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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Earth Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 May 2025 | Viewed by 16153

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Dr. Sotirios Kokkalas

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Department of Geology, University of Patras, 26504 Rio-Patras, Greece
Interests: structural geology; active tectonics; fracture characterization

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Structural Geology, mainly a field-based discipline, deals with the three-dimensional geometry, distribution and formation of structures at every scale, from remotely sensed data to thin-section analysis. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover information about their deformation history, and ultimately to understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. This understanding of stress field dynamics can be linked to important events in geologic history. Structural geology has a great economic impact in the hydrocarbon and mineral exploration industry, as structures control the migration, trapping and escape of hydrocarbons and ore-bearing fluids. Furthermore, its underlying principles and techniques are at the core of geotechnical site assessment, earthquake hazard assesment and earthquake geology.

This Special Issue of Applied Sciences focuses on recent advances in structural geology using traditional fieldwork data, assisted by remote sensing data (i.e., terrestrial or airborne laser data, satellite InSAR, UAV or photogrammetry image data) and subsurface data (i.e., seismic, seismological) with a particular emphasis on the development and application of new and state-of-the-art methods, and structural workflows. The aim is to compile a collection of articles or series of case studies that will provide a comprehensive and valuable reference for geoscientists, addressing fundamental research questions and providing insight to the future of structural geology. Accordingly, we invite contributions from researchers based in academia, research institutes or operating companies, related to topics such as:

The application of digital technologies in structural geology.
Fault geometry, fault segmentation, interaction and linkage.
Fracture networks analysis and Naturaly Fractured Reservoirs (NFR)
Stress analysis methods from fracture/fault-slip data.
Structural workfows for CO₂ or Hydrogen Storage and Geothermal Energy (GE).
Orogenic evolution of fold-and-thrust belts and foreland basins-Salt tectonics.
Microstructures for deformation characterization or fluid flow.
Extension and compression in the continental and oceanic lithosphere.
Frictional behaviour of seismogenic faults, seismotectonics.
Exhumation of deep-seated rocks.
Ductile shear-zones and kinematic indicators.
Structural control of magmatism–
Structural control of ore deposition.
Experimental, numerical and physical modeling.

Dr. Sotirios Kokkalas
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Strain analyses
Active faulting
Fracture analysis
Fault sealing
Shear zones
Continental extension
Detachment faulting
Brittle deformation
Geomechanics
Subsurface storage
Microstructures
Deformation
Palaeostress

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 21462 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geochemical Constraints on the Evolution of Late- to Post-Orogenic Granites in the Arabian Shield, with a Specific Focus on Jabal Al Bayda Area in the Central Hijaz Region, Saudi Arabia

by Hamdy H. Abd El-Naby and Yehia H. Dawood

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(2), 735; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020735 - 15 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1229

Abstract

The Jabal Al Bayda, located in the Hijaz terrain of northwest Saudi Arabia, comprises magmatic rocks that represent the ending phase in the Precambrian development of the Arabian Shield. Two granitic suites have been studied petrologically and geochemically, the monzogranite and alkali granite suites, to gain knowledge about their origin and geotectonic implications. The geochemical characteristics of the monzogranites align with their formation in a subduction-related environment. These rocks have a composition that is rich in strontium and barium, and low in rubidium, and displays a high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic nature. In contrast, alkali granites typically have lower concentrations of Sr and Ba, and higher rubidium contents. The differences in geochemical composition between monzogranites and alkali granites found in Jabal Al Bayda indicate differences in their origin and geotectonic environment. The evolution of granitoid magmatism in the Jabal Al Bayda area is linked to the Hijaz orogenic cycle, during which northwest-dipping subduction led to the formation of the Midyan, Hijaz, and Jeddah arc assemblage, followed by the collision and accretion of these arcs along the Yanbu and Bir Umq sutures. Due to crustal thickening during the subduction-related stage, the deeper parts of the overlying metagraywackes and metatonalites contribute melt to the early crustal magma, which eventually solidifies to form monzogranites. Later on, during the post-orogenic stage, anatexis of metapelites can occur, leading to the generation of magmas that give rise to alkali granites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Structural Geology)

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22 pages, 9860 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fracture Network Analysis of Karstified Subis Limestone Build-Up in Niah, Sarawak

by Poh Yee Ong and Siti Nur Fathiyah Jamaludin

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(22), 12110; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132212110 - 7 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1421

Abstract

Understanding complex carbonate fracture networks and karstification at various geological scales is challenging, especially with limited multi-scale datasets. This paper aims to reduce uncertainty in the fracture architecture of Central Luconia karstified reservoirs by narrowing observational gaps between seismic and well data by using the discrete fracture models of exposed limestone outcrops as analogues for the subsurface carbonate reservoir. An outcrop-based fracture network characterisation of a near-surface paleo-karst at Subis Limestone combined with lineament analysis was conducted to extract fracture parameters. The karst structure was first delineated using a digital elevation map and outcrop examination. Then, topology analysis was performed, following the creation of two-dimensional discrete fracture models. Two main fracture sets oriented northeast–southwest and northwest–southeast and 79 potential dolines were identified. Fracture intersections, northeast–southwest major orientations, and drainage systems highly influenced the karst features. The Subis Limestone fracture model revealed that the highest number of fractures and total length of fractures were concentrated in the northern part of the Subis Limestone build-up (X: 250–350, Y: 150–250) and became denser towards the northwest direction of the outcrop (X: 600–800). The fractures in the Subis paleo-karsts appear isolated, with I-nodes ranging from 0.74 to 0.94. Hence, it is crucial to incorporate matrix porosity into multiple scales of fracture network modelling to improve upscaling and the modelling of fracture–vug networks, as well as to minimise the underestimation of discrete fracture networks in fractured and karstified limestone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Structural Geology)

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19 pages, 4935 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geometry and Kinematics of the Central Fault Zone, Fula Sag, Central Africa Shear Zone

by Yanqi Wang, Guangya Zhang, Guoqi Wei, Zhuxin Chen, Rong Ren, Yuqing Zhang and Ke Geng

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(16), 9117; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13169117 - 10 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1137

Abstract

The Central Africa Shear Zone (CASZ) harbors abundant hydrocarbon resources within its Central Fault Zones (CFZs). The studies of CASZ have dominantly focused on the evolution and superimposition processes of prototype basins in CASZ. Meanwhile, research on the geometry and segmental growth of main faults in CFZs remains poorly understudied, which limits hydrocarbon exploration. In this paper, we focus on the CFZ of the Fula sag as an example of CASZ and utilize the 3-D throw mapping technique along with the maximum throw subtraction method to investigate its geometric and growth processes. Results show faults in the northern and central parts of the CFZ form multiple Y-shaped combinations, and a system of sub-parallel faults in the south forms the bookshelf faults. Meanwhile, the divergent overlapping transfer zone is identified in the CFZ. Our investigation found abrupt changes in throw-distance diagrams of main faults in the CFZ, which indicate that the main faults, F₁, F₃ and F₂, are laterally segmented into 4, 4, and 3 segments, respectively. As an intracontinental passive rift basin, the Fula sag has undergone three major rifting cycles since the Early Cretaceous, triggered by the segmental expansion of the Atlantic Ocean, the rapid opening of the Indian Ocean, and the separation of the Red Sea. Our analysis also reveals that the main faults in the CFZ were primarily active during the second rifting, with the fault segments undergoing isolated growth, soft linkage, and eventually forming fully grown faults during the third rifting. We observe a significant decrease in activity intensity during the transition between the second and third rifting cycles. Our findings provide insights into the growth and activity of the CFZ faults, which are applicable to other CFZs of similar origin in rift basins, and provide suggestions for hydrocarbon exploration and production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Structural Geology)

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26 pages, 26287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implications of Salt Diapirism in Syn-Depositional Architecture of a Carbonate Margin-to-Edge Transition: An Example from Plataria Syncline, Ionian Zone, NW Greece

by Ioannis Vakalas, Sotirios Kokkalas, Panagiotis Konstantopoulos, Constantinos Tzimeas, Isidoros Kampolis, Helen Tsiglifi, Ruben Pérez-Martin, Pablo Hernandez-Jiménez and Juan Pablo Pita-Gutierrez

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(12), 7043; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13127043 - 12 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1821

Abstract

The present study examines the imprint of salt tectonics on carbonate depositional patterns of the Ionian zone platform edge to slope transition. The study area is part of an overturned rim syncline adjacent to a salt diapir. The Ionian zone is made up of three distinct stratigraphic sequences (pre-, syn- and post-rift sequences) represented by evaporites and shallow water carbonates at the base that pass gradually to a sequence consisting of pelagic limestones with shale intervals. In the study area, six cross sections were constructed, mainly covering the edge-to-slope overturned succession of Early Cretaceous to Eocene carbonates (post-rift stage) in the northern limb of the syncline. In the measured sections, abrupt changes in sediment texture resulted in the formation of distinct, thick-bedded carbonate layers, identified as packstones to grainstones–floatstones, with abundant fossil fragments, indicating deposition by debrites in a platform slope or slope-toe environment. Planar and ripple cross-lamination also suggest the involvement of turbidity currents in the depositional process. In the upper levels of the Lower Cretaceous carbonates, chert bodies with irregular shapes indicate soft sediment deformation due to instability of the slope triggered by salt intrusion. Internal unconformities identified in the field and in the available seismic data combined with the vertical to overturned dipping of the strata correspond to a basal megaflap configuration. Syn-sedimentary deformation resulted in the accumulation of debritic and turbiditic layers, while the compressional regime established in the area from the Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene enhanced the fracture porosity of carbonates, which could eventually affect the reservoir properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Structural Geology)

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27 pages, 3283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insights into the Paleostress Analysis of Heterogeneous Fault-Slip Data by Comparing Different Methodologies: The Case of the Voltri Massif in the Ligurian Alps (NW Italy)

by Markos D. Tranos, Petros G. Neofotistos, Sotirios A. Kokkalas and Ghislain L. Tourigny

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(19), 10098; https://doi.org/10.3390/app121910098 - 8 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1977

Abstract

One of the most critical stages in fault-slip data stress analysis is separating the fault data into homogeneous subsets and selecting a suitable analysis method for each subset. A basic assumption in stress tensor computations is that fault activations occur simultaneously under a homogeneous stress regime. With that rationale, this work aims to attain improvements in the paleostress reconstruction from the polyphase deformed region of Voltri Massif in the Ligurian Alps by using already published heterogeneous fault-slip data inverted using best-fit stress inversion methods and in the absence of any tectonostratigraphic and overprinting criteria. The fault-slip data are re-examined and analyzed with a best-fit stress inversion method and the Tensor Ratio Method (TRM) in the absence of any tectonostratigraphic and overprinting criteria. This analysis defines crucial differences in the paleostress history of the Voltri Massif in the Ligurian Alps, and gives insight into the analysis and results of different stress inversion methodologies. Best-fit site stress tensors have substantial diversity in stress orientations and ratios, implying possible stress perturbations in the region. The reason for these diversities is that the Misfit Angle (MA) minimization criterion taken into account in the best-fit stress inversion methods allows for acceptable fault-slip data combinations, which under the additional geological compatibility criteria used by the TRM, are found to be incompatible. The TRM application on this already published and analyzed data defines similar site and bulk stress tensors with fewer diversities in stress orientations and ratios defined from fault-slip data whose orientations always satisfy the same additional geological compatibility criteria induced by the TRM, and not only from the MA minimization criterion. Thus, TRM seems to define stress tensors that are not as sensitive to the input of fault-slip data, compared to the best-fit stress tensors that appear to suffer from the ‘overfitting’ modeling error. Five distinct TRM bulk paleostress tensors provide a more constrained paleostress history for the Voltri Massif and the Ligurian Alps, which after the restoration of the ~50° CCW rotation, comprise: (a) a transpression–strike-slip stress regime (T1) with NNE-SSW contraction in Late Eocene, (b) an Oligocene NW-SE extensional regime (T2), which fits with the NW-SE extension documented for the broader area north of Corsica due to a significant change in subduction dynamics, (c) a transient, local, or ephemeral NE-SW transtension (T3) which might be considered a local mutual permutation of the T2 stresses, and (d) a Miocene transpression with a contraction that progressively shifted from ENE-WSW (T4) to NNE-SSW (T5), reflecting the stress reorganization in the Ligurian Alps due to a decrease in the retreating rate of the northern Apennines slab. Therefore, paleostress reconstruction can be fairly described by enhanced Andersonian bulk stress tensors, and requires additional geological compatibility criteria than the criteria and sophisticated tools used by the best-fit stress inversion methods for separating the fault-slip data to different faulting events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Structural Geology)

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23 pages, 3282 KiB

Open AccessReview

Seismic Exploration Methods for Structural Studies and for Active Fault Characterization: A Review

by Pier Paolo G. Bruno

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(16), 9473; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13169473 - 21 Aug 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7119

Abstract

In this paper, seismic exploration methods are reviewed with a particular emphasis on the use of the reflection seismology to investigate the subsurface structures and characterize active faults. The paper provides a descriptive overview, intended for a non-specialist audience, of the methods and of their recent developments aimed at improving the resolution, accuracy, and computational efficiency of seismic imaging. Techniques such as seismic ray tomography, full-waveform inversion and pre-stack depth migration are briefly introduced, highlighting their potential applications in structural geology studies. The main seismic attributes that have become increasingly important in the interpretation of faults and fractures are also presented, along with some examples of application. Finally, some case studies of active fault characterization are discussed. From these examples, the crucial role played nowadays by the seismic exploration methods for structural studies and for active fault characterization is evident. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Structural Geology)

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