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2nd Edition: Police Officers, Firefighters and/or Militaries High-Risk Job Occupations: Assessment of the Different Threats and Preventive Measures

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Occupational Safety and Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (12 April 2023) | Viewed by 21234

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Dr. Marta Ferreiro-González

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Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, IVAGRO, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), University of Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Cadiz, Spain
Interests: chemometrics; fire investigation; headspace-mass spectrometry electronic nose; ignitable liquids; petroleum-based products; gasoline; volatile organic compounds; food adulteration; ion mobility spectroscopy; forensic chemistry; analytical chemistry
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Prof. Dr. Gerardo Fernández Barbero

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Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, IVAGRO, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), University of Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Cadiz, Spain
Interests: chemometrics; fire investigation; headspace-mass spectrometry electronic nose; ignitable liquids; petroleum-based products; volatile organic compounds; food adulteration; ion mobility spectroscopy; forensic chemistry; food analysis; analytical chemistry; HPLC; GC; UHPLC; MS; extraction techniques
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Dr. Maria Jose Aliaño-González

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1. Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Cádiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Spain
2. Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development (MED), University of Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
Interests: agrifood resources; forensic chemistry; adulterations; fire analysis; environmental analysis; circular economy; bioactive compounds; chromatography; spectrophotometry; ion mobility spectrometry
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

A safe, healthy working environment is an essential condition when it comes to ensuring a good quality of life. For this reason, public administrations and trade unions have long strived to increase workplace safety by promoting occupational risk prevention. However, accidents still occur in many workplaces. Identifying potential threats and providing the tools required to minimize their impact is a crucial aspect of risk management. Workplace safety is both a humanitarian and an economic concern; thus, improving working conditions is a global challenge.

Jobs in the police, firefighting, and/or military sectors are considered high risk in comparison to other occupations, since employees in these fields put their lives on the line every day to protect society. Among the many unsafe situations they have regularly to face is exposure to toxic or hazardous substances. In fact, according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), firefighters are among the 18 occupations in which there is a demonstrable increase in cancer cases. After intervention, combustion products (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and metals remain impregnated in fire suits and other personal protective equipment. Many of these compounds are carcinogenic, such as benzene, benzopyrene, 1,3-butadiene or formaldehyde, or heavy metals, such as Ni, Cd, Pb or Cr. For this reason, there is increased concern about the harmful effect that toxic combustion residues could have on firefighters’ health.

Police and military personnel also face situations in which they are exposed to hazardous substances, including combustion products at fire scenes, as explained previously, as well as explosive substances during terrorist assaults or gunshot residues from enemy shots, or even from their own shooting practice. Nevertheless, in the latter cases, the health risk due to chemical exposure to explosives or gunshot residues is negligible in comparison to the imminent physical risk of being fatally wounded by the expansive shockwave of a detonation or by bullets. It is necessary to develop and implement preventive measures for these and other weapons, such as the development and correct use of protective materials and/or the improvement of police/military intervention techniques. Therefore, all these threats require further study.

Since the first edition was very well received, with a good publication rate, we are creating a second edition of this Special Issue in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, which will publish high-quality multidisciplinary research and reviews related to the assessment of the chemical hazards or physical risks of firefighters, police officers, and/or military officers.

Dr. Marta Ferreiro-González
Prof. Dr. Gerardo Fernández Barbero
Dr. Maria Jose Aliaño-González
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

occupational risk prevention
workplace safety and health
high-risk job occupation
methods of analysis
chemical hazards
physical threats
operational tactical procedures
police
firefighters
military officers

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Related Special Issue

Police Officers, Firefighters and/or Militaries High-Risk Job Occupations: Assessment of the Different Threats and Preventive Measures in International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (17 articles)

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Research

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16 pages, 867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Hearing Loss and Perceptions of Hearing Health and Protection among Florida Firefighters

by Barbara Millet, Hillary A. Snapp, Suhrud M. Rajguru and Natasha Schaefer Solle

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(5), 3826; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20053826 - 21 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2191

Abstract

Firefighters are exposed to extensive hazardous noise while on the job, both during routine tasks at the station and when responding to calls. However, little is known about firefighters’ occupational noise hazards. This study employed mixed methods, including focus groups, a survey, and audiometric testing, to identify sources of noise in the firefighters’ work environment, determine hearing protective strategies, discern firefighters’ perceptions of occupational noise exposure and impacts to their health, and quantify the prevalence of hearing loss among South Florida firefighters. A total of 6 senior officers served in an expert panel, 12 participated in focus groups, 300 completed the survey, and 214 received audiometric tests. Most firefighters were unaware of the risk and their departments’ policies, and did not participate in hearing protection practices and avoided using hearing protection devices, which they believed impede team communication and situational awareness. Nearly 30% of participating firefighters showed mild to profound hearing loss, a prevalence that is considerably worse than expected by normal aging alone. Educating firefighters about noise-induced hearing loss early in their careers may have significant health implications for their future. These findings provide insights for developing technologies and programs to mitigate the effects of noise exposure in the firefighting population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2nd Edition: Police Officers, Firefighters and/or Militaries High-Risk Job Occupations: Assessment of the Different Threats and Preventive Measures)

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10 pages, 743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Brief Training of Technical Bleeding Control Skills—A Pilot Study with Security Forces

by Jose Luis Manteiga-Urbón, Felipe Fernández-Méndez, Martín Otero-Agra, María Fernández-Méndez, Myriam Santos-Folgar, Esther Insa-Calderon, María Sobrido-Prieto, Roberto Barcala-Furelos and Santiago Martínez-Isasi

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(3), 2494; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032494 - 31 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1663

Abstract

Uncontrolled external bleeding is a common cause of preventable death, and due to the environment in which these events often occur, e.g., in hostile environments, the state security forces are usually the first responders, and in many cases, if they are injured their partners provide the initial assistance. The tourniquet is a fast, effective, and easy-to-learn intervention, although there is a knowledge gap concerning training techniques. The objective is to evaluate the effectiveness of a bleeding control training program on a high-fidelity mannequin in a simulated critical situation in a law enforcement training environment. A quasi-experimental study was carried out with 27 members of the state security forces. They underwent brief theoretical–practical training and were evaluated via a scenario involving a critically ill patient in a hostile environment. The results showed that no member of the state security forces completed all the tourniquet placement steps, 26 (96%) prepared the tourniquet correctly, 21 (77.8%) placed it on the leg, and all the participants adjusted the band to the thickness of the injured limb and secured the windlass to the triangular flange of the device. However, only 23 (85.2%) of the participants placed it effectively. The participants, who were members of the state security forces, were able to effectively resolve a critical situation with active bleeding in a simulation scenario with a high-fidelity mannequin after completing theoretical–practical training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2nd Edition: Police Officers, Firefighters and/or Militaries High-Risk Job Occupations: Assessment of the Different Threats and Preventive Measures)

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12 pages, 810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Occupational Noise Exposure in Firefighters Using the Apple Watch

by Erin C. Williams, Yiran Ma, Daniela M. Loo, Natasha Schaefer Solle, Barbara Millet, Kristine Harris, Hillary A. Snapp and Suhrud M. Rajguru

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(3), 2315; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032315 - 28 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2740

Abstract

Occupational noise exposure and hearing loss are prominent in the fire service. Firefighters are routinely exposed to hazardous levels of noise arising from the tools and equipment they use, from sirens and alarm tones to the emergency response vehicles they drive. The present study utilized the Apple Watch to continuously measure environmental noise levels for on-duty firefighters. Participants included 15 firefighters from the metropolitan South Florida area, and 25 adult non-firefighter control subjects. Firefighters were recruited from a variety of roles across two stations to ensure noise exposure profiles were appropriately representative of exposures in the fire service. All participants wore an Apple Watch for up to three separate 24 h shifts and completed a post-shift survey self-reporting on perceived exposures over the 24 h study period. Cumulative exposures were calculated for each shift and noise dose was calculated relative to the NIOSH recommended exposure limit of 85 dBA as an 8 h time-weighted average. The maximum dBA recorded on the Apple Watches was statistically significant between groups, with firefighters experiencing a median of 87.79 dBA and controls a median of 77.27 dBA. Estimated Exposure Time at 85 dBA (EET-85) values were significantly higher for firefighters when compared to controls: 3.97 h (range: 1.20–14.7 h) versus 0.42 h (range: 0.05–8.21 h). Only 2 of 16 firefighters reported the use of hearing protection devices during their shifts. Overall, our results highlight the utility of a commonly used personal device to quantify noise exposure in an occupationally at-risk group. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2nd Edition: Police Officers, Firefighters and/or Militaries High-Risk Job Occupations: Assessment of the Different Threats and Preventive Measures)

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20 pages, 1815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Psychological Stress and Sleep Quality of Emergency Medical Technicians in Taiwan Fire Department during the COVID-19 Pandemic

by Chiao-Yin Cheng, Jen-Tang Sun, Hung-Pin Chang, Yen-Lin Chen, Dee Pei and Yao-Jen Liang

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(1), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010137 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1936

Abstract

When the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) began to ravage the world in 2019, the World Health Organization became concerned. The epidemic has a high mortality and contagion rate, with severe health and psychological impacts on frontline emergency medical service system practitioners. There are many hospital staff surveys, but few have covered the stress among emergency medical technicians. DASS-21, PSQI, and AUDIT questionnaires were used to evaluate the sources of psychological stress factors of firefighters in Taiwan. Multiple logistic regression was used to analyze the questionnaire content. We conducted questionnaire surveys from May 2022 to July 2022. Our sample comprised 688 participants. The odds ratios of increased depression, anxiety, and stress levels due to reduced family or peer understanding and support were 2.72 (95% CI: 1.50–4.92), p = 0.001; 2.03 (95% CI: 1.11–3.68), p = 0.021; and 3.27 (95% CI: 1.83–5.86), p < 0.001, respectively. The odds ratios of poor sleep quality due to depression, anxiety, and increased stress levels were 5.04 (3.18–7.99), p < 0.001; 2.44 (95% CI: 1.57–3.81), p < 0.001; and 4.34 (95% CI: 2.76–6.82), p-value < 0.001, respectively. During the COVID-19 pandemic, poor sleep quality and a lack of understanding and support from the Taiwan firefighting agency staff, family, or peers resulted in increased depression, anxiety, and stress levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2nd Edition: Police Officers, Firefighters and/or Militaries High-Risk Job Occupations: Assessment of the Different Threats and Preventive Measures)

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21 pages, 433 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Firefighters’ Physical Ability Test Scores from Anaerobic Fitness Parameters & Mental Toughness Levels

by Peter Beitia, Andreas Stamatis, Tal Amasay and Zacharias Papadakis

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(22), 15253; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192215253 - 18 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2737

Abstract

Physical ability test (PAT) evaluates firefighters’ (FF) occupational capacity. The contribution of anaerobic systems during PAT and mental toughness (MT) relationship to PAT is unexplored. PAT modeling based on anaerobic fitness (AF), MT, and respective relationships were examined. Fourteen male FFs (Age: 29.0 ± 7.0 years) completed a PAT composed of occupationally-specific tasks in full gear. On a separate day, a series of AF assessments were performed (handgrip-dynamometry: HG; vertical-jump: VJ; Margaria-Kalamen: MK; 300-yard shuttle run: 300YD). MT was evaluated using military training MT inventory (MTMTI) and sports MT questionnaire (SMTQ). We tested the PAT model using multiple backward regression and related correlations coefficients at p < 0.05. A 78% proportion of PAT was explained by AF parameters (F_2,13 = 20.2, <0.05). PAT was significantly correlated with HG (r = −0.71, p < 0.01), VJ (r = −0.73, p < 0.01), MK (r = −0.75, p < 0.01), and with 300YD (r = 0.60, p < 0.05). MT did not demonstrate significant correlation with PAT (p > 0.01). Anaerobic system significantly contributes to PAT performance. FFs should optimize AF training, which would allow for enhanced occupational performance in PAT. Further investigation into psychological determinants of FFs is recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2nd Edition: Police Officers, Firefighters and/or Militaries High-Risk Job Occupations: Assessment of the Different Threats and Preventive Measures)

12 pages, 1350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Perceptions of Heat Stress, Heat Strain and Mitigation Practices in Wildfire Suppression across Southern Europe and Latin America

by Belén Carballo-Leyenda, José Gerardo Villa-Vicente, Giuseppe M. Delogu, Jose A. Rodríguez-Marroyo and Domingo M. Molina-Terrén

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(19), 12288; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912288 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1934

Abstract

This study aimed to assess current perceptions of heat stress, heat strain, acclimatisation and recovery practices in wildland fire suppression. A total of 1459 wildfire and structural firefighters, all involved in wildland fire suppression, completed an 18-question survey. Most participants (81.3%) reported heat strain as one of the main risks faced during wildland firefighting. Thermal strain is considered an important risk for health and safety in wildland firefighting. The best-valued heat strain mitigation strategies were those traditionally recommended in wildland fire suppression: (i) an adequate work/rest ratio (79.0%), (ii) acclimatisation (71.6%), (iii) enhancing body ventilation by opening protective clothing or removing helmets or gloves (63.5%), and (iv) drinking water and food supplementation (52.1%). Despite these results, only 22% of the participants reported carrying out acclimatisation in the workplace. The vast majority of the respondents (87.4%) consider active cooling strategies (i.e., ice slurry ingestion, ice vests, etc.) impractical in combating heat strain during wildfire suppression. We identified a gap between knowledge about heat strain, its mitigation strategies and the level of actual implementation of these practices in the workplace. Our results highlight the need to improve heat strain management and implement operational directives for acclimatisation and active cooling interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2nd Edition: Police Officers, Firefighters and/or Militaries High-Risk Job Occupations: Assessment of the Different Threats and Preventive Measures)

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27 pages, 3452 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Association between Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors and Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Firefighters: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Jaron Ras, Andre P. Kengne, Denise L. Smith, Elpidoforos S. Soteriades and Lloyd Leach

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(4), 2816; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042816 - 5 Feb 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3864

Abstract

Approximately 45% of on-duty related mortalities were due to sudden cardiac death, with many of these fatalities related to cardiovascular disease and overexertion, while performing emergency duties. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to determine the association between cardiovascular disease risk factors and cardiorespiratory fitness in firefighters. A literature search of PubMed, SCOPUS, Web of Science, Embase, EBSCOHost, and ScienceDirect was conducted; the Rayyan^® intelligent systematic review tool was used to screen and select studies for inclusion. The appraisal tool for cross-sectional studies and the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme toolkit were used for methodological assessment of included studies. Data were analyzed using the Review Manager 5.3 and MedCalc^® statistical softwares to determine the effects of obesity (Z = 10.29, p < 0.001) and aging (Z = 4.72, p < 0.001) on cardiorespiratory fitness. Furthermore, there was a significant effect for cardiorespiratory fitness level on systolic blood pressure (Z = 5.94, p < 0.001), diastolic blood pressure (Z = 2.45, p < 0.001), total cholesterol levels (Z = 3.80, p < 0.001), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (Z = 4.44, p < 0.001), triglycerides (Z = 3.76, p < 0.001) and blood glucose concentration (Z = 4.78, p < 0.001). Cardiovascular disease risk factors and cardiorespiratory fitness were significantly and inversely associated in firefighters. Fire service departments should adopt behavioral intervention strategies to maintain optimum cardiovascular disease risk factor profiles and cardiorespiratory fitness among firefighters to ensure their occupational well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2nd Edition: Police Officers, Firefighters and/or Militaries High-Risk Job Occupations: Assessment of the Different Threats and Preventive Measures)

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43 pages, 1839 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Effects of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors, Musculoskeletal Health, and Physical Fitness on Occupational Performance in Firefighters—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Jaron Ras, Andre P. Kengne, Denise L. Smith, Elpidoforos S. Soteriades, Rucia V. November and Lloyd Leach

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(19), 11946; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191911946 - 21 Sep 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3464

Abstract

Background: Firefighting is a strenuous occupation, which necessitates that firefighters stay in good physical condition and maintain adequate cardiovascular and musculoskeletal fitness to perform their duties with minimal health and safety risks. The aim of this review is to determine the effects of cardiovascular disease risk factors, musculoskeletal health, and physical fitness on the occupational performance of firefighters. Methods: PubMed/Medline, SCOPUS, Web of Science, EBSCOHost, and ScienceDirect were searched without time-restriction. The appraisal tool for cross-sectional studies and the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme toolkit were used to conduct the methodological assessment. Data were analyzed using Review Manager 5.3, and MedCalc^® statistical software. Results: Age had a moderate effect on occupational performance (Z = 5.15, p < 0.001), whereas gender had a large effect size on occupational performance (Z = 4.24, p < 0.001). A significant moderate negative correlation was found between cardiorespiratory fitness and occupational performance (R = −0.584, p < 0.001). Significant low negative correlations were found between upper body endurance (R = −0.344, p < 0.001), abdominal endurance (R = −0.308, p < 0.001), grip strength (R = −0.421, p < 0.001), upper body strength (R = −0.318, p < 0.001), and lower body strength (R = −0.216, p = 0.020) and occupational performance. Conclusions: Aged firefighters with poor body composition and lower levels of physical fitness performed worse on all occupational performance tasks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2nd Edition: Police Officers, Firefighters and/or Militaries High-Risk Job Occupations: Assessment of the Different Threats and Preventive Measures)

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