Energies

2024

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25 pages, 8663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Regional Innovation Strategies Towards the Transition to Green Energy in Europe 2014–2027

by Korneliusz Pylak, Jakub Pizoń and Ewa Łazuka

Energies 2024, 17(22), 5669; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225669 - 13 Nov 2024

Viewed by 406

Abstract

This paper explores the factors influencing regions’ commitment to the EU’s green energy transition during the 2021–2027 period, with a particular focus on the impact of prior commitments and fossil fuel dependence. Using multimodel regression analysis along with a null classification approach with [...] Read more.

This paper explores the factors influencing regions’ commitment to the EU’s green energy transition during the 2021–2027 period, with a particular focus on the impact of prior commitments and fossil fuel dependence. Using multimodel regression analysis along with a null classification approach with large language models, we assess how regions’ existing green energy initiatives, their dependence on fossil fuels, and specific energy targets shape their progress towards the EU Green Deal goals. The results confirm path dependency in regional energy policies, where regions with prior investments in decarbonization and energy infrastructure show greater commitment in the current period. Fossil-fuel-dependent regions, on the other hand, face structural barriers slowing their transition to green energy. In addition, the study highlights the selective prioritization of decarbonization and energy efficiency goals, while goals such as consumer empowerment and offshore wind energy remain undervalued. The findings underscore the need for a more comprehensive, sustainable approach to energy transition, particularly in regions with significant dependence on fossil fuels. The paper concludes with a discussion of policy implications for achieving a holistic and equitable energy transition across all EU regions. Full article

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18 pages, 287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in the Global Structure of Energy Consumption and the Energy Transition Process

by Agnieszka Gałecka and Mariusz Pyra

Energies 2024, 17(22), 5644; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225644 - 12 Nov 2024

Viewed by 470

Abstract

The global energy transition represents a pivotal aspect of the pursuit of sustainable development and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The objective of this study was to examine the dynamic relationships between global primary energy consumption and the consumption of individual energy [...] Read more.

The global energy transition represents a pivotal aspect of the pursuit of sustainable development and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The objective of this study was to examine the dynamic relationships between global primary energy consumption and the consumption of individual energy sources (nuclear, oil, coal, natural gas, renewables) from 2011 to 2023. To examine both long-run and short-run relationships between variables, advanced econometric methods were employed, including the Johansen cointegration test and the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM). Furthermore, an Index of Sustainable Energy Transformation (ISTE) was devised to quantify the advancement of the transition to low-carbon energy sources. The analysis confirms the existence of long-term equilibrium relationships between global primary energy consumption and the consumption of individual energy sources. The analysis revealed that renewable energy consumption exerts a considerable influence on primary energy consumption, both in the short and long term. The ISTE index demonstrated a notable increase over the period of 2011 to 2023, indicative of advancement in the global energy transition. The results confirm the existence of a stable long-term equilibrium between global primary energy consumption and the consumption of individual energy sources. The observed increase in the ISTE index indicates progress towards low-carbon energy sources, which has important implications for energy policy and sustainable development. The results can support policymakers in monitoring the progress of the energy transition and shaping policies to accelerate the development of renewable energy sources. Full article

23 pages, 2373 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Interplay Between China’s Regulated and Voluntary Carbon Markets and Its Influence on Renewable Energy Development—A Literature Review

by Florentina Paraschiv, Hannah Schmid, Marten Schmitz, Vivian Dünwald and Emma Groos

Energies 2024, 17(22), 5587; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225587 - 8 Nov 2024

Viewed by 443

Abstract

This is the first review study that focuses on the interplay between China’s regulated and voluntary carbon markets, the Emissions Trading System (ETS), the China Certified Emission Reduction (CCER) scheme, and their combined influence on the development of renewable energy in the country. [...] Read more.

This is the first review study that focuses on the interplay between China’s regulated and voluntary carbon markets, the Emissions Trading System (ETS), the China Certified Emission Reduction (CCER) scheme, and their combined influence on the development of renewable energy in the country. Through a comparative literature review of 52 peer-reviewed academic papers published between 2009 and 2024, this study aims to elucidate how these market mechanisms interact to drive renewable energy deployment. The findings indicate that both the ETS and the CCER system positively affect China’s renewable energy landscape. The ETS, with its Cap-and-Trade (CaT) mechanism, sets a cap on total emissions and allows for the trading of emission quotas, thereby creating financial incentives for companies to reduce emissions and invest in renewable energy. The CCER scheme complements the ETS by allowing companies to use the CCER scheme for a capped share of their ETS certificates, whereby the lower CCER price diverts investments to where the saved ton of CO₂ in China is cheapest, further incentivizing investments in renewable energy. This dual mechanism allows for a more flexible and cost-effective approach to achieving emission reduction targets, thereby fostering an environment conducive to investment in renewable energy. It will stimulate additional investment in renewable energy projects in the long run, particularly in economically underdeveloped regions, contributing to both local economic development and national emission reduction targets. Full article

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18 pages, 2775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integration of Small Modular Reactors with Renewable Energy for Carbon Neutrality: A Case Study of Phuket, Thailand

by Dhammawit Paisiripas, Kang-wook Cho and Soo-jin Park

Energies 2024, 17(22), 5565; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225565 - 7 Nov 2024

Viewed by 398

Abstract

To achieve carbon neutrality in 2050, Thailand has focused on reducing CO₂ emissions in the energy sector. Small modular reactors (SMRs) and renewable energy such as wind and solar represent an interesting alternative for the decarbonization of the energy sector. This study [...] Read more.

To achieve carbon neutrality in 2050, Thailand has focused on reducing CO₂ emissions in the energy sector. Small modular reactors (SMRs) and renewable energy such as wind and solar represent an interesting alternative for the decarbonization of the energy sector. This study aims to investigate the possibility of establishing a grid-connected hybrid energy system (Grid/Solar PV/Wind Turbine/BESS/SMRs) to fulfill the energy demand of Phuket Island in Thailand and to minimize net present cost (NPC), levelized cost of energy (LCOE), and greenhouse gas (CO₂) emissions. A grid-connected hybrid renewable generation system was simulated using HOMER. Four combinations of grid-connected and renewable energy sources were developed based on the electricity demand and renewable resources available at the site. The simulation results indicate that the most optimal scenario is the Grid/PV/WT/SMR system, which offers a 28% reduction in NPC and LCOE compared to the grid-only system and reduces CO₂ emissions by over 58% compared to the total emissions from the utility grid. The simulation results demonstrate that the grid-connected and hybrid energy system is the most viable option to meet electricity demand and reduce greenhouse gas emissions on Phuket Island. Full article

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22 pages, 4625 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Low-Carbon Fuels and Carbon Capture in Decarbonizing the U.S. Clinker Manufacturing for Cement Production: CO₂ Emissions Reduction Potentials

by Ikenna J. Okeke, Dipti Kamath, Sachin U. Nimbalkar and Joe Cresko

Energies 2024, 17(20), 5233; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17205233 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 604

Abstract

Low-carbon fuels, feedstocks, and energy sources can play a vital role in the decarbonization of clinker production in cement manufacturing. Fuel switching with renewable natural gas, green hydrogen, and biomass can provide a low-carbon energy source for the high-temperature process heat during the [...] Read more.

Low-carbon fuels, feedstocks, and energy sources can play a vital role in the decarbonization of clinker production in cement manufacturing. Fuel switching with renewable natural gas, green hydrogen, and biomass can provide a low-carbon energy source for the high-temperature process heat during the pyroprocessing steps of clinker production. However, up to 60% of CO₂ emissions from clinker production are attributable to process-related CO₂ emissions, which will need the simultaneous implementation of other decarbonization technologies, such as carbon capture. To evaluate the potential of fuel switching and carbon capture technologies in decarbonizing the cement industry, a study of the facility-level CO₂ emissions is necessary. This study evaluates the potential for using a single low-carbon fuel as an energy source in clinker production for cement manufacturing compared to conventional clinker production (which uses a range of fuel mixes). In addition, conventional carbon capture (operated with natural gas-based steam for solvent regeneration) and electrified carbon capture configurations were designed and assessed for net-zero emission targets. Carbon emissions reductions with and without biogenic emissions credits were analyzed to ascertain their impact on the overall carbon accounting. Results show that carbon emissions intensity of cement can vary from 571 to 784 kgCO₂eq/metric ton of cement without carbon capture and from 166.33 to 438.66 kgCO₂eq/metric ton of cement with carbon capture. We find that when biogenic carbon credits are considered, cement production with a sustainably grown biomass as fuel source coupled with conventional carbon capture can lead to a net-negative emission cement (−271 kgCO₂eq/metric ton of cement), outperforming an electrified capture design (35 kgCO₂eq/metric ton of cement). The carbon accounting for the Scope 1, 2, and biogenic emissions conducted in this study is aimed at helping researchers and industry partners in the cement and concrete sector make an informed decision on the choice of fuel and decarbonization strategy to adopt. Full article

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50 pages, 9834 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Energy-Efficient Technologies and Decarbonating Solutions for Process Heat in the Food Industry

by François Faraldo and Paul Byrne

Energies 2024, 17(12), 3051; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17123051 - 20 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1776

Abstract

Heat is involved in many processes in the food industry: drying, dissolving, centrifugation, extraction, cleaning, washing, and cooling. Heat generation encompasses nearly all processes. This review first presents two representative case studies in order to identify which processes rely on the major energy [...] Read more.

Heat is involved in many processes in the food industry: drying, dissolving, centrifugation, extraction, cleaning, washing, and cooling. Heat generation encompasses nearly all processes. This review first presents two representative case studies in order to identify which processes rely on the major energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Energy-saving and decarbonating potential solutions are explored through a thorough review of technologies employed in refrigeration, heat generation, waste heat recovery, and thermal energy storage. Information from industrial plants is collected to show their performance under real conditions. The replacement of high-GWP (global warming potential) refrigerants by natural fluids in the refrigeration sector acts to lower GHG emissions. Being the greatest consumers, the heat generation technologies are compared using the levelized cost of heat (LCOH). This analysis shows that absorption heat transformers and high-temperature heat pumps are the most interesting technologies from the economic and decarbonation points of view, while waste heat recovery technologies present the shortest payback periods. In all sectors, energy efficiency improvements on components, storage technologies, polygeneration systems, the concept of smart industry, and the penetration of renewable energy sources appear as valuable pathways. Full article

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23 pages, 5013 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Evaluating Electrification of Fossil-Fuel-Fired Boilers for Decarbonization Using Discrete-Event Simulation

by Nahian Ismail Chowdhury, Bhaskaran Gopalakrishnan, Nishan Adhikari, Hailin Li and Zhichao Liu

Energies 2024, 17(12), 2882; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17122882 - 12 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1343

Abstract

Decarbonizing fossil-fuel usage is crucial in mitigating the impacts of climate change. The burning of fossil fuels in boilers during industrial process heating is one of the major sources of CO₂ in the industry. Electrification is a promising solution for decarbonizing these [...] Read more.

Decarbonizing fossil-fuel usage is crucial in mitigating the impacts of climate change. The burning of fossil fuels in boilers during industrial process heating is one of the major sources of CO₂ in the industry. Electrification is a promising solution for decarbonizing these boilers, as it enables renewable energy sources to generate electricity, which can then be used to power the electric boilers. This research develops a user-driven simulation model with realistic data and potential temperature data for a location to estimate boilers’ current energy and fuel usage and determine the equivalent electrical boiler capacity and energy usage. A simulation model is developed using the Visual Basic Application (VBA)^® and takes factors such as current boiler capacity, steam temperature and pressure, condensate, makeup water, blowdown, surface area, and flue gas information as input. Random numbers generate the hourly temperature variation for a year for discrete-event Monte Carlo Simulation. The simulation generates the hourly firing factor, energy usage, fuel usage, and CO₂ emissions of boilers for a whole year, and the result compares fossil-fuel and electrical boilers. The simulated data are validated using real system data, and sensitivity analysis of the model is performed by varying the input data. Full article

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36 pages, 5895 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Empirical Assessment of the Efficiency of Poland’s Energy Transition Process in the Context of Implementing the European Union’s Energy Policy

by Jarosław Brodny, Magdalena Tutak and Wes Grebski

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2689; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112689 - 1 Jun 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 965

Abstract

This article addresses one of the contemporary economy’s most challenging endeavors: the energy transition. Specifically, the aim of the study was to assess the effectiveness of Poland’s energy transition process between 2004 and 2021. A comprehensive approach is employed to analyze Poland’s energy [...] Read more.

This article addresses one of the contemporary economy’s most challenging endeavors: the energy transition. Specifically, the aim of the study was to assess the effectiveness of Poland’s energy transition process between 2004 and 2021. A comprehensive approach is employed to analyze Poland’s energy transition process, focusing on the effectiveness of implementation through the Energy Transition Effectiveness Index. This methodology incorporates four dimensions, namely energy security, economic considerations, climate impact, and social aspects, each characterized by 22 sub-indices. The research methodology employs a two-tiered approach based on the multi-criteria decision making methodology. The EDAS method is utilized to determine the indices’ values, while the CRITIC, equal weights, and statistical variance methods and Laplace’s criterion are employed to ascertain sub-indices values and dimension weights, particularly useful for decision making under uncertainty. Moreover, the relationship between these indices, the Energy Transition Effectiveness Index, and Poland’s Gross Domestic Product is explored. By evaluating Poland’s energy transition effectiveness from 2004 to 2021 and comparing the results with other European Union countries, it becomes evident that the effectiveness varies over time. Despite encountering economic and social challenges during the energy sector’s transformation, Poland exhibits positive progress in its energy transition efforts, outperforming certain European Union counterparts. However, there is a pressing need to intensify efforts to curtail emissions and enhance renewable energy utilization. The European Union’s support and coordination are deemed crucial in facilitating these endeavors, alongside fostering the wider adoption of best practices among member states. The developed methodology stands as a valuable tool for ongoing evaluation of transformation processes across European Union nations. Full article

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15 pages, 700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Embodied Carbon in New Zealand Commercial Construction

by David A. Finnie, Rehan Masood, Seth Goldsworthy and Benjamin Harding

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2629; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112629 - 29 May 2024

Viewed by 1355

Abstract

Decarbonization is gaining priority from the macro to the micro level. However, achieving this is a critical challenge, as industries are still immature. This study explores the practices used to calculate and reduce embodied carbon (EC) in New Zealand (NZ) commercial construction projects. [...] Read more.

Decarbonization is gaining priority from the macro to the micro level. However, achieving this is a critical challenge, as industries are still immature. This study explores the practices used to calculate and reduce embodied carbon (EC) in New Zealand (NZ) commercial construction projects. In the Paris Agreement, NZ pledged to reduce its net GHG emissions to 50 percent below the gross 2005 levels by 2030. The built environment generates approximately 40% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with 11% being generated by manufacturing materials. EC represents carbon dioxide (CO₂) emitted into the atmosphere throughout the extraction, fabrication, transportation, and assembly of building materials. A survey questionnaire was distributed to stakeholders in commercial construction via the New Zealand Institute of Quantity Surveyors (NZIQS) open forum. Twenty-seven valid responses were analyzed. The survey tested and expanded on the interview findings. Calculating and reducing EC are not mandatory in NZ. Most industry professionals had yet to experience EC calculation in projects. Clients most commonly drive EC reduction in public projects with calculations that are often conducted during the concept or detailed design stages. The challenges in measuring and lowering EC include a lack of client willingness to fund EC calculation, lack of knowledge and experience, lack of previous cost data, lack of EC materials, and lack of fit-for-purpose EC calculation tools. These findings may inform NZ government policy initiatives supporting EC reduction to meet their 2050 target. Full article

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19 pages, 2976 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Long-Term Energy System Modelling for a Clean Energy Transition in Egypt’s Energy Sector

by Anna Gibson, Zen Makuch, Rudolf Yeganyan, Naomi Tan, Carla Cannone and Mark Howells

Energies 2024, 17(10), 2397; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17102397 - 16 May 2024

Viewed by 1299

Abstract

Egypt has the potential to generate a significant amount of energy from renewable technologies, in particular solar PV, concentrated solar power (CSP), and onshore and offshore wind. The energy sector is reliant on fossil fuels, particularly natural gas, for electricity production and is [...] Read more.

Egypt has the potential to generate a significant amount of energy from renewable technologies, in particular solar PV, concentrated solar power (CSP), and onshore and offshore wind. The energy sector is reliant on fossil fuels, particularly natural gas, for electricity production and is at risk of locking itself into a high carbon pathway. Globally, reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with national energy sectors is a target outlined in the UN’s Paris Agreement. To reduce carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions associated with a higher dependence on fossil fuels, Egypt must consider upscaling renewable energy technologies (RETs) to achieve a clean energy transition (CET). This research modelled six scenarios using clicSAND for OSeMOSYS to identify the technologies and policy target improvements that are needed to upscale RETs within Egypt’s energy sector. The results showed that solar PV and onshore wind are key technologies to be upscaled to contribute towards Egypt’s CET. The optimal renewable target is the International Renewable Energy Agency’s (IRENA) target of 53% of electricity being sourced from RETs by 2030, which will cost USD 16.4 billion more up to 2035 than Egypt’s current Integrated Sustainable Energy Strategy (ISES) target of 42% by 2035; it also saves 732.0 MtCO₂ over the entire modelling period to 2070. Socio-economic barriers to this transition are considered, such as recent discoveries of natural gas reserves combined with a history of energy insecurity, political instability impacting investor confidence, and a lack of international climate funding. The paper concludes with policy recommendations that would enable Egypt to progress towards achieving a CET. Full article

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15 pages, 1052 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Environmental Information Disclosure Improve Energy Efficiency in Manufacturing? Evidence from Chinese Enterprises

by Linfang Tan, Da Gao and Xiaowei Liu

Energies 2024, 17(10), 2342; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17102342 - 13 May 2024

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1215

Abstract

Improving the energy efficiency of enterprises is one of the key means to solve the problem of energy shortage. It is of great significance to investigate how environmental information disclosure (EDI) promotes the green total factor energy efficiency (GTFEE) of enterprises. Based on [...] Read more.

Improving the energy efficiency of enterprises is one of the key means to solve the problem of energy shortage. It is of great significance to investigate how environmental information disclosure (EDI) promotes the green total factor energy efficiency (GTFEE) of enterprises. Based on this, this study calculates the GTFEE of enterprises by combining the database of Chinese manufacturing and the pollutant emission of industrial enterprises and investigates the impact of EDI on the GTFEE of manufacturing industries by using a difference-in-difference model. The following is found: (1) EDI can significantly promote the manufacturing enterprises’ GTFEE, and the results are still valid after a series of robustness tests; (2) Mechanism analysis shows that EDI can improve the GTFEE of manufacturing enterprises by promoting technological innovation and optimizing energy structure; (3) The heterogeneity analysis shows that EID is more positive on firms’ GTFEE in the eastern than western regions. The positive impact is greater for non-state-owned, low-energy consumption, export, and polluting enterprises. The findings of this paper provide a theoretical basis and practical enlightenment for the government to promote the green development transformation of enterprises. Full article

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15 pages, 7477 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Analysis of Hydrogen–Gasoline Blends in SI Engine Performance and Emissions

by Zdeslav Jurić, Tino Vidović, Jakov Šimunović and Gojmir Radica

Energies 2024, 17(7), 1557; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17071557 - 25 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1043

Abstract

This study investigates the influence of adding hydrogen as an additive to gasoline in a four-stroke engine, utilizing comprehensive thermodynamic comparative analysis conducted with self-developed engine model. This research aims to assess the performance, emissions, and efficiency of the engine when using gasoline–hydrogen [...] Read more.

This study investigates the influence of adding hydrogen as an additive to gasoline in a four-stroke engine, utilizing comprehensive thermodynamic comparative analysis conducted with self-developed engine model. This research aims to assess the performance, emissions, and efficiency of the engine when using gasoline–hydrogen blends, and to provide insights into the potential benefits of this approach. First, the engine performance and emissions under different hydrogen blending levels were examined. A range of different air/fuel ratios (rich to lean) and varying percentages of hydrogen were considered. This systematic variation allowed for a detailed evaluation of the influence of hydrogen content on combustion efficiency, power output, and emissions characteristics. The analysis results included key parameters such as indicated specific fuel consumption and mean effective pressure. Additionally, the study focused on the range prediction of nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions, which are a critical environmental concern associated with internal combustion engines. The analysis of pressure and temperature profiles throughout the engine cycle shed light on the combustion characteristics and efficiency improvements associated with hydrogen addition. In terms of emissions, the study projected that all emissions were reduced except NO_x, which is highly dependent on hydrogen percentage, and might be reduced in some cases, but with the higher temperatures and pressures associated with hydrogen addition, in most cases, there is actually a NO_x increase, especially at higher engine loads. Full article

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16 pages, 426 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Energy Transition in SMEs: The Italian Experience

by Antonio Thomas, Rosalia Castellano, Gennaro Punzo and Giuseppe Scandurra

Energies 2024, 17(5), 1160; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051160 - 29 Feb 2024

Viewed by 998

Abstract

Encouraging energy transition (ET) has become a global imperative for nations and companies, and not just large ones. Not all economic organizations pursue this process with the same intensity. Particularly, the factors driving Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) towards ET are not yet [...] Read more.

Encouraging energy transition (ET) has become a global imperative for nations and companies, and not just large ones. Not all economic organizations pursue this process with the same intensity. Particularly, the factors driving Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) towards ET are not yet clearly defined, despite SMEs representing most companies and bearing a significant responsibility for pollution. To shed light on this matter, this study presents a framework of the main drivers that stimulate SMEs placed in Italy to pursue energy transition. We conducted a Partial Least Squares (PLS) analysis on data collected from innovation-oriented SMEs enlisted in a specific register of the Italian Ministry of Economic Development. The research findings show a weak interest among SMEs towards ET. While country-specific conditions and social and psychological traits affect the decision to invest in ET, firm-specific factors and ‘stakeholder’ pressures seem to be almost irrelevant. Policy measures with a different focus are necessary. Specifically, the provision of facilitation emerges as the most effective tool for encouraging ET among SMEs. Full article

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29 pages, 11185 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Supercritical CO₂ Power Technology: Strengths but Challenges

by Michel Molière, Romain Privat, Jean-Noël Jaubert and Frédéric Geiger

Energies 2024, 17(5), 1129; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051129 - 27 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2466

Abstract

In the late 1960s, a handful of inspired researchers predicted the great potential of supercritical CO₂ (“sCO₂”) cycles for the production of electricity and highlighted the prospects for dramatic reductions in component sizes and efficiency increases. Since then, considerable development [...] Read more.

In the late 1960s, a handful of inspired researchers predicted the great potential of supercritical CO₂ (“sCO₂”) cycles for the production of electricity and highlighted the prospects for dramatic reductions in component sizes and efficiency increases. Since then, considerable development programs have been deployed around the world to “tame” this new technology. Despite these efforts, in-depth engineering studies and extensive testing are still necessary today before viable designs can be released for large-scale industrial applications. This raises questions as to the reasons for this delay, this debate being rarely addressed in the current literature. This situation has motivated the present study. Trying to unravel such an intricate topic requires to understand the distinctive properties of supercritical CO₂ and the particular requirements of closed, high-pressure power systems. This article aims then to provide a broad overview of sCO₂ power cycles, highlighting their main advantages and limitations and reflecting the challenges associated with the industrialization of that technology which actually requires disruptive and innovative designs. Full article

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20 pages, 2293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Measurement of Regional Energy Consumption Efficiency and Decomposition of Its Influencing Factors in China: New Evidence for Achieving SDGs

by Xiumei Miao, Yong Wu and Fangrong Ren

Energies 2024, 17(2), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17020531 - 22 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 990

Abstract

With the growth of global population and economic development, people are facing the problem of increasing scarcity of renewable energy and unsustainable energy use. To achieve the sustainable development goals (SDGs) proposed by the United Nations, research on energy consumption efficiency has become [...] Read more.

With the growth of global population and economic development, people are facing the problem of increasing scarcity of renewable energy and unsustainable energy use. To achieve the sustainable development goals (SDGs) proposed by the United Nations, research on energy consumption efficiency has become particularly important. This research evaluates the energy consumption efficiency of 270 cities in China through an improved EBM model and finds a common phenomenon of low energy consumption efficiency in the cities, with the highest efficiency in northeast China and the lowest efficiency in eastern China. In addition, the efficiency of industrial exhaust emissions most significantly positively correlates with the efficiency of employed population and total energy consumption efficiency, while the efficiency of regional GDP does not significantly correlate with the efficiency of the two input variables. Using the LMDI method to decompose the driving factors of energy consumption efficiency in the cities, we find that the most important factor affecting energy consumption efficiency is their own energy endowment. Therefore, to improve the energy consumption efficiency of its cities, the China government should comprehensively consider factors such as regional economic development level, industrial structure, and technological level differences, formulate relevant energy-saving and emission-reduction policies, focus on optimizing the energy consumption structure, encourage technological progress and innovation, and help increase investment in science and technology. Full article

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27 pages, 5710 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling Policy Pathways to Maximise Renewable Energy Growth and Investment in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Using OSeMOSYS (Open Source Energy Modelling System)

by Jacob Dalder, Gbemi Oluleye, Carla Cannone, Rudolf Yeganyan, Naomi Tan and Mark Howells

Energies 2024, 17(2), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17020342 - 10 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1710

Abstract

This study sought to generate, evaluate, and recommend possible national policies for the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) to implement to most effectively boost growth and investment in renewable energy technologies (RETs) through 2065 using Open Source Energy Modelling [...] Read more.

This study sought to generate, evaluate, and recommend possible national policies for the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) to implement to most effectively boost growth and investment in renewable energy technologies (RETs) through 2065 using Open Source Energy Modelling System (OSeMOSYS). The novelty of this study stems in-part from the scarcity of RET modelling completed for specific West African countries rather than for broader regions. Market-based instruments were identified as the policy type most practical for DRC. From modelling the resulting energy systems for policy pathways involving a 16% RET subsidy, a 70% fossil fuel tax, and both in combination relative to no-policy baseline scenarios, the scenarios including the tax had the lowest net costs (USD304–306 B) and the highest proportion of RETs (above 90%). Additionally, despite the current reliance on hydropower to fulfil 98% of its energy needs, hydropower played a very minor role in all of a modelled scenarios (no future investment beyond residual capacity). Finally, a post-modelling market potential assessment was performed on the technology that dominated off-grid supply across policy pathways: a 0.3 kW small solar home system (SHS). Based on learning rates for solar photovoltaics (PV), demand for a small SHS in DRC (>160 million units in total) was found to be sufficient to substantially reduce the unit cost as deployment scales. Ultimately, this study yielded four recommendations for the DRC government: (1) Pursue financial incentives to catalyse DRC’s renewable energy supply. (2) Tax fossil fuel energy production. (3) Re-evaluate focus on hydropower. (4) Promote DRC as a healthy market for solar home systems. Full article

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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021

18 pages, 3286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pathways to Clean Energy Transition in Indonesia’s Electricity Sector with Open-Source Energy Modelling System Modelling (OSeMOSYS)

by Pusanisa Paiboonsin, Gbemi Oluleye, Mark Howells, Rudolf Yeganyan, Carla Cannone and Simon Patterson

Energies 2024, 17(1), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010075 - 22 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1903

Abstract

Responding to the Paris Agreement and climate change mitigation, Indonesia aims to reach net zero by 2060 or sooner. Due to Indonesia’s dependence on coal and growing consumption, alternative sources of clean energy are imperative for meeting its rising energy needs and reducing [...] Read more.

Responding to the Paris Agreement and climate change mitigation, Indonesia aims to reach net zero by 2060 or sooner. Due to Indonesia’s dependence on coal and growing consumption, alternative sources of clean energy are imperative for meeting its rising energy needs and reducing energy-related greenhouse gas emissions to achieve the energy transition. This project aims to examine Indonesia’s opportunities and potential to achieve low carbon ambition in the energy sector and identify alternative pathways for the energy transition in Indonesia. In this study, the open-source energy modelling system (OSeMOSYS), which is a long-term energy system modelling tool, is employed to compare electricity generation, investment, and carbon dioxide emissions between business-as-usual and five alternative scenarios. Six scenarios, including business as usual, least-cost, two coal-phrase out and two net zero aligned with national climate targets and optimal scenarios, were simulated across different target years. The results show that the net zero (NZ) scenario is more cost-effective and emits fewer greenhouse gases than the other scenarios in meeting Indonesia’s future energy demand. However, achieving net zero by 2050 (NZ50) results in significantly lower CO₂ emissions (10,134 MtCO₂), which is less than half of the emissions in the net zero by 2060 (NZ60) scenario (16,849 MtCO₂) at a similar cost (6229 and 6177 billion USD, respectively). This paper’s insights emphasise that large-scale renewable energy deployment and coal retirement are critical pathways to reaching carbon neutrality and achieving the energy mix transition. Full article

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20 pages, 3312 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evidence-Based Policymaking: Insights and Recommendations for the Implementation of Clean Energy Transition Pathways for Kenya’s Power Sector

by Neve Fields, David Ryves, Rudolf Yeganyan, Carla Cannone, Naomi Tan and Mark Howells

Energies 2023, 16(23), 7904; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16237904 - 4 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1737

Abstract

With ambitious targets to drastically increase economic activity over the next decade, Kenya’s future is undoubtedly energy-intensive. Current power capacity expansion plans will see Kenya considerably ramp up fossil fuel generation, significantly increasing emissions. Therefore, Kenya is at a crucial stage of its [...] Read more.

With ambitious targets to drastically increase economic activity over the next decade, Kenya’s future is undoubtedly energy-intensive. Current power capacity expansion plans will see Kenya considerably ramp up fossil fuel generation, significantly increasing emissions. Therefore, Kenya is at a crucial stage of its national development, with critical decisions to make regarding its future power expansion and production. OSeMOSYS modelling software (clicSAND version v1.1) is employed to produce a series of possible clean energy transition pathways to increase renewable power production under rapidly intensifying demand. This study integrates existing national priorities and policies into six modelled scenarios to provide insights into their generation, total production, and costs, which can assist future policymaking and capacity-building efforts. The high-level insights gained in this research were employed to suggest key recommendations for Kenya’s power sector. Most notably, policy alignment, increased wind power production, energy-efficiency penetration, finance and investment securement, the development of storage technologies, power transmission, and distribution improvements should be prioritised. Full article

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14 pages, 1069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cluster Analysis and Macroeconomic Indicators and Their Effects on the Evolution of the Use of Clean Energies

by Karime Chahuán-Jiménez, Rolando Rubilar-Torrealba, Hanns de la Fuente-Mella and Valeska V. Geldres-Weiss

Energies 2023, 16(22), 7561; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16227561 - 14 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1447

Abstract

The aim of this research is to relate clean energies, CO

_{2}

emissions, and economic variables. Relationships can be generated that characterize countries that manage to relate the use of clean energy with GDP, economic openness, and economic growth. We employ a quantitative [...] Read more.

The aim of this research is to relate clean energies, CO

_{2}

emissions, and economic variables. Relationships can be generated that characterize countries that manage to relate the use of clean energy with GDP, economic openness, and economic growth. We employ a quantitative methodology that utilizes clustering techniques to identify distinct groups of countries based on their susceptibility to climate change impacts. Subsequently, we employ a generalized linear model approach to estimate the investment behaviors of these country groups in alternative energy sources in relation to CO

_{2}

emissions and macroeconomic variables. The clusters reveal that the countries grouped in each cluster exhibit significantly distinct behaviors among the clusters. This differentiation is grounded in the countries under analysis, showing the evolution of the countries in terms of the use of clean energy and the emission of CO

_{2}

in relation to macroeconomic variables. According to the conducted research, there are different groups with differentiated behavior in terms of energy consumption and CO

_{2}

emissions, which implies the implementation of policies consistent with the development characteristics of the countries and how they cope with climate risk. Moreover, as a result of this research, a recommendation for policy makers could be that sustainable and clean development countries are based in three different sustainability dimensions: environmental, economic, and social. Full article

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23 pages, 8459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Improvement and Emission Reduction Potential of Blends of Hydrotreated Used Cooking Oil, Biodiesel and Diesel in a Compression Ignition Engine

by Ankit Sonthalia and Naveen Kumar

Energies 2023, 16(21), 7431; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16217431 - 3 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1126

Abstract

The positive effect of decarbonizing the transport sector by using bio-based fuels is high. Currently, biodiesel and ethanol are the two biofuels that are blended with fossil fuels. Another technology, namely, hydroprocessing, is also gaining momentum for producing biofuels. Hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) [...] Read more.

The positive effect of decarbonizing the transport sector by using bio-based fuels is high. Currently, biodiesel and ethanol are the two biofuels that are blended with fossil fuels. Another technology, namely, hydroprocessing, is also gaining momentum for producing biofuels. Hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) produced using this process is a potential drop-in fuel due to its improved physiochemical properties. This study aimed to reduce the fossil diesel content by blending 20% and 30% HVO and 5%, 10% and 15% waste cooking oil biodiesel on a volume basis. The blends were used to conduct a thorough performance examination of a single-cylinder compression ignition engine. The thermal efficiency of the engine was enhanced by the addition of biodiesel to the blend. The efficiency increased as the proportion of biodiesel in the mix increased, although it was still less efficient than diesel. The maximum improvement in thermal efficiency of 4.35% was observed with 20% blending of HVO and 15% blending of biodiesel compared with 20% blending of HVO and diesel. However, the HC (decrease of 30%), CO (decrease of 23.5%) and smoke (decrease of 21.1%) emissions were observed to be the lowest with 30% blending of HVO and 15% blending of biodiesel. A fuzzy-logic-based Taguchi method and Grey’s method were then applied to find the best blend of HVO, biodiesel and diesel. The combination of the two methods made it easier to carry out multi-objective optimization. The brake thermal efficiency (BTE), smoke and NO emissions were selected as the output parameters to optimize the HVO and biodiesel blend. The optimization study showed that 30% blending of HVO and 15% blending of biodiesel was the best blend, which was authenticated using the confirmation experiment. Full article

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20 pages, 4357 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Research on Regional Carbon Emission Reduction in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Urban Agglomeration Based on System Dynamics: Key Factors and Policy Analysis

by Yuan Zeng, Wengang Zhang, Jingwen Sun, Li’ao Sun and Jun Wu

Energies 2023, 16(18), 6654; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186654 - 16 Sep 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1387

Abstract

Urban agglomerations are regions where the economy and population are highly concentrated, which are also spatial units with more concentrated carbon emissions. A detailed decomposition of driving factors based on changes in carbon emissions of urban agglomerations can provide a reference for better [...] Read more.

Urban agglomerations are regions where the economy and population are highly concentrated, which are also spatial units with more concentrated carbon emissions. A detailed decomposition of driving factors based on changes in carbon emissions of urban agglomerations can provide a reference for better carbon reduction policies. In this paper, we establish an evaluation framework of carbon emission drivers of urban agglomeration from the perspective of CO₂ generation and removal using a system dynamics method. The key influencing factors and optimal emission reduction measures of carbon emissions in urban agglomerations are explored. The results are as follows: (1) The industrial structure is the key influencing factor of carbon emissions; (2) compared with no implementation of any policies, the total carbon emissions and carbon emission intensity of integrated policies all significantly decrease, with a decrease of 43.68% and 53.32%, respectively in 2035; (3) energy structure adjustment has a significant effect in reducing carbon emissions and carbon emission intensity; (4) the role of increasing investment in technological innovation in ensuring achievement of “carbon peak” should not be ignored. It is found that integrated policies often exhibit a better emission reduction effect, but this effect is not a simple summation of the effects of each single policy. Full article

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16 pages, 4314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Energy Performance and Environmental Impact of Low GWP Vapor Compression Chilled Water Systems

by Rami Mansouri, Baby-Jean Robert Mungyeko Bisulandu and Adrian Ilinca

Energies 2023, 16(12), 4751; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16124751 - 16 Jun 2023

Viewed by 2141

Abstract

The global concern regarding the environmental repercussions of refrigerants has escalated due to their adverse effects. These substances deplete the ozone layer and intensify the greenhouse effect. International agreements such as the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols and COP21 have imposed restrictions on refrigerants [...] Read more.

The global concern regarding the environmental repercussions of refrigerants has escalated due to their adverse effects. These substances deplete the ozone layer and intensify the greenhouse effect. International agreements such as the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols and COP21 have imposed restrictions on refrigerants with high global warming potential (GWP) to address these issues. This study aims to explore the feasibility, energy efficiency, and environmental impact of utilizing the HFO (hydrofluoric-olefin) refrigerant R1234ze as a substitute for HFCs (hydrofluoric-carbon) (R134a, R407C, and R410A) and HCFCs (R22) in air-cooled vapor compression refrigeration and air conditioning systems. To determine their effectiveness, we evaluate the energy performance of various refrigerant operating cycles across a wide range of ambient and evaporating temperatures. Additionally, we conduct environmental impact analyses based on the total equivalent warming impact (TEWI) parameter calculated for commercially available chillers that utilize the fluids mentioned above. Our findings indicate that vapor compression chilled water systems employing R1234ze exhibit the highest performance coefficient and the lowest annual TEWI. Full article

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19 pages, 1336 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decarbonization Measures: A Real Effect or Just a Declaration? An Assessment of Oil and Gas Companies’ Progress towards Carbon Neutrality

by Alina Cherepovitsyna, Nadezhda Sheveleva, Arina Riadinskaia and Konstantin Danilin

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3575; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083575 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3385

Abstract

Efforts to control climate change with the aim of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 have had the most significant impact on businesses operating in the energy sector, which produce large amounts of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In light of such policies, oil and [...] Read more.

Efforts to control climate change with the aim of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 have had the most significant impact on businesses operating in the energy sector, which produce large amounts of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In light of such policies, oil and gas companies have set goals aimed at reducing GHG emissions and achieving carbon neutrality, but the issue remains open as to how such activities and progress towards these goals can be evaluated. This study attempts to assess the activities and progress of oil and gas companies towards carbon neutrality, with a focus on quantitative evaluation of goal achievement. First, an algorithm was developed for selecting global oil and gas companies for the analysis that reported their activities in 2022. Using this algorithm, a list of companies was compiled and their goals with regard to carbon neutrality were analyzed. Second, an assessment of how information is presented in corporate reports and which activities aimed at achieving carbon neutrality are reflected there was performed using the proposed checklist. Third, a method for evaluating the progress of oil and gas companies towards intermediate goals in the area of carbon neutrality was developed and tested. The method is based on assessing and comparing trends for oil and gas companies aiming to achieve intermediate goals in reducing carbon intensity. As a result, companies were classified into three categories: (1) those showing carbon neutrality achievement rates exceeding the expected average annual rates, (2) those with fixed carbon neutrality achievement rates below the expected average annual rates, and (3) those demonstrating no movement towards intermediate goals or a negative trend. The main methods used in this study included content analysis, checklist development, decomposition, critical and comparative analysis, and simple statistical methods. Full article

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16 pages, 8600 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy System Low-Carbon Transition under Dual-Carbon Goals: The Case of Guangxi, China Using the EnergyPLAN Tool

by Yao Li, Liulin Yang and Tianlu Luo

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3416; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083416 - 13 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2166

Abstract

Guangxi is a typical developing region on the southern coast of China. The current issues encountered in the region’s development are that fossil energy accounts for about 80% of the energy structure, fossil fuels are heavily dependent on imports, and the self-sufficiency rate [...] Read more.

Guangxi is a typical developing region on the southern coast of China. The current issues encountered in the region’s development are that fossil energy accounts for about 80% of the energy structure, fossil fuels are heavily dependent on imports, and the self-sufficiency rate of resources is only 32%. These challenges have created a disparity between the current regional development state and the country’s dual carbon target. Under the premise of comprehensively considering the multi-sectors of electricity, industry, transportation, and heating, this paper presents a study on the energy system transition towards low-carbon development for Guangxi in four steps. Firstly, to demonstrate EnergyPLAN’s capability in energy modeling, a reference scenario for Guangxi is created using official yearbook data from 2020. Then, a short-term scenario is formulated to analyze the development of Guangxi’s energy system during the 14th Five-Year Plan. Furthermore, two mid-term scenarios are established, revealing that Guangxi is anticipated to reach its carbon emission peak between 2025 and 2030. Finally, three long-term scenarios are proposed for Guangxi’s energy system for 2050. These scenarios encompass the expansion of photovoltaics, nuclear, and wind power in the electricity system and emission reduction policies in the industrial, transportation, and heating sectors. As a result, compared with the 2020REF scenario, Guangxi can achieve a carbon emission reduction exceeding 57% and the share of non-fossil energy consumption can reach about 70% in the 2050 scenarios, despite a substantial increase in energy consumption, which makes it possible to achieve carbon neutrality in 2060 and to establish an energy system with less than 20% of fossil energy consumption. Full article

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2022

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2021

34 pages, 2782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pythagorean Fuzzy Storage Capacity with Controllable Carbon Emission Incorporating Green Technology Investment on a Two-Depository System

by Gudivada Durga Bhavani, Ieva Meidute-Kavaliauskiene, Ghanshaym S. Mahapatra and Renata Činčikaitė

Energies 2022, 15(23), 9087; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15239087 - 30 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1628

Abstract

Global warming is mainly caused by carbon emissions. Currently, fewer countries are concentrating on reducing carbon emissions. The primary strategy utilized by numerous countries to achieve carbon emissions reduction is the carbon tax policy. With this in mind, a sustainable two-warehouse inventory model [...] Read more.

Global warming is mainly caused by carbon emissions. Currently, fewer countries are concentrating on reducing carbon emissions. The primary strategy utilized by numerous countries to achieve carbon emissions reduction is the carbon tax policy. With this in mind, a sustainable two-warehouse inventory model was taken carbon tax into account for a controllable carbon emissions rate by investing in green technology initiatives under uncertain emission and cost parameters. The globe is currently experiencing an eco-friendly period. Many individuals are interested in purchasing natural or herbal items since they are made from natural sources and do not affect the environment. The demand for products made with herbal or natural ingredients is considered eco-friendly demand. This study examines a two-warehouse inventory model of deteriorating commodities with price and marketing-dependent eco-friendly demand. The inventory system is presented to handle the inventory in the depository with last-in-first-out and first-in-first-out strategies. After comparing both the policies under deterioration rate and holding cost, this study recommended a suitable dispatch policy. Interval-valued numbers and fuzzy numbers are the mathematical techniques that deal with uncertainties, so this model’s emission and cost parameters are taken as interval-valued numbers, and the storage capacity of the owned warehouse is a Pythagorean fuzzy number. The optimal solution for the two-warehouse inventory system is evaluated by taking the parametric form of interval-valued cost parameters and the new concept of the ranking function of triangular Pythagorean fuzzy numbers. Numerical results prove that emissions are reduced by 87% under green technology investment in both policies. As a consequence, in the FIFO policy, the total cost of the two-warehouse inventory system decreases by 34.45% and cycle length increases by 5.72%, and in the LIFO policy, the total cost of the two-warehouse inventory system decreases by 34.42% and cycle length increases by 11.19%. Sensitivity analysis of the key parameters has been performed to study the effect of various parameters on the optimal solution. Full article

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31 pages, 4620 KiB

Open AccessReview

Taxonomy for Industrial Cluster Decarbonization: An Analysis for the Italian Hard-to-Abate Industry

by Sonja Sechi, Sara Giarola and Pierluigi Leone

Energies 2022, 15(22), 8586; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228586 - 16 Nov 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2735

Abstract

The share of industry in final global energy consumption was more than 30% in 2020, of which, the hard-to-abate sectors accounted for almost 60% of total final consumption in industry. Similarly, in Europe, industry accounts for around 25% of final energy consumption. In [...] Read more.

The share of industry in final global energy consumption was more than 30% in 2020, of which, the hard-to-abate sectors accounted for almost 60% of total final consumption in industry. Similarly, in Europe, industry accounts for around 25% of final energy consumption. In order to reduce the impact of industry in energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, Europe has set many policies that support and regulate the sector, including pricing carbon emissions in a cap-and-trade scheme called the European Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). According to the EU ETS, in 2021 the verified emissions of all stationary installations were around 1.3 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions. In 2021, the total allocated allowances amounted to around 1 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions, half of which were freely allocated. After reviewing the existing modeling approaches for industrial clusters and the available datasets, and assessing the energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions at plant level using a geographical information system approach (GIS), a taxonomy for industrial cluster decarbonization was introduced. This taxonomy shows that describing industry as sets of clustered installations rather than based on the conventional sectoral economic classification provides more insights into energy transition. First, the cluster description provides a more accurate techno-economic assessment based on a finer characterization of economies of scale compared to traditional energy systems models. Second, the industrial clustering approach may more realistically show the feasibility, in addition to the costs and benefits from coupling industry with transport (e.g., industrial fleets and logistics) or buildings (e.g., city scale), due to a more detailed representation of the energy sources and sinks. Full article

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37 pages, 6533 KiB

Open AccessReview

Ship Energy Efficiency and Maritime Sector Initiatives to Reduce Carbon Emissions

by Mohamad Issa, Adrian Ilinca and Fahed Martini

Energies 2022, 15(21), 7910; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15217910 - 25 Oct 2022

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7288

Abstract

With stricter IMO regulations on CO₂ taking effect in 2023 and ambitious goals to reduce carbon intensity by 2030, the maritime industry is scrambling to clean up its act. Conventional methods and equipment are now being reevaluated, upgraded or completely replaced. The [...] Read more.

With stricter IMO regulations on CO₂ taking effect in 2023 and ambitious goals to reduce carbon intensity by 2030, the maritime industry is scrambling to clean up its act. Conventional methods and equipment are now being reevaluated, upgraded or completely replaced. The difference between a short-term fix and a long-term sustainable option is how flexible vessels will be to use new energy sources or technology as they become viable. The review discusses the recent literature on renewable energy sources, technical and operational strategies for new and existing ships, technology maturity, and alternative fuels. It is found that the IMO’s targets can be met by combining two or three technologies, or via a radical technology shift which can provide innovative, high-efficiency solutions from an environmental and economic standpoint. It has also been noted that policies and enforcement are essential management instruments for mitigating the unfavourable environmental effects of marine transportation and directing the maritime industry toward sustainability on a regional, national, and international scale. Full article

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22 pages, 7527 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Simulation of a Small Modular Reactor in-the-Loop within Nuclear-Renewable Hybrid Energy Systems

by Hossam A. Gabbar and Otavio Lopes Alves Esteves

Energies 2022, 15(18), 6588; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186588 - 8 Sep 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4061

Abstract

Advanced small modular reactors (SMRs) have recently been developed in many designs; therefore, nuclear energy stands out as a promising alternative to sustainability and reliability in replacing fossil fuel energies in microgrids. SMRs have been shown as the best option due to the [...] Read more.

Advanced small modular reactors (SMRs) have recently been developed in many designs; therefore, nuclear energy stands out as a promising alternative to sustainability and reliability in replacing fossil fuel energies in microgrids. SMRs have been shown as the best option due to the fact of their lower initial capital, greater scalability, and siting flexibility compared to large nuclear plants. Nowadays, there are several simulators able to reproduce all the safety and control mechanics of different nuclear reactors; however, there exists a lack of emulators able to put these functionalities into a real scenario to ensure the feasibility of the use of nuclear energy within energy systems, especially in nonconventional systems. This paper aims to mimic the central control system of SMRs by modeling the nuclear processes aiming to contribute to real-time simulations using SMRs integrated with renewable energy in microgrids that could be applied for different scenarios, such as cogeneration systems or fast-charging stations for electric vehicles, by considering the impact on dispatch and reliability. The simulation process of the proposed model was validated experimentally using the hardware-in-the-loop technique, which consisted of the modeling being integrated into the hardware and tested using real-time simulators. The proposed system, also denominated as SMR-in-the-Loop, was designed and adapted to be easily integrated with existing microgrid systems to represent the behavior of an SMR in nuclear-renewable hybrid energy systems, avoiding high investments and complexity in testing and implementing actual nuclear reactors. Full article

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5 pages, 202 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Energy Transition towards Carbon Neutrality

by Ayman Elshkaki and Lei Shen

Energies 2022, 15(14), 4967; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15144967 - 7 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1896

Abstract

Carbon peaking and neutralization in the next 20 to 40 years are significant to limit the temperature increase to well below 2 °C and avoid the negative impacts of climate change caused by the sharp increase in carbon dioxide emissions [...] Full article

17 pages, 7971 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differences of Carbon Emission Efficiency in the Belt and Road Initiative Countries

by Yanmei Li, Xin Sun and Xiushan Bai

Energies 2022, 15(4), 1576; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041576 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2448

Abstract

Carbon emission efficiency, which is mainly affected by economic output, energy efficiency and energy structure, is the effect of carbon emissions generated in economic activities. Improving carbon emission efficiency and narrowing regional differences are very important for green development in Belt and Road [...] Read more.

Carbon emission efficiency, which is mainly affected by economic output, energy efficiency and energy structure, is the effect of carbon emissions generated in economic activities. Improving carbon emission efficiency and narrowing regional differences are very important for green development in Belt and Road Initiative regions with developing countries as the main body. The existing literature mostly uses the Theil index to study the temporal differences in carbon emission efficiency, but spatial differences and the reasons for the differences have rarely been examined. This paper measures the differences of carbon emission efficiency using the Theil index and examines the reasons based on the Logarithmic Mean Divisia index (LMDI) method in five groups of 60 Belt and Road Initiative countries. The results show that the Theil index of carbon emission efficiency in these countries is 0.196, with an intra-group difference of 0.165 and an inter-group difference of 0.031. Between most of the groups, energy efficiency is the dominant factor affecting carbon emission efficiency differences, especially between East Asia and Central and Eastern Europe, South Asia and East Asia. Between most of the countries with the highest and lowest carbon emission efficiency in the same group, such as Singapore and Vietnam in East Asia, energy efficiency is still the primary factor affecting the differences. Only some differences between a few groups, countries and sectors have been caused mainly by energy structures. Therefore, improving energy efficiency is the first way for those countries with low carbon emission efficiency to catch up other countries with high carbon emission efficiency, followed by improving the energy structure. Full article

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18 pages, 1835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Carbon Transformation of Electric System against Power Shortage in China: Policy Optimization

by Bo Wang, Limao Wang, Shuai Zhong, Ning Xiang and Qiushi Qu

Energies 2022, 15(4), 1574; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041574 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3029

Abstract

The low-carbon transition of the power system is essential for China to achieve peak carbon and carbon neutrality. However, China could suffer power shortages due to radical policies in some extreme cases. The gap between power demand and supply from March 2021 to [...] Read more.

The low-carbon transition of the power system is essential for China to achieve peak carbon and carbon neutrality. However, China could suffer power shortages due to radical policies in some extreme cases. The gap between power demand and supply from March 2021 to November 2021 ranged between 5.2 billion kW·h and 24.6 billion kW·h. The main reason for the power shortage was over-reliance on renewable energy and insufficient coal power supply for the power system. The low-carbon transformation path of the electric system needs to be explored with more flexibility for power security. This study applied a modified LEAP model and carried out a forecast analysis of thermal power generation and installed capacity in 2025 and 2030 under normal and extreme weather scenarios. The results suggested that: the installed capacity of thermal power will need to account for about 44.6–46.1% of power generation in 2025 and 37.4–39.3% in 2030, with the assumption of power shortages caused by the instability and uncertainty of renewable power. In the future, China needs to pursue the development of diversified energy sources and enhance the power supply security capability while strengthening the development and utilization of renewable energy. Full article

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23 pages, 2744 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Critical Review on Decarbonizing Heating in China: Pathway Exploration for Technology with Multi-Sector Applications

by Xiaoyang Hou, Shuai Zhong and Jian’an Zhao

Energies 2022, 15(3), 1183; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031183 - 6 Feb 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3040

Abstract

Coal-fired heating is the main method of heating in China, causing serious air pollution and large amounts of CO₂ emissions. Decarbonizing heating is important to reduce carbon emissions, and choosing a suitable heating technical scheme is conducive to the early realization of [...] Read more.

Coal-fired heating is the main method of heating in China, causing serious air pollution and large amounts of CO₂ emissions. Decarbonizing heating is important to reduce carbon emissions, and choosing a suitable heating technical scheme is conducive to the early realization of carbon neutrality in China. Coal to gas and coal to electricity transformation projects were carried out in 2017 and achieved remarkable effects. This study compares the current domestic and international clean heating modes, where gas heating, electric heating, heat hump heating, biomass heating, and solar heating coupling system are taken into account. The heating technology potential and heating support aspects, including the industrial sector, building sector, carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, and publicity are explored as well. Regarding the actual situation in China, a comparative analysis is also conducted on the different types of heat pumps, and then an optimal heating scheme for urban and rural areas is proposed. It is suggested that the urban area with centralized heating can install ground source heat pumps, and the rural area with distributed heating can apply a coupling system of solar photovoltaics to ground source heat pumps (PV-GSHP). Based on current policies and standards support, this study calculates the carbon emissions of this scheme in 2030 and provides a detailed analysis of relevant parameters. The feasibility and superiority of the scheme are confirmed by comparison and discussion with other studies. Moreover, specific measures in planning, subsidy, construction, and electricity are proposed to implement the heating scheme. This study provides a reference for the mode selection and technical scheme of heating decarbonation in China, and that could be also considered in other regions or countries. Full article

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24 pages, 2488 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Could China Declare a “Coal Phase-Out”? An Evolutionary Game and Empirical Analysis Involving the Government, Enterprises, and the Public

by Jingna Kou, Fengjun Sun, Wei Li and Jie Jin

Energies 2022, 15(2), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020531 - 12 Jan 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 1878

Abstract

There is a global move toward being “carbon neutral”. Reducing the use of coal to generate power has become an inevitable choice for many countries when transforming their energy structures. Many countries have proposed phasing out coal. China is a major energy producing [...] Read more.

There is a global move toward being “carbon neutral”. Reducing the use of coal to generate power has become an inevitable choice for many countries when transforming their energy structures. Many countries have proposed phasing out coal. China is a major energy producing and consuming country and intends to reach a carbon peak by 2030 and become carbon neutral by 2060. China has repeatedly emphasized coal reduction, but has not explicitly proposed phasing out coal, due to the influence of local governments, coal-related enterprises, and the public. This paper explores whether China could declare a “coal phase-out”, and the possible reasons for doing so, by constructing an evolutionary game model with two correlations. MATLAB was used to simulate the model results to determine the effectiveness of the fractal results of the model, and the entropy method was used to calculate the development level of “coal phase-out” related indicators in China and Germany. The results show that: (1) The government can phase out coal only when coal-related enterprises and the public can benefit from reducing coal production and consumption. In addition, these benefits are needed to ensure stable economic and social development without affecting people’s daily lives; (2) The development level of relevant indicators of “coal retreat” in China is lower than that in Germany. Based on these results, it is concluded that it is difficult for China to announce a “coal phase-out” at present. Faced with this reality, China should improve the efficiency of coal use, install carbon capture and storage facilities, vigorously develop renewable energy and reduce the share of coal in the energy system. Full article

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22 pages, 4222 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Life-Cycle Assessment of Liquefied Natural Gas and Diesel Tractor-Trailer in China

by Shuhan Hu and Hongyuan Chen

Energies 2022, 15(1), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010392 - 5 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3551

Abstract

Many countries, especially China, have extensively promoted liquefied natural gas (LNG) to replace diesel in heavy-duty vehicles for to achieve sustainable transport aims, including carbon peaks and neutrality. We developed a life-cycle calculation model for environmental load differences covering vehicle and fuel cycles [...] Read more.

Many countries, especially China, have extensively promoted liquefied natural gas (LNG) to replace diesel in heavy-duty vehicles for to achieve sustainable transport aims, including carbon peaks and neutrality. We developed a life-cycle calculation model for environmental load differences covering vehicle and fuel cycles to comprehensively compare the LNG tractor-trailer and its diesel counterpart in China on a full suite of environmental impacts. We found that the LNG tractor-trailer consumes less aluminum but more iron and energy; emits less nitrogen oxide, sulfur oxide, nonmethane volatile organic compounds, and particulate matter but more greenhouse gases (GHG) and carbon monoxide (CO); and causes less abiotic depletion potential, acidification potential, and human toxicity potential impacts but more global warming potential (GWP) and photooxidant creation potential (POCP) impacts. Poor fuel economy was found to largely drive the higher life-cycle GHG and CO emissions and GWP and POCP impacts of the LNG tractor-trailer. Switching to the LNG tractor-trailer could reduce carbon dioxide by 52.73%, GWP impact by 44.60% and POCP impact by 49.23% if it attains parity fuel economy with its diesel counterpart. Policymakers should modify the regulations on fuel tax and vehicle access, which discourage improvement in LNG engine efficiency and adopt incentive polices to develop the technologies. Full article

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2021

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2022

17 pages, 3063 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Does the World View China’s Carbon Policy? A Sentiment Analysis on Twitter Data

by Ning Xiang, Limao Wang, Shuai Zhong, Chen Zheng, Bo Wang and Qiushi Qu

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7782; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227782 - 19 Nov 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3137

Abstract

China has recently put forth an ambitious plan to achieve carbon peak around 2030 and carbon neutrality around 2060. However, there are quite a few differences regarding the public views about China’s carbon policy between the Chinese people and the people from other [...] Read more.

China has recently put forth an ambitious plan to achieve carbon peak around 2030 and carbon neutrality around 2060. However, there are quite a few differences regarding the public views about China’s carbon policy between the Chinese people and the people from other countries, especially concerning the doubt of foreign people about the fidelity of China’s carbon policy goals. Based on Twitter data related to China’s carbon policy topics from 2008 to 2020, this study shows the inter- and intra-annual trends in the count of tweets about China’s carbon policy, conducts sentiment analysis, extracts top frequency words from different attitudes, and analyzes the impact of China’s official Twitter accounts on the global view of China’s carbon policy. Our results show: (1) the global attention to China’s carbon policy gradually rises and occasionally rises suddenly due to important carbon events; (2) the proportion of Twitter users with negative sentiment about China’s carbon policy has increased rapidly and has exceeded the proportion of Twitter users with positive sentiment since 2019; (3) people in developing countries hold more positive or neutral attitudes towards China’s carbon policy, while developed countries hold more negative attitudes; (4) China’s official Twitter accounts serve to improve the global views on China’s carbon policy. Full article

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17 pages, 749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Why Low-Carbon Publicity Effect Limits? The Role of Heterogeneous Intention in Reducing Household Energy Consumption

by Jin Zhang, Lianrui Ma and Jinkai Li

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7634; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227634 - 15 Nov 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2112

Abstract

Low-carbon knowledge is seen as having a key role in interfering with household energy consumption behaviors by wide consensus from political and academic areas. Whether low-carbon publicity will help to reduce household energy consumption is still in dispute. By constructing an integrated knowledge-intention-behavior [...] Read more.

Low-carbon knowledge is seen as having a key role in interfering with household energy consumption behaviors by wide consensus from political and academic areas. Whether low-carbon publicity will help to reduce household energy consumption is still in dispute. By constructing an integrated knowledge-intention-behavior model and using 1335 detailed survey questionnaires of household energy behavior in Henan Province, the central area in China, this paper finds that in the developing area low-carbon knowledge or publicity cannot positively impact household energy-saving behavior even if mediated by energy awareness and energy-saving attitudes. Low-carbon knowledge does improve energy-saving attitude and attitude does not decrease household energy consumption directly. Familiarity with particular energy-saving knowledge would decrease the household energy consumption but not significantly in the statistics. Path analysis unfolds the reason that the heterogeneous effects of purchase-based intention and habitual intention explain energy consumption behavior. Subgroup analysis supports those economic factors of income and energy prices play key roles in explaining such household energy consumption behavior in the rapid urbanization area. This paper gives new evidence on the residential energy-saving behavior intervention among developing areas. Full article

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20 pages, 4475 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decoupling Energy, Water, and Food Resources Production from GHG Emissions: A Footprint Perspective Review of Africa from 1990 to 2017

by Fabien Muhirwa, Lei Shen, Ayman Elshkaki, Kgosietsile Velempini, Hubert Hirwa, Shuai Zhong and Aderiana Mutheu Mbandi

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6326; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196326 - 3 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4349

Abstract

Decoupling energy, water, and food (EWF) consumption and production from GHG emissions could be an important strategy for achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), and SDG 7 (Clean and Affordable Energy) [...] Read more.

Decoupling energy, water, and food (EWF) consumption and production from GHG emissions could be an important strategy for achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), and SDG 7 (Clean and Affordable Energy) in Africa. This study applies Tapio’s decoupling method to analyze the relationship between GHG emissions and EWF resources use in 15 African countries over the period 1990–2017. The results show a remarkable relationship, which includes the contamination of EWF by GHG emissions, that mostly exhibits unsatisfactory decoupling state to satisfactory decoupling over a period of several years. The decoupling of water and energy resources from GHG emissions in most countries of Africa has not been able to reach an excellent decoupling state or a strong positive decoupling state. This requires countries in Africa to support environmentally friendly water and energy infrastructures and to promote an integrated, mutually managed, whole resource interaction system. The study also highlights the importance of tracking sources of GHG emissions, whether within individual resource sector activities or across resources to each other. Full article

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16 pages, 1057 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental and Cost Impacts of Food Waste in University Canteen from a Life Cycle Perspective

by Jing Li, Wei Li, Lei Wang and Baihui Jin

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5907; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185907 - 17 Sep 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6247

Abstract

Food waste has caused double waste of resources in the food itself and the food supply chain of production, transportation, cooking, and processing, resulting in unnecessary greenhouse gas emissions and economic losses. This paper first conducted the quantification of students’ food waste and [...] Read more.

Food waste has caused double waste of resources in the food itself and the food supply chain of production, transportation, cooking, and processing, resulting in unnecessary greenhouse gas emissions and economic losses. This paper first conducted the quantification of students’ food waste and the collection of canteens operation data in the three canteens at Taiyuan University of Technology (China) in 2019 through the weighing method and interview. Then an integration of Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing was used to quantify the impact of food waste in university canteens on the environment and costs. The study found that the total amount of food waste in the university canteens with 22,000 students was 246.75 t/a, the carbon footprint caused by food waste was 539.28 t CO₂-eq, and the cost was 4,729,900 yuan. Most of the impact of canteen meals on the environment comes from the use of energy in food cooking and the consumption of animal food types. The innovative integration of life cycle cost calculations highlights the key role of the labor required for cooking. The research results answer the basic scientific questions of how much food is wasted in the university canteens, and the carbon emissions and cost ratios of these wasted food in all links of the supply chain. The research results can provide a policy-making basis and data support for reducing food waste in universities and realizing carbon emission reduction in university canteens. Full article

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