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Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Science and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 April 2024) | Viewed by 27451

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Vahid Afroughsabet

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Guest Editor

Marie Curie Future Roads Fellow, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK
Interests: concrete durability; smart infrastructure materials; self-healing concrete; innovative binders; fiber-reinforced concrete; sustainability; reuse of waste in construction materials; microstructure

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Concrete, with a yearly consumption of more than 25 billion tons, is the most used construction material in the world. Durability is one of the most important aspects of cementitious composites and concrete materials due to its fundamental impact on the serviceability of concrete structures. Concrete is a multiple-phased material, and it will always have the propensity to crack over time. The presence of cracks facilitates the exposure of the concrete microstructure to destructive substances such as moisture, chloride, and sulfates, which can seriously degrade the service life of the structures. Therefore, increasing the longevity and reducing the further need for in situ repair and maintenance of concrete infrastructures has resulted in growing attention to the development of advanced cement-based materials with enhanced durability performances.

Although the durability properties of conventional cement and concrete materials have been extensively explored, many questions remain about the durability aspects of novel concrete materials. This Special Issue aims to disseminate and publish the latest studies on the durability of advanced cement and concrete materials. I am pleased to invite you to contribute your original research papers as well as review papers to this Special Issue, which deals with topics of interest including, but are not limited to, the following:

Methodologies to design and characterize durable cement-based materials;
Durability of novel concrete materials with innovative binders (e.g., Calcium sulfoaluminate cements, alkali-activated binders, supersulfated cements, limestone calcined clay cements, etc.);
Durability of advanced concrete materials such as self-healing concrete, fiber-reinforced concrete, engineering cementitious composites, etc.;
Durability investigations of cement and concrete materials (e.g., corrosion, carbonation, freeze–thaw, mass scaling, alkali–silica reaction, sulfate and acid resistance, etc.);
Non-destructive evaluations of concrete structures;
Application of sensors for remote durability assessment.

I look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Vahid Afroughsabet
Guest Editor

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Keywords

durability
innovative binder
advanced concrete materials
cementitious composites
corrosion
self-healing concrete
non-destructive techniques
sensors
sustainability
serviceability

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 7128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cost-Effective Temperature Sensor for Monitoring the Setting Time of Concrete

by Leticia Presa Madrigal, Juan Antonio Rodríguez Rama, Domingo A. Martín Sánchez, Jorge L. Costafreda Mustelier, Miguel Ángel Sanjuán and José Luis Parra y Alfaro

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4344; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114344 - 21 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1015

Abstract

Concrete and Portland cement-based products are the most widely used materials in the construction industry. According to the Global Cement and Concrete Association (GCCA), 14 billion cubic meters of concrete are consumed worldwide every year. Knowledge of their properties is essential to ensure the quality of concrete products and structures. Knowing the evolution of certain parameters related to their durability makes it possible to prevent situations that affect compliance with quality requirements. Thanks to advances in IoT (Internet of Things) technologies, it is possible to know the evolution of these parameters in real time. The following work pursues the development and application of a prototype to monitor the setting time of concrete. This equipment provides real-time measurements, taking advantage of the Internet of Things (IoT) technology, allowing effective monitoring of the thermal behavior of concrete during its setting process. By measuring the temperature of the process and evaluating the resistance acquired during the setting time, we can correlate these two parameters, thus ensuring their correct evolution and allowing quick action to avoid future problems. For the development of this work, temperature measurements were made during the setting of 12 concrete specimens corresponding to four different mixtures (two types of cement with and without additives), assessed at three setting ages (28, 90, and 180 days). Through detailed experimental tests, the sensor was accurately and reliably validated, showing its ability to detect temperature changes, indicating the initial and final setting time. In addition, it was observed that the integration of the DS18B20 sensor does not compromise the structural properties of the concrete. The prototype’s cost-effectiveness, efficiency, and easy installation make it a valuable tool for construction professionals, offering an innovative solution to ensure the quality and durability of the concrete. This breakthrough could represent a significant step towards the digitalization and improvement of construction processes, with direct implications for the efficiency and sustainability of modern infrastructures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials)

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12 pages, 6222 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mineral, Chemical and Technical Characterization of Altered Pyroxenic Andesites from Southeastern Spain for Use as Eco-Efficient Natural Materials

by Domingo A. Martín, Jorge L. Costafreda, Miguel A. Sanjuán and Jorge L. Costafreda-Velázquez

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(23), 12866; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132312866 - 30 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 888

Abstract

Climate change is already an undeniable reality, and it is a direct consequence of our society’s lifestyle and the indiscriminate use of certain materials, such as Portland cement, which causes the emission of gases and waste that contributes to the greenhouse effect. The object of this work is to present the results obtained from research on pyroxenic andesites that have become altered to zeolite and their use as alternative, eco-efficient materials that improve the quality of cement through a standardized partial substitution. In this work, four samples of pyroxenic andesites altered to zeolites (PAAZ) and two samples of unaltered andesites (UPA) were analyzed. The methods used in this study are as follows: petrography of thin section (PTS), chemical analysis of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and phase determination by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Other tests were carried out to determine the quality of the PAAZ from a technical and practical application point of view, such as chemical analysis of pozzolanicity (CPT) at 8 and 15 days, as well as mechanical compression tests at 2, 7, 28 and 90 days. Petrographic and phase analyses show that the original mineral components of the samples such as pyroxene, amphibole, plagioclase and mica were leached and replaced by more than 90% with mordenite and smectite. XRF analyses indicates an anomalous rise in SiO₂, a drastic reduction in alumina Al₂O₃ and a significant increase in alkaline compounds over alkaline-earth compounds in samples of altered pyroxenic andesites (PAAZ) with respect to samples of unaltered andesites (UPA). The pozzolanicity test establishes that the samples of unaltered andesites do not behave like pozzolans at 8 or 15 days; however, altered andesites experienced remarkable pozzolanic reactivity in the same periods. The mechanical compression tests carried out on specimens made with PAAZ and Portland cement showed a growing increase in mechanical resistance from 2 days (15.2 MPa) to 90 days (72.1 MPa). These results suggest that pyroxenic andesites altered to zeolite can be an ideal alternative to partially replace Portland cement, which in turn could contribute to the preservation of the environment and a more rational use of traditional resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials)

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13 pages, 2674 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance of Pozzolan-Based Reactive Magnesia Cement Mixes against Sulphate Attack

by Murugan Muthu, Sanjeev Kumar and Łukasz Sadowski

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(19), 11012; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131911012 - 6 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1138

Abstract

Reactive magnesia cement (RMC) has gained interest due to its lower production temperatures when compared to Portland cement. In this study, the performance of pozzolan-based RMC concrete samples against sulphate attack was examined. Cube samples, after being removed from their moulds, were stored in a CO₂-rich environment to gain compressive strength. Information obtained from XRD showed the formation of Mg carbonates in different forms. The use of fly ash and slag in large volumes reduces the environmental impact of concrete, but the use of these components have been found to greatly affect the formation of Mg carbonates in RMC mixes. This is mainly due to their filler effects. The coexistence of Ca- and Mg-based products was found in the slag-RMC mixes. The concrete samples based on RMC underwent mass and strength losses when stored in a MgSO₄ solution for up to 12 weeks. The removal of Mg from the microstructure of these samples was confirmed using SEM analysis. The use of the most widely used pozzolans at 50% by weight of the binder greatly affected the carbonation mechanism of the RMC mixes. This finding suggests that they should be limited in the design of Mg-based products that harden under CO₂-rich conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials)

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11 pages, 1480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Cement-Based Materials with Low Water–Binder Ratios and Evaluation Mechanism under Further Hydration Effect

by Mingzhe An, Yazhou Liu, Ge Zhang and Yue Wang

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(17), 9946; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179946 - 2 Sep 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1522

Abstract

Unhydrated cementitious materials in high-performance concrete (HPC) and ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) undergo further hydration when they are further supplied with water. A further hydration experiment on cement pastes was conducted to study the effects of temperature and humidity on their macroscopic properties. A rapid evaluation mechanism for further hydration was eventually presented. The results obtained under the four analysed humidity conditions indicated that the compressive strength and flexural strength increased by 22.6% and 75.2%, respectively, after further hydration for 180 d at a relative humidity (RH) of 95%. Considering water soaking under three analysed temperature conditions, water soaking at 60 °C had the largest impact on macroscopic properties, such as compressive strength and flexural strength, which showed an increase of 31.4% and a decrease of 13.8%, respectively, after further hydration for 180 d. Moreover, the expansion strain at 60 °C was 1.1 times higher than the strain determined under water soaking at 40 °C. Considering the stability of the evaluation indices, the combined water content for further hydration, expansion strain, and compressive strength were used to evaluate further hydration effect. Considering the acceleration and damaging effects, water soaking at 60 °C was an effective method to accelerate further hydration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials)

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21 pages, 8158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quartz Powder Valorisation in White Self-Compacting Concrete: Mortar Level Study

by Ana Mafalda Matos, Lino Maia and Joana Sousa Coutinho

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(13), 7652; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13137652 - 28 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1549

Abstract

Quartz powder (QP) from mining exploration has increased, and valorisation solutions are sought. QP incorporation in structural concrete is an exciting strategy for the growth and sustainable development of the concrete industry, waste management and environmental protection. This work addresses the valorisation of QP from a Portuguese company on powder-type self-compacting concrete for architectural and structural purposes, combining the light colour of quartz with white cement. As such, QP was used as a partial cement replacement, acting as a filler on self-compacting white mortars (SCWM) and pastes (SCWP). Firstly, the QP was characterised by chemical, physical and morphological properties. Afterwards, SCWM with 10% of the white Portland cement with QP were produced and, with 10% cement replacement by limestone fillers, commercially available, for comparison purposes. The following engineering properties were evaluated, flowability and viscosity, electrical resistivity, porosity and mechanical strength. In equivalent pastes samples, the heat of hydration was accessed. Finally, an architectonic element prototype was produced using SCWM-QP, and colour and aesthetics were evaluated. All SCWM reached adequate deformability and viscosity for self-compaction. In the hardened state, compressive strength, electrical resistivity and water-permeable porosity presented similar results for mortars incorporating quartz powder and limestone fillers. The isothermal calorimetry in equivalent pastes revealed a slight desacceleration of hydration for SCWP incorporating QP. The major findings of this study confirm the feasibility of SCWM with QP, meeting the required performance while reducing resource depletion in the concrete industry and adding value to a by-product. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials)

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20 pages, 5810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Structural Performance of Reinforced Concrete Beams with Phragmites Australis Fiber and Waste Glass Additives

by Rawan Ramadan, Ali Jahami, Jamal Khatib, Hilal El-Hassan and Adel Elkordi

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(7), 4206; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13074206 - 26 Mar 2023

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3652

Abstract

The construction industry has seen a growing emphasis on the use of sustainable materials in recent years. This is driven by various factors, including a desire to reduce environmental impact, improve indoor air quality, and promote the health and well-being of building occupants. One sustainable material that is being increasingly utilized in construction is natural fibers. Phragmites australis fibers, in particular, are renewable, biodegradable, and have a low carbon footprint. The present study aims to evaluate the impact of Phragmites australis fibers on the behavior of reinforced concrete beams. Five concrete mixes were utilized in the experiment, with the control mix having a 1:1.5:3 ratio of cement to sand to coarse aggregate by weight. The other four mixes incorporated Phragmites australis fibers at 0%, 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% of the volume of the mix, with cement replaced by 10% glass by weight. The water-to-cement ratio was set at 0.4 for all mixes. Concrete cubes, cylinders, and prisms were prepared to determine mechanical and physical properties, while reinforced concrete beams were used to assess structural performance. The results of the experiment showed that the addition of Phragmites australis fibers slightly decreased the compressive and tensile strength of the concrete compared to the control mix. However, the inclusion of 0.5% Phragmites australis fibers enhanced the split tensile and flexural strength of the concrete. In terms of reinforced concrete beams, the maximum load-bearing capacity was realized for the mix with 10% glass and 0% Phragmites australis fibers. However, the highest ductility index and deflection were achieved for the mix with 10% glass and 0.5% Phragmites australis fibers. Therefore, the use of Phragmites australis fibers can improve the structural performance of concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials)

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23 pages, 3393 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Development of Cementitious Mortars for Aerial Additive Manufacturing

by Barrie Dams, Binling Chen, Paul Shepherd and Richard J. Ball

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(1), 641; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010641 - 3 Jan 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 9989

Abstract

Additive Manufacturing (AM) methods in the construction industry typically employ ground-based deposition methods. An alternative to transform the role of AM in construction is to introduce an aerial capability. A recent project titled Aerial Additive Manufacturing (AAM), the first AM system to use untethered, unmanned aerial vehicles (or ‘drones’), has demonstrated the 3D-printing of cementitious materials during flight. An autonomous aerial system would minimise requirements for working at height, thus reducing safety risks and release AM from ground-based constraints. This study investigates viscous cementitious mortars for AAM. To assess workability and buildability, a robotic arm representing UAV movement in three-dimensional space moved a lightweight deposition device to extrude multiple layers. Constituents such as Pulverised Fuel-Ash, Silica fume, polyol resin, limeX70 and Polypropylene fibres were added to cement-based material mixes. Sand:binder ratios were a maximum of 1.00 and Water:binder ratios ranged from 0.33–0.47. Workability and buildability of mixes were evaluated using performance parameters such as power required for extrusion, number of layers successfully extruded, the extent of deformation of extruded layers and evaluation of mechanical and rheological properties. Rheology tests revealed mortars with a suitable workability-buildability balance possessed a Complex modulus of 3–6 MPa. Mechanical tests showed that resistance to deformation and buildability positively correlate and indicate compressive strengths in excess of 25 MPa. This study has demonstrated that structural cementitious material can be processed by a device light enough to be carried by a UAV to produce an unsupported, coherent multiple-layered object and further demonstrated the feasibility of untethered AAM as an alternative to ground-based AM applications in construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials)

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15 pages, 10057 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Vine Shoot Waste for Manufacturing Innovative Reinforced Cement Composites

by Daniela Alexandra Scurtu, Eniko Kovacs, Lacrimioara Senila, Erika Andrea Levei, Dorina Simedru, Xenia Filip, Monica Dan, Cecilia Roman, Oana Cadar and Leontin David

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(1), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010134 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1919

Abstract

Due to the current concern with the environmental impacts produced by the construction industry, many studies have been conducted to capitalize on the advantages of waste to develop sustainable materials. The study reports an innovative, non-conventional cement-based composite material containing 10 wt.% vine shoot waste, representing a step forward toward the use of this lignocellulosic waste. The investigations were carried out using scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray diffraction and solid-state ²⁷Al and ²⁹Si nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The addition of vine shoot waste to the cement paste increases the amount of hydration products (calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium hydroxide (CH), calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) and ettringite), leading to a more compact and dense structure. The structural characterization techniques also confirmed the formation of a higher amount of hydration products in the case of vine shoot waste added to the cement paste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials)

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14 pages, 4775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Conductive Mortar for Efficient Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete Structures—Part 1: Laboratory Experiments

by Ji-Myung Ha, Jin-A Jeong and Chungkuk Jin

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(23), 12056; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312056 - 25 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1891

Abstract

This experimental study proposes a conductive mortar to increase the efficiency of the sacrificial anode cathodic protection (SACP) system by decreasing resistivity and maintaining it for a long time. The resistivity characteristics of the mortar that contained electrically conductive admixtures and/or chemical agents were evaluated by the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) method and resistivity measurements. The conductive mortar with activated carbon and sodium hydroxide had the lowest resistivity. The SACP system was then designed to evaluate the cathodic protection (CP) performance with the proposed activated-carbon-based conductive mortar. The proposed conductive mortar contributed to lower CP potential and higher current density and depolarization potential than the general mortar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials)

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Review

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23 pages, 1714 KiB

Open AccessReview

Resistance of Concretes to External Chlorides in the Presence and Absence of Sulphates: A Review

by Joseph Onah Ukpata, Okiemute Roland Ogirigbo and Leon Black

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(1), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010182 - 23 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2370

Abstract

Corrosion of steel reinforcement due to chloride attack remains a major reinforced concrete durability concern. The problem is prevalent for concrete structures located within marine environments or frost-prone locations where chlorides containing de-icing salts are used. This paper is a state-of-the-art review into chloride binding in Portland cement concrete, with consideration of the differences induced by the presence of sulphates, such as found in seawater. The review also considers the use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), the use of which has increased because of their potential to enhance durability and reduce the carbon footprint of concrete production. Such materials impact on phase assemblage and microstructure, affecting chloride binding and transport properties. Therefore, field and laboratory studies are critically reviewed to understand how these could help in the design of more durable concretes. The contributions of chloride binding, hydrate compositions and microstructures of the binding materials affecting chloride transport in concretes are also evaluated to suggest a more robust approach for controlling the problem of chloride attack. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability of Advanced Cement and Concrete Materials)

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