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Effects of Cognitive Training on Executive Function and Cognition

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A special issue of Brain Sciences (ISSN 2076-3425). This special issue belongs to the section "Behavioral Neuroscience".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 August 2024) | Viewed by 12888

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Dr. Špela Bogataj

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Guest Editor

Department of Nephrology, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: physical exercise; cognitive training; chronic diseases; prevention

Prof. Dr. Bart Roelands

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Guest Editor

Human Physiology and Sports Physiotherapy Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
Interests: mental and physical fatigue; sports; environmental stressors; placebo effect
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Dear Colleagues,

The number of older adults is increasing worldwide, introducing more cognitive decline. In addition, 50 million people suffer from dementia, and experts predict that this number will increase to 152 million by 2050. Since pharmacological interventions predominantly fail to prevent or reverse this tendency, non-pharmacological approaches seem desirable to prevent cognitive decline and, consequently, dementia. Physical interventions have been widely employed and have certainly shown merit in the prevention, or at least the slowing, of cognitive decline. Additionally, cognitive training, or its combination with physical interventions, has been suggested as a possible strategy to improve brain health and cognitive functional capacity in different populations. These strategies, however, require more attention in order to be able to show their efficacy and feasibility.

This Special Issue aims to explore the effects of cognitive training and its combination with other interventions on executive functioning and cognition. By delving into these aspects, we aim to uncover novel insights into strategies that may postpone the onset of dementia and enhance overall brain health. As we navigate the evolving landscape of cognitive interventions, we seek to contribute to the growing body of knowledge, shedding light on potential avenues for preserving cognitive well-being in an aging global population.

The current Special Issue aims to address the following:

The effects of cognitive training on executive functioning and cognition.
The effects of combined physical and cognitive training on executive functioning and cognition.
The effects of cognitive training in combination with other interventions on cognitive domains.

Dr. Špela Bogataj
Prof. Dr. Bart Roelands
Guest Editors

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Keywords

cognitive decline
executive functions
intervention
cognitive training
physical exercise
brain training
brain endurance training
mental fatigue

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 1909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Virtual Reality Exergames and Nature Videos on Attentional Performance: A Single-Session Study

by Elena Rodríguez-Rodríguez, Joaquín Castillo-Escamilla and Francisco Nieto-Escamez

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(10), 972; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14100972 - 26 Sep 2024

Viewed by 794

Abstract

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the acute effects of a single session of a VR exergame (Beat Saber) and a VR nature video (Ireland 4K) on attentional performance, using the Flanker and Attentional Blink (AB) tasks. The objective was to assess whether these VR interventions could enhance attentional control, as measured by improvements in response times and accuracy. Methods: A total of 39 psychology students, aged 19–25, were randomly assigned to one of three groups: VR exergame, VR nature video, or control. Participants completed the Flanker and AB tasks before and after the intervention. A repeated measures design was employed to analyze changes in response times and accuracy across pre- and post-test sessions. Results: The study revealed significant improvements in response times and accuracy across all groups in the post-test measures, indicating a strong training effect. In the AB task, shorter stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) led to decreased accuracy and slower response times, emphasizing the difficulty in processing closely spaced targets. The interaction between Type and Group in response times for target stimuli suggested that the intervention types differentially influenced processing speed in specific conditions. Conclusions: The findings suggest that while brief VR interventions did not produce significant differences between groups, the training effect observed highlights the influence of task-specific factors such as SOA and target presence. Further research is needed to explore whether longer or repeated VR sessions, as well as the optimization of task-specific parameters, might lead to more pronounced cognitive benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Cognitive Training on Executive Function and Cognition)

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25 pages, 1491 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Partners in Play Intervention on Parents’ Autonomy-Supportive Guiding Behaviour and Children’s Self-Regulation

by Natalie Day, Fred Paas, Lisa Kervin, Sahar Bokosmaty and Steven J. Howard

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(9), 924; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14090924 - 16 Sep 2024

Viewed by 2019

Abstract

Compelling evidence supports the foundational importance of early self-regulation (SR). It also supports parents in the home environment as having the foremost influence on early development. Yet, prevailing approaches to support early SR growth have tended to leverage early education and clinical settings. Partners in Play (PiP) was developed as a sustainable approach for parents to learn how and when to support children through experiences of self-regulation challenges in the home learning environment. This study reports the first randomised control trial evaluation of the PiP program, with 21 parent–child dyads (consisting of twelve girl–mother dyads, eight boy–mother dyads, and one boy–father dyad; mean child age = 4.12 years, SD = 0.65). Dyads were randomised to a PiP intervention group (n = 10), which entailed four online parent information sessions and four out-of-home guided practice dyadic play sessions across 8 weeks, or an active control group (n = 11). The primary outcome was parent autonomy support, and the secondary outcome was child SR. Results indicated a significant increase in parents’ use of autonomy support and a non-significant but moderate-sized effect on child SR. This innovative proof-of-concept program and evaluation provides a roadmap for effecting change in parental support during children’s play, to the prospective benefit of important abilities such as child SR. Analyses show promise for a parent-based model toward parent behaviour change and child SR improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Cognitive Training on Executive Function and Cognition)

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11 pages, 277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prior Engagement in Physical Activity Correlates with Enhanced Quality of Life Perceptions among Older Adults during COVID-19 Lockdown

by Gian Mario Migliaccio, Cesar Ivan Aviles Gonzales, Goce Kalcev, Elisa Cantone, Marcello Nonnis, Antonio Urban, Sonia Marchegiani, Samantha Pinna, Massimo Tusconi, Diego Primavera and Mauro Giovanni Carta

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(8), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14080765 - 29 Jul 2024

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Abstract

Background: This longitudinal study aimed to evaluate whether prior engagement in a physical exercise program correlated with enhanced perceptions of quality-of-life components among older adults during the COVID-19 lockdown period. Methods: The cohort comprised elderly individuals (aged ≥ 65 years) who had previously partaken in a 12-week randomized controlled trial investigating the effects of a mixed aerobic–anaerobic, moderate-intensity exercise program. Participants’ health-related quality of life was assessed using the Short Form Health Survey-12 item (SF-12) at the beginning of the initial trial and, again, one year later during the COVID-19 lockdown. In the exercise group, 44 participants were included, while the control group consisted of 49 participants, with computer-based, double-blind randomization conducted in Cagliari, Italy. The differences in scores for each SF-12 item between the two groups from T0 to T1 were compared using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni corrections. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27. Results: No statistically significant differences were observed on average by age (exercise group vs. control group 72.20 ± 4.78 vs. 72.91 ± 4.77; F = 0.513, p = 0.476). A decrease from T0 to T1 towards a better score on the SF-12 was observed in the exercise group compared to the control group in item 1 (F = 67.463, p < 0.0001); in item 5 (F = 4.319, p = 0.041); item 8 (F = 4.269, p = 0.041); item 9 (F = 10.761, p = 0.001); item 10 (F = 170.433, p < 0.001); and item 11 (F = 4.075, p = 0.046). Conclusions: The results suggest that participation in a moderate physical exercise program one year prior may have equipped older adults with better coping mechanisms to navigate the stress and isolation imposed by the COVID-19 lockdown, as reflected by their enhanced scores on quality-of-life components pertaining to mental well-being. Exercise may confer a protective effect against the adverse psychological impacts of stressful events like the pandemic, even among older adults with chronic conditions. This study underscores the potential benefits of exercise interventions for promoting quality of life and preventing mood disorders in the elderly population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Cognitive Training on Executive Function and Cognition)

11 pages, 289 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Controlled Clinical Trial on the Effects of Aquatic Exercise on Cognitive Functions in Community-Dwelling Older Adults

by Renata Terra de Oliveira, Tayla Borges Lino, Gabriella Simões Scarmagnan, Suzi Rosa Miziara Barbosa, Ana Beatriz Gomes de Souza Pegorare and Gustavo Christofoletti

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(7), 703; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14070703 - 13 Jul 2024

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Abstract

Several therapies have been developed to reduce cognitive decline associated with aging. Aquatic exercises, which are widely used to enhance functional capacity, may play a role in stimulating cognitive functions. This study investigated the effects of a 3-month aquatic exercise program on cognitive functions in community-dwelling older adults. In this prospective, single-blinded, controlled clinical trial, 31 participants were allocated to either the experimental (aquatic exercises) or control (no-exercise) group. The intervention program consisted of exercises conducted twice a week in a 1.2 m deep indoor pool. The main outcome measures were cognitive functions, assessed using Raven’s Progressive Matrices test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to assess the impact of the exercise program. The effect sizes (η²p) were reported when a level of significance was achieved (p < 0.05). Compared with the control group, the participants who underwent aquatic exercises showed positive outcomes in Raven’s Progressive Matrices test (p = 0.046; η²p = 0.131) and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (p = 0.001, η²p = 0.589). Complementary analyses of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test indicated that the benefits of the aquatic exercise were observed in terms of the number of trials (p = 0.001, η²p = 0.478), number of errors (p = 0.001, η²p = 0.458), and number of non-perseverative errors (p = 0.001, η²p = 0.302). The results indicate that a period of three months of aquatic exercise was beneficial for stimulating specific aspects of the cognitive function of community-dwelling older individuals. Aquatic exercise should be prescribed to this population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Cognitive Training on Executive Function and Cognition)

20 pages, 1770 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Benefits of Playing at School: Filler Board Games Improve Visuospatial Memory and Mathematical Skills

by Verónica Estrada-Plana, Andrea Martínez-Escribano, Agnès Ros-Morente, Maria Mayoral, Agueda Castro-Quintas, Nuria Vita-Barrull, Núria Terés-Lleida, Jaume March-Llanes, Ares Badia-Bafalluy and Jorge Moya-Higueras

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(7), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14070642 - 26 Jun 2024

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Abstract

The aim of the study was to test the effectiveness of cognitive interventions based on modern board games in school settings to improve memory outcomes and math skills. A parallel, quasi-experimental study was carried out with children (n = 234) into third and fourth grades (8–10 years old). School centres were allocated into a general domain intervention (playing memory board games), a specific domain intervention (playing mathematical board games) or a control group (regular classes without playing). Teachers carried out bi-weekly sessions during the last 30 min of mathematical lessons (8 weeks, 15 sessions). Before and after intervention, we individually measured verbal and visuospatial memory outcomes (short-term memory and working memory updating) and mathematical skills (number operations, number ranking, number production and problem solving). The results showed significant transfer effects of both memory and math trainings. In third grade, we found that playing math games showed medium–large effect sizes in visuospatial short-term memory and updating memory, number operations and number ranking compared to the control group. In fourth grade, we found that playing memory games showed significant small effect sizes in problem solving compared to the control group. Playing board games could be a methodology that enhances cognitive and mathematical development in children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Cognitive Training on Executive Function and Cognition)

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22 pages, 2528 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

AI Chatbots and Cognitive Control: Enhancing Executive Functions Through Chatbot Interactions: A Systematic Review

by Pantelis Pergantis, Victoria Bamicha, Charalampos Skianis and Athanasios Drigas

Brain Sci. 2025, 15(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15010047 - 6 Jan 2025

Viewed by 2464

Abstract

Background/Objectives: The evolution of digital technology enhances the broadening of a person’s intellectual growth. Research points out that implementing innovative applications of the digital world improves human social, cognitive, and metacognitive behavior. Artificial intelligence chatbots are yet another innovative human-made construct. These are forms of software that simulate human conversation, understand and process user input, and provide personalized responses. Executive function includes a set of higher mental processes necessary for formulating, planning, and achieving a goal. The present study aims to investigate executive function reinforcement through artificial intelligence chatbots, outlining potentials, limitations, and future research suggestions. Specifically, the study examined three research questions: the use of conversational chatbots in executive functioning training, their impact on executive-cognitive skills, and the duration of any improvements. Methods: The assessment of the existing literature was implemented using the systematic review method, according to the PRISMA 2020 Principles. The avalanche search method was employed to conduct a source search in the following databases: Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and complementary Google Scholar. This systematic review included studies from 2021 to the present using experimental, observational, or mixed methods. It included studies using AI-based chatbots or conversationalists to support executive functions, such as anxiety, stress, depression, memory, attention, cognitive load, and behavioral changes. In addition, this study included general populations with specific neurological conditions, all peer-reviewed, written in English, and with full-text access. However, the study excluded studies before 2021, the literature reviews, systematic reviews, non-AI-based chatbots or conversationalists, studies not targeting the range of executive skills and abilities, studies not written in English, and studies without open access. The criteria aligned with the study objectives, ensuring a focus on AI chatbots and the impact of conversational agents on executive function. The initial collection totaled n = 115 articles; however, the eligibility requirements led to the final selection of n = 10 studies. Results: The findings of the studies suggested positive effects of using AI chatbots to enhance and improve executive skills. Although, several limitations were identified, making it still difficult to generalize and reproduce their effects. Conclusions: AI chatbots are an innovative artificial intelligence tool that can function as a digital assistant for learning and expanding executive skills, contributing to the cognitive, metacognitive, and social development of the individual. However, its use in executive skills training is at a primary stage. The findings highlighted the need for a unified framework for reference and future studies, better study designs, diverse populations, larger sample sizes of participants, and longitudinal studies that observe the long-term effects of their use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Cognitive Training on Executive Function and Cognition)

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