing the development of immunodiagnostic techniques. The potential place of diagnostic tests in vine-growing practices, and the requirements for their most efficient applications for early disease diagnosis is also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

1082 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Physical Chemistry of Pesticides in Soil and Water

by Donald S. Gamble

Agriculture 2017, 7(11), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture7110091 - 28 Oct 2017

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 7828

Abstract

Soils are the ultimate examples of physically and chemically irregular mixtures. They are also dynamic. Early investigators consequently did not understand the physical chemistry of pesticides in soil and water. By taking shortcuts instead of trying to understand the physical chemistry, they measured [...] Read more.

Soils are the ultimate examples of physically and chemically irregular mixtures. They are also dynamic. Early investigators consequently did not understand the physical chemistry of pesticides in soil and water. By taking shortcuts instead of trying to understand the physical chemistry, they measured the wrong variables, used the wrong units, calculated the wrong parameters, and totally ignored chemical stoichiometry. Theoretical concepts for the physical chemistry of pesticides in soil have been published during the last quarter century. They are experimentally supported. Yet, chemically incorrect descriptions persist in the literature to this day. That has serious environmental and economic consequences. In particular, government regulators make legally binding pesticide decisions based on computer predictions that are wrong by 1 to 3 orders of magnitude. This needs the attention of scientists, governments, and multinational corporations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Agriculture System)

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