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Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Science and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2023) | Viewed by 67447

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Dr. Ana Luísa Patrício da Silva

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Guest Editor

Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM) & Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Interests: plastic pollution; micro(nano)plastics; ecotoxicology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Teresa A. P. Rocha-Santos

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Guest Editor

Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Interests: development of analytical methodologies fit for purpose; (bio)sensors; plastics; microplastics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Plastic pollution is an emerging threat to both environment and human health that weakens global economic development. Acting to tackle this issue requires solid knowledge and adequate metrics to guide and prioritise actions at different levels (waste management, litter monitoring, risk assessment and management, remediation) in order to implement adequate policies and enforcement strategies to promote environmental health and ensure sustainable development. Thus, this Special Issue invites contributions in all aspects of plastic pollution and waste management such as (i) plastic waste generation and characterisation studies, (ii) strategies to control and mitigate plastic pollution, (iii) technologies and methods for plastics recycling to value-added products, (iv) innovations on biobased plastics: challenges and opportunities in a circular economy, (v) analysis and prevention of plastic pollution including analytical methodologies for sampling, characterisation and analysis of (micro)plastics, (vi) microplastics in the environment: fate and effects, (vii) ecological risks of micro(nano)plastics, (viii) management and remediation of contaminated sites with plastic debris, (ix) emerging technologies for microplastics mitigation: emphasis for landfill leachates and wastewater treatment plants. Papers relating to plastic waste management during the COVID-19 pandemic are also welcome. Both research and review papers are welcome.

Dr. Ana Luísa Patrício da Silva
Dr. Teresa A. P. Rocha-Santos
Guest Editors

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Keywords

waste management
plastic pollution
environmental health
human health
mitigation strategies
microplastics
nanoplastics
ecological risk assessment
remediation
biotechnological advances

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 799 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of the Big Five Personality Traits on Residents’ Plastic Reduction Attitudes in China

by Yong Li, Bairong Wang and Yunyu Li

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(10), 5762; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20105762 - 9 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2306

Abstract

Plastic pollution has become one of the most pressing environmental issues. It is essential to understand why an individual is or is not supportive of reducing plastics. This study aims to investigate the dynamics behind residents’ plastic reduction attitudes from the lens of the Big Five personality traits. A sample of 521 residents in China was recruited and analyzed for this study. The results indicate that the Conscientiousness personality type is a reliable green personality with positive plastic reduction attitudes. Highly conscientious individuals are more responsible for the environment, and are expected to strictly follow the plastic ban policies, whereas less conscientious individuals are more likely to turn a blind eye to them. More importantly, the relationship between a Conscientiousness personality and plastic reduction attitudes is negatively moderated by education. The discovery of education’s moderating role suggests that both an inborn personality trait of Conscientiousness and post-born education can complementarily shape residents’ plastic reduction attitudes. The findings of this study deepen the understanding of the causes of pro-environmental attitudes and provide valuable insights into plastic management in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions)

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13 pages, 3114 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Polyurethane Small-Sized Microplastics in the Chironomid, Chironomus riparius: Responses at Organismal and Sub-Organismal Levels

by Sara A. M. Silva, Andreia C. M. Rodrigues, Teresa Rocha-Santos, Ana L. Patrício Silva and Carlos Gravato

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(23), 15610; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315610 - 24 Nov 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2151

Abstract

Freshwater provides valuable services and functions to humankind. However, macroinvertebrates that underpin the delivery of many of those ecosystem services and functions are under an additional threat caused by microplastic pollution. Chironomids are one of the most abundant groups of macroinvertebrates in these environments and the most sensitive to microplastics. This investigation addressed the effects of polyurethane (PU-MPs; 7.0–9.0 µm) on the chironomid Chironomus riparius at the organism and sub-organism levels. For this purpose, two assays were carried out: (i) addressing the effects of PU-MPs on C. riparius partial life cycle traits (larval size and emergence parameters) in a 28 d assay considering concentrations up to 750 mg/Kg, and (ii) larvae behaviour (locomotion) as well as the biochemical responses (oxidative damage, aerobic energy production, and energy reserves) in a 10 d assay considering an environmentally relevant concentration with no observed effects on C. riparius previous life history traits (no observed effect concentration; NOEC = (375 mg/kg). Exposure to PU-MPs did not affect C. riparius larval length nor cumulative and time to emergence. Conversely, when exposed to an environmentally relevant concentration for 10 days, contaminated larvae were revealed to be lighter (but not smaller nor less nutritionally affected in terms of energy reserves) and more active when foraging, which was reflected in the activation of their aerobic metabolism when assessing the electron transport chain as a proxy. Notwithstanding, PU-MPs did not originate observable energy costs, either on protein, lipid, or sugar contents on contaminated larvae, which may justify the absence of effects on larval growth and emergence. Therefore, the increased production of energy used for the locomotion and functioning of larvae was at the expense of the fraction of energy that should have been allocated for the weight of the individuals. A long-term exposure involving a multigenerational assessment would bring intel on the potential (cumulative) sub-lethal effects of PU-MPs on C. riparius fitness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions)

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10 pages, 3988 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coagulation and Flocculation before Primary Clarification as Efficient Solutions for Low-Density Microplastic Removal from Wastewater

by Piotr Jachimowicz and Agnieszka Cydzik-Kwiatkowska

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(20), 13013; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013013 - 11 Oct 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2719

Abstract

Microplastic (MP) removal from wastewater was investigated using various types and doses of commercial coagulants (PIX, PAX) and flocculants (FPM, PEL, FCT) before primary clarification in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Dosing with FPM, PIX, and PEL caused small MPs (180–212 µm) to be transferred mainly to the settled sludge (up to 86.4% of MP at a dose of 5 mL FMP/m³), while dosing of FCT and PAX caused these MPs to be transferred to the floated sludge (up to 64% MP at a dose of 5 mL PAX/m³). The efficiency of MP removal from wastewater was the highest (90%) with 2.5 mL PAX/m³; the generated primary sludge had a low MP content and could be safely managed in subsequent stages of sludge treatment. At the highest doses, PIX significantly increased the removal of P-PO₄ (up to 94%) and COD (up to 73%). FPM and FCT resulted in over 40% efficiency of ammonium removal—such disturbance in wastewater composition may negatively affect further biological treatment. Effective removal of MP in the mechanical part of WWTP resulting from coagulation and flocculation enables the safe use of the excess sludge for agricultural purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions)

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15 pages, 2027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recycling Potential of Plastic Resources from End-of-Life Passenger Vehicles in China

by Yang Li, Shiyu Huang, Yanhui Liu and Yiyi Ju

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(19), 10285; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910285 - 29 Sep 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3678

Abstract

A rapid increase in the number of end-of-life (EoL) passenger vehicles has led to a large amount of waste plastics in China. However, the scale and efficiency of recycling resources from EoL vehicles still restricts the sustainable and healthy development of the automotive industry. The current behavior of automotive/recycling industry entities, as well as the strategy of waste management policymakers, may depend on the potential of total recyclable resources. To reveal such recycling potential of various plastic materials in EoL passenger vehicles, we predicted total EoL passenger vehicles in China from 2021 to 2030 (used the Weibull distribution) considering passenger vehicle ownership (estimated by the Gompertz model), quantified the demand for new passenger vehicles (estimated using its non-linear relationship with income level and passenger vehicle ownership), and assessed the recyclable plastics by categories and by provinces. The results show that (i) the annual average recycled plastic resources from EoL vehicles would exceed 2400 thousand t in 2030, more than 2.5 times in 2021, showing a great recycling potential; (ii) the differences among the three scenarios are relatively small, indicating that no matter the saturation level of passenger vehicles in China would be high or low, a rapid increase of recyclable plastic resources can be expected from 2021 to 2030; (iii) at the provincial level, a considerable gap between the potential of recycling plastic from EoL passenger vehicles and the regional processing capacity. Given such great potential and regional differences, the recycling policies should be applied in stages and consider the development level and recovery pressure in each region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions)

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11 pages, 849 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Microplastics Influence the Accumulation of Pb in Tissues of Blue Crab?

by Paula Munuera, Inmaculada Salvat-Leal, Antonio Belmonte and Diego Romero

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(7), 3599; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073599 - 30 Mar 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3164

Abstract

The study of microplastics (MPs) and associated pollutants is essential for a better understanding of some of the factors that threaten marine ecosystems. The main objective of this study was thus to assess Pb distribution and accumulation in the tissues of blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) exposed to MPs. Blue crabs were collected from the mouth of the river Segura (Guardamar, Spain) and fed on mussels from two Mediterranean areas with different levels of Pb contamination: Portmán Bay and San Pedro del Pinatar (Murcia, Spain). In addition, a batch of each group were exposed to MPs. After seven days of exposure, the crabs were euthanised, and tissues and faeces were analysed. The hepatopancreas was found to be the best tissue for measuring Pb concentrations after feeding; muscle tissue did not provide information on environmental quality. The meat (muscle) consumption of blue crabs from zones with high Pb content does not seem to constitute a risk for consumers, although the risk is not totally negated if all soft tissues are ingested. The presence of MPs in the water does not seem to increase the accumulation of Pb in these tissues of C. sapidus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions)

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Review

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17 pages, 1247 KiB

Open AccessReview

Approaches for Management and Valorization of Non-Homogeneous, Non-Recyclable Plastic Waste

by Stefano Gazzotti, Beatrice De Felice, Marco Aldo Ortenzi and Marco Parolini

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(16), 10088; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191610088 - 15 Aug 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3550

Abstract

The environmental accumulation of plastic wastes has become one of the most discussed topics in the scientific community. The development of new strategies to tackle this issue is of crucial importance, and different approaches are being investigated to effectively reduce plastic waste generated by improper or inefficient disposal. In addition to the efforts addressing the development of biodegradable plastics, the research is currently focused on the development of innovative recycling approaches. Indeed, although most plastic materials are potentially recyclable, only 15% of the worldwide plastic waste is currently recycled, while the remaining 85% is usually incinerated to recover thermal energy or landfilled. The hurdles to efficient recycling come from improper management of end-of-life plastic goods. Moreover, the highly heterogeneous nature and versatility of plastic and polymeric materials have led to the development of multilayered materials, composites, blends and many other different species, whose management and/or reprocessing to yield high-value products is extremely challenging. Thus, although these materials are extremely valuable from an industrial point of view, they add a high degree of complexity to the recycling process because each one of them is different from the other, but they cannot be separated efficiently. The aim of the present review is to return a comprehensive overview of environmental and management issues related to the complex and heterogeneous mixture of plastic waste that is generated at the end of the sorting procedures in Italian plastic recycling plants, the so-called ‘Plasmix’. This review lists the difficulties and limitations related to the management of non-recyclable Plasmix and highlights the strategies for the proper, sustainable and valuable use of this plastic waste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions)

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22 pages, 3671 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Burden of Microplastics Pollution and Contending Policies and Regulations

by Sunusi Usman, Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis, Khozirah Shaari, Mohammad Noor Amal Azmai, Mohd Zamri Saad, Nurulfiza Mat Isa and Muhammad Farhan Nazarudin

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(11), 6773; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116773 - 1 Jun 2022

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5985

Abstract

The relationship between humans and plastics has become intricate due to their versatile nature and low production cost. Plastics generation has surpassed that of other manufactured products, which, coupled with the prevailing poor waste management systems, makes it a serious problem for the terrestrial and aquatic environments as its final destination. Their extensive presence has continued to pose a significant threat, not only to the aquatic ecosystem but also to the approximately 3 billion people relying on it for their livelihood. Even more disturbing were the recent findings of these plastics in food and drinking water and the evidence of human exposure, the long-term health effects of which are largely unknown. This ubiquitous phenomenon has over time put plastics under critical observation, leading to the development of many local and international policies, resolutions, and directives aimed at addressing and reversing the menace. This review provided the first snapshot of the global and local governance strategies currently aimed at mitigating plastic pollution, their limitations, and future directions. The findings of the review revealed several aspects of microplastics (MPs) pollution to be overlooked in policy formulation, a laxity in policy implementation, and an apparent lack of indices to ascertain the impact of the regulations. Furthermore, there is currently no regulation on MPs contamination of food and drinking water and an apparent lack of funding for research into the health effects of plastics and their alternatives. This, therefore, necessitates the need for a well-coordinated approach at international and national levels to scale up these policies in all countries and translate them from paper to measurable, holistic, and realizable actions that will address all forms of plastic pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions)

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31 pages, 8368 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plastic Waste Management Strategies and Their Environmental Aspects: A Scientometric Analysis and Comprehensive Review

by Saimin Huang, Hongchang Wang, Waqas Ahmad, Ayaz Ahmad, Nikolai Ivanovich Vatin, Abdeliazim Mustafa Mohamed, Ahmed Farouk Deifalla and Imran Mehmood

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(8), 4556; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084556 - 10 Apr 2022

Cited by 112 | Viewed by 17801

Abstract

Plastic consumption increases with the growing population worldwide and results in increased quantities of plastic waste. There are various plastic waste management strategies; however, the present management progress is not sustainable, and plastic waste dumping in landfills is still the most commonly employed strategy. Being nonbiodegradable, plastic waste dumping in landfills creates several environmental and human health problems. Numerous research studies have been conducted recently to determine safe and ecologically beneficial methods of plastic waste handling. This article performed a bibliographic analysis of the available literature on plastic waste management using a computational approach. The highly used keywords, most frequently cited papers and authors, actively participating countries, and sources of publications were analyzed during the bibliographic analysis. In addition, the various plastic waste management strategies and their environmental benefits have been discussed. It has been concluded that among the six plastic waste management techniques (landfills, recycling, pyrolysis, liquefaction, road construction and tar, and concrete production), road construction and tar and concrete production are the two most effective strategies. This is due to significant benefits, such as ease of localization, decreased greenhouse gas emissions, and increased durability and sustainability of manufactured materials, structures, and roadways. Conversely, using landfills is the most undesirable strategy because of the associated environmental and human health concerns. Recycling has equal benefits and drawbacks. In comparison, pyrolysis and liquefaction are favorable due to the production of char and fuel, but high energy requirements limit their benefits. Hence, the use of plastic waste for construction applications is recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions)

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11 pages, 1407 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Health and Environmental Impact of Plastic Waste Disposal in South African Townships: A Review

by Adeleye Ayoade Adeniran and Winston Shakantu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(2), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020779 - 11 Jan 2022

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 13423

Abstract

Twenty-first century human behaviour continues to escalate activities that result in environmental damage. This calls for environmentally friendly solutions, such as waste recycling and handling, to deal with the increased amount of waste, especially plastics. The plastic materials manufacturing sector is booming, particularly packaging; while only a fraction of its waste is recycled, another fraction is destroyed, and the larger part continues to pollute the environment. In addition to other waste disposal activities, destroying plastic or incineration (which could be for energy recovery) is usually subjected to strict legal requirements because of its effect on the environment. However plastic is destroyed or disposed of, it poses a serious challenge in both the short term and the long term to humans and their natural environment if the process is not efficiently managed. This article describes how a growing amount of plastic waste is disposed of haphazardly in South African townships, while most of the inhabitants are not aware or do not care about the adverse environmental and health effects of these actions. This article examines the environmental and health effects of poor plastic disposal in South African townships as it is in other developing countries to sensitise the citizens to the significance of reducing plastic waste quantities, which will downplay their impact on human health and the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions)

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16 pages, 1166 KiB

Open AccessReview

Are Biobased Plastics Green Alternatives?—A Critical Review

by Diogo A. Ferreira-Filipe, Ana Paço, Armando C. Duarte, Teresa Rocha-Santos and Ana L. Patrício Silva

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 7729; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157729 - 21 Jul 2021

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 9263

Abstract

Environmental sustainability is driving an intense search for “green materials”. Biobased plastics have emerged as a promising alternative. Their building blocks can now be obtained from diverse biomass, by-products, and organic residues due to the advances in biorefineries and bioprocessing technologies, decreasing the demand for fossil fuel resources and carbon footprint. Novel biobased polymers with high added value and improved properties and functionalities have been developed to apply diverse economic sectors. However, the real opportunities and risks of such novel biobased plastic solutions have raised scientific and public awareness. This paper provides a critical review on the recent advances in biobased polymers chemistry and emerging (bio)technologies that underpin their production and discusses the potential for biodegradation, recycling, environmental safety, and toxicity of these biobased solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste: From Sources to Solutions)

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