International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Research

8 pages, 531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mediation Effect of Perceived Fitness on the Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Sport Practice in Spanish Adolescents

by Silvia Arribas-Galarraga, Izaskun Luis-de Cos, Gurutze Luis-de Cos and Saioa Urrutia-Gutierrez

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(23), 8800; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238800 - 26 Nov 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2774

Abstract

There has been a decrease in sports practices among the adolescent population, and several authors have tried to identify variables that can explain this decrease by analyzing psychosocial aspects such as perceived fitness and self-efficacy. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to [...] Read more.

There has been a decrease in sports practices among the adolescent population, and several authors have tried to identify variables that can explain this decrease by analyzing psychosocial aspects such as perceived fitness and self-efficacy. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to examine the association of perceived fitness and self-efficacy with sport practices and to determine whether perceived fitness is a mediator of the association between self-efficacy and sport practice in Spanish adolescents. The sample was composed of 882 students between 13 and 17 years old from Gipuzkoa (Spain). A descriptive, correlational and direct/indirect effect approach was used, using the PROCESS macro for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Among the results obtained, it is highlighted on the one hand, that perceived fitness significantly correlates with both self-efficacy and sport practice, on the other hand, it is confirmed that perceived fitness is a mediator in the relationship between self-efficacy and sports practice. This finding highlights the importance of psychosocial aspects in efforts to increase sports practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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11 pages, 313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Motor Competence and Attainment of Global Physical Activity Guidelines among a Statewide Sample of Preschoolers

by Anthony Slaton, Alysse J. Kowalski, Amy Zemanick, Ann Pulling Kuhn, Erin R. Hager and Maureen M. Black

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(22), 8546; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228546 - 18 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2449

Abstract

Global physical activity guidelines for preschoolers include 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) daily. This study, based on the developmental model of motor skill competence, examines how motor competence relates to preschoolers’ likelihood of meeting global guidelines using ankle accelerometry. We measured [...] Read more.

Global physical activity guidelines for preschoolers include 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) daily. This study, based on the developmental model of motor skill competence, examines how motor competence relates to preschoolers’ likelihood of meeting global guidelines using ankle accelerometry. We measured physical activity using 24-h ankle-placement accelerometry (Actical) for at least two consecutive days (87% with six-seven days), motor competence using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), and BMI-for-age z-scores (BMIz) using anthropometry and age- and sex-specific CDC norms. Caregivers provided demographic characteristics of children’s age, sex, and race. We used multivariable logistic regression to examine how motor competence, BMIz weight status, and demographic characteristics related to meeting global physical activity guidelines. The sample included 588 preschoolers, age 3–5 years; 55% male; 60% white; and 28% overweight/obese; 75% attained the recommended 60 min of MVPA per day. The odds of meeting MVPA guidelines were associated with higher gross motor quotient, higher object control scores, sex (male), age (older), and race (white), but not with BMIz weight status. Findings support the use of 24-h ankle accelerometry among preschoolers and are consistent with the developmental model of motor competence applied to preschoolers, whereby object control competence relates positively to attaining global physical activity guidelines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

13 pages, 943 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laterality in Children: Evidence for Task-Dependent Lateralization of Motor Functions

by Danilo Bondi, Giulia Prete, Gianluca Malatesta and Claudio Robazza

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(18), 6705; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186705 - 15 Sep 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4799

Abstract

The behavioral preference for the use of one side of the body starts from pre-natal life and prompt humans to develop motor asymmetries. The type of motor task completed influences those functional asymmetries. However, there is no real consensus on the occurrence of [...] Read more.

The behavioral preference for the use of one side of the body starts from pre-natal life and prompt humans to develop motor asymmetries. The type of motor task completed influences those functional asymmetries. However, there is no real consensus on the occurrence of handedness during developmental ages. Therefore, we aimed to determine which motor asymmetries emerged differently during childhood. A total sample of 381 children in grades 1 to 5 (6–11 years old) of primary school were recruited and tested for two fine coordination tasks (Floppy, led by dexterity, and Thumb, led by speed-dominated skills) and handgrip strength (HS). Data about their handedness, footedness and sports participation were also collected. Children performed better with their dominant side, especially for the Floppy and HS tests. The asymmetries were more marked in right-handed children and did not differ by age, gender or type of sport. Our findings support the thesis of a functional lateralization in complex coordinative tasks and in maximal strength during developmental ages. Furthermore, our findings extend the evidence of a stronger lateralization in right-handed individuals, demonstrating it at a functional level in primary school children performing motor tasks. Fine motor skills allow a “fine” understanding of developmental trajectories of lateralized behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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11 pages, 328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Fitness, Selective Attention and Academic Performance in a Pre-Adolescent Sample

by José A. Páez-Maldonado, Rafael E. Reigal, Juan P. Morillo-Baro, Hernaldo Carrasco-Beltrán, Antonio Hernández-Mendo and Verónica Morales-Sánchez

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(17), 6216; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176216 - 27 Aug 2020

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5654

Abstract

The purpose of the current study is to analyze the relationships between physical fitness, selective attention, and academic performance in pre-teens. The sample here consists of 135 participants between the ages of 10 and 12 (M = 11.05; SD = 0.61), with 39.26% [...] Read more.

The purpose of the current study is to analyze the relationships between physical fitness, selective attention, and academic performance in pre-teens. The sample here consists of 135 participants between the ages of 10 and 12 (M = 11.05; SD = 0.61), with 39.26% female (n = 53) and 60.74% male (n = 82) participants. Horizontal and vertical jump distances, speed, and cardio-respiratory fitness were evaluated to assess physical fitness. The d2 Test of Attention was used to evaluate selective attention. In addition, data were obtained regarding participant academic performance by analyzing the academic performance. The results show significant relationships between the measures analyzed, highlighting positive associations between physical fitness, cognitive functioning, and academic performance. Thus, participants who were fitter scored better on tests of attention (Z₁₃₃ = −4.07; p < 0.00007, Cohen’s d = 0.75, 95% CI (0.39, 1.11)) and concentration (t₁₃₃ = −3.84; p < 0.0007, Cohen’s d = 0.69, 95% CI (0.33, 1.05)), as well as having higher academic performance (Z₁₃₃ = −2.84; p < 0.0035, Cohen’s d = 0.39, 95% CI (0.04, 0.75)). Cardiorespiratory fitness was the measure of physical fitness that best explained these relationships. The results suggest that maintaining and improving the physical fitness of children and adolescents may help their brain function develop better. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

10 pages, 809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Gross Motor Coordination and Physical Fitness in Children: Comparison between Soccer and Multisport Activities

by Boris Popović, Marko Gušić, Danilo Radanović, Slobodan Andrašić, Dejan M. Madić, Draženka Mačak, Dušan Stupar, Goran Đukić, Dragan Grujičić and Nebojša Trajković

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(16), 5902; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165902 - 14 Aug 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5448

Abstract

The early detection and continuous monitoring of children’s motor competence levels and physical fitness is very important. The purpose of this study was to determine the differences in motor coordination of children enrolled in soccer and multisport activities. The participants of this study [...] Read more.

The early detection and continuous monitoring of children’s motor competence levels and physical fitness is very important. The purpose of this study was to determine the differences in motor coordination of children enrolled in soccer and multisport activities. The participants of this study included 147 boys and girls (mean age 7.60 ± 0.85 years). The total sample of subjects was composed of two subgroups: children who were enrolled in organized exercise programs—multisports (n = 77), and children who were engaged in soccer training (n = 70). Motor coordination was evaluated with the Kiphard–Schilling body coordination test (KTK). Physical fitness was assessed with a 20 m shuttle run test, 4 × 10 m shuttle run test, standing long jump, and handgrip strength. The ANCOVA showed significant differences (p < 0.05) with large effect size between groups for tests hopping for height (d = 0.93), total motor quotient (d = 1.31), jumping sideways (d = 1.32), and moving sideways (d = 1.59), after adjusting for age and gender. There were no significant differences between groups in the physical fitness tests. It can be concluded that children enrolled in multisport activities have higher levels of motor coordination than children who are enrolled only in soccer. Therefore, multiple sport training programs should be considered and encouraged by parents, educators, and other training professionals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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16 pages, 1070 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can the Neuromuscular Performance of Young Athletes Be Influenced by Hormone Levels and Different Stages of Puberty?

by Paulo Francisco de Almeida-Neto, Dihogo Gama de Matos, Vanessa Carla Monteiro Pinto, Paulo Moreira Silva Dantas, Tatianny de Macêdo Cesário, Luíz Felipe da Silva, Alexandre Bulhões-Correia, Felipe José Aidar and Breno Guilherme de Araújo Tinôco Cabral

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(16), 5637; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165637 - 5 Aug 2020

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 4738

Abstract

Background: Endocrine mechanisms can be a determining factor in the neuromuscular performance of young athletes. Objective: The objective of the present study was to relate maturational and hormonal markers to neuromuscular performance, as well as to verify whether young athletes with different testosterone [...] Read more.

Background: Endocrine mechanisms can be a determining factor in the neuromuscular performance of young athletes. Objective: The objective of the present study was to relate maturational and hormonal markers to neuromuscular performance, as well as to verify whether young athletes with different testosterone levels show differences in muscle strength. Methods: The sample consisted of 37 young male Brazilian athletes (11.3 ± 0.94 years) who were members of a sports initiation project. Hormonal markers were analyzed biochemically by blood samples, and maturation markers by mathematical models based on anthropometry. Body composition was verified by tetrapolar bioimpedance. The performance of upper and lower limb strength and body speed were analyzed. Results: Hormonal and maturational markers were related to neuromuscular performance (p < 0.05). Young people with higher testosterone levels showed higher muscle strength (p < 0.05). Artificial neural networks showed that testosterone predicted the performance of upper limbs by 49%, and maturation by 60%. Maturation foreshadowed the performance of lower limbs by 30.3%. Conclusion: Biological maturation and hormonal levels can be related to neuromuscular performance, and young people with higher testosterone levels show superior muscle strength in relation to the others. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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11 pages, 329 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does A Multiple-Sport Intervention Based on the TGfU Pedagogical Model for Physical Education Increase Physical Fitness in Primary School Children?

by Armando Cocca, Jovanny Edmundo Carbajal Baca, Germán Hernández Cruz and Michaela Cocca

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(15), 5532; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155532 - 31 Jul 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5464

Abstract

Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) is one of the pedagogical models used for increasing health through physical education (PE), being associated with several psychological benefits. However, only few studies have studied the effect of TGfU on physical fitness. This study aims at assessing [...] Read more.

Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) is one of the pedagogical models used for increasing health through physical education (PE), being associated with several psychological benefits. However, only few studies have studied the effect of TGfU on physical fitness. This study aims at assessing the changes in students’ physical fitness after a six-month TGfU-based program with primary school children. A total of eight schools from the state of Sonora (Mexico) were randomly distributed into experimental (EG) and control group (CG). The final sample consisted of 188 pupils (100 boys, 88 girls; age = 10.22 ± 0.76 years) from the 5th and 6th grade. Employing a quasi-experimental design, physical fitness was assessed by means of the Eurofit test battery. At post-test, EG obtained significantly higher scores than CG in flexibility, abdominals, speed (p < 0.001), handgrip (p = 0.002), low-limb power (p = 0.032), and cardiorespiratory fitness (p = 0.048). Our findings suggest that TGfU can be a valid alternative to traditional methodologies not only when the aim of a PE unit is to stimulate the cognitive domain, but also for the development of physical fitness attributes that may help pupils develop in a comprehensive manner. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

11 pages, 1409 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of a Six-Week Core Conditioning as a Warm-Up Exercise in Physical Education Classes on Physical Fitness, Movement Capability, and Balance in School-Aged Children

by Nai-Jen Chang, I-Hsien Tsai, Chia-Lun Lee and Chun-Hao Liang

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(15), 5517; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155517 - 30 Jul 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8658

Abstract

Whether the implementation of feasible, equipment-free, and simple core exercises in warm-up routines in physical education classes for school-aged children is beneficial remains unclear. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of a core conditioning in the warm-up routine of physical education classes on [...] Read more.

Whether the implementation of feasible, equipment-free, and simple core exercises in warm-up routines in physical education classes for school-aged children is beneficial remains unclear. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of a core conditioning in the warm-up routine of physical education classes on trunk muscular endurance, movement capability, and flexibility in this population. In these pre- and post-test control group experiments, 52 healthy, school-aged children (aged 10–11 years) were cluster randomized allocated to either the dynamic core exercise (DCE) group or general physical education (GPE) group. The DCE group performed a 10-min core exercise routine twice per week for six consecutive weeks; the GPE group performed traditional physical education warm-up exercises regularly. The children were assessed by conducting the trunk muscular endurance test (i.e., dynamic curl-up, static curl-up, plank, and lateral plank), functional movement screen (FMS), and single-leg balance test before and after the intervention. At the end of the intervention, the DCE group demonstrated a significant effect on trunk muscular endurance, movement capability (i.e., FMS scores), flexibility, and balance (each p < 0.001, effect size: 0.38–1.3). Furthermore, the DCE group showed significant improvements in all outcome measurements compared with the GPE group (p < 0.05, effect size: 0.29–1.68). These data may provide a reference for incorporating additional core stability exercises in the warm-up routine of physical education classes in school-aged children in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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13 pages, 356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of a Game-Based Physical Education Program on Physical Fitness and Mental Health in Elementary School Children

by Armando Cocca, Francisco Espino Verdugo, Luis Tomás Ródenas Cuenca and Michaela Cocca

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(13), 4883; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134883 - 7 Jul 2020

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 10706

Abstract

Promotion of healthy active behaviors should start from early ages, as behaviors learned in youth are more likely to endure. A fundamental body of research in this field focuses on the implementation of programs within physical education (PE), thanks to its favorable characteristics. [...] Read more.

Promotion of healthy active behaviors should start from early ages, as behaviors learned in youth are more likely to endure. A fundamental body of research in this field focuses on the implementation of programs within physical education (PE), thanks to its favorable characteristics. However, traditional PE based on exercise training and controlling styles seems to have weaker association with students’ health benefits. For this reason, the aim of this study was to assess the effects of a game-based PE program on physical fitness and psychological health in schoolchildren aged 10 to 12 years old. A total of 252 students were distributed in experimental (EG, games-centered activities) and control (CG, traditional exercise training activities) groups. The program lasted 6 months. Health-related physical fitness components, psychological wellbeing, self-esteem, stress, and anxiety were assessed before and after the treatment. Both groups increased physical fitness at post-test; however, cardiorespiratory fitness did not improve. No differences were found between the groups at post-test. Our results show that games may be as effective as traditional training methods; yet, they suggest that PE alone may be insufficient for obtaining substantive benefits in cardiorespiratory fitness, regardless of the type of task presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

11 pages, 379 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Siblings and Type of Delivery on the Development of Motor Skills in the First 48 Months of Life

by Miguel Rebelo, João Serrano, Pedro Duarte-Mendes, Rui Paulo and Daniel A. Marinho

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(11), 3864; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17113864 - 29 May 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3490

Abstract

This study aimed to verify whether the presence of siblings and the type of delivery had an influence on the motor skills development of children in the first 48 months of life. We developed a quantitative study with a sample of 405 children [...] Read more.

This study aimed to verify whether the presence of siblings and the type of delivery had an influence on the motor skills development of children in the first 48 months of life. We developed a quantitative study with a sample of 405 children of both genders, divided according to the studied variables: children with siblings, children without siblings, children born via eutocic delivery, and children born via dystocic delivery. The instrument used in the study was the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2. Overall, the results indicated that children who had siblings had, on average, better outcomes regarding all motor skills (global and fine). Furthermore, those born via eutocic delivery, on average, had better outcomes regarding all motor skills (global and fine) when compared to children born via dystocic delivery. Thus, the presence of siblings in the family context and the type of delivery positively influenced motor development, especially after 24 months of age, showing that the presence of siblings providing cooperative activities through play and challenges improved cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development. Furthermore, a eutocic delivery, in addition to providing a better recovery from labor and the immediate affective bond between mother and child, also led to better results in terms of global and fine motor skills. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

13 pages, 593 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biological Maturation and Hormonal Markers, Relationship to Neuromotor Performance in Female Children

by Paulo Francisco de Almeida-Neto, Paulo Moreira Silva Dantas, Vanessa Carla Monteiro Pinto, Tatianny de Macêdo Cesário, Nathália Monastirski Ribeiro Campos, Eduardo Estevan Santana, Dihogo Gama de Matos, Felipe J Aidar and Breno Guilherme de Araújo Tinoco Cabral

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(9), 3277; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093277 - 8 May 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4940

Abstract

Background: Mechanisms that influence muscle strength can interfere with neuromotor performance and overall health, thus hormone markers and maturation can interact in this process. Objective: The present study aimed to verify the relationship of hormonal markers and biological maturation on neuromotor abilities [...] Read more.

Background: Mechanisms that influence muscle strength can interfere with neuromotor performance and overall health, thus hormone markers and maturation can interact in this process. Objective: The present study aimed to verify the relationship of hormonal markers and biological maturation on neuromotor abilities in young people. Methods: This is a cross-sectional study with 44 female participants (11.5 ± 1.5 years). Hormones were analyzed biochemically. Skeletal and somatic maturation were analyzed using anthropometry. The muscular power of the upper and lower limbs, body speed with change of direction, and speed of the upper limbs were verified. Results: Bone age was correlated with hormonal markers (estradiol: r = 0.58; p = 0.0007), (testosterone: r = 0.51; p = 0.005). Peak growth velocity correlated with estradiol (r = 0.51; p = 0.004). The power of the lower limbs (estradiol: r = 0.52; p = 0.006; testosterone: r = 0.42; p = 0.03) and of the upper limbs (estradiol: r = 0.51; p = 0.007; testosterone: r = 0.42; p = 0.02) had a positive correlation with hormone levels and had similar results with maturation. The analysis by artificial neural networks indicated that the maturation can predict the neuromotor performance between 57.4% and 76%, while the hormonal markers showed a potential of more than 95% for the foreshadowing of the neuromotor performance of the upper limbs. Conclusion: It was possible to conclude that the hormones had a relationship with maturational development and bone age in female subjects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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10 pages, 625 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Balance, but Not Precision Throw, Is Positively Associated with Academic Performance in Children

by Rodrigo A. Lima, David F. Stodden, Karin A. Pfeiffer, Lisbeth R. Larsen, Mauro V. G. Barros, Anna Bugge and Lars B. Andersen

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(8), 2790; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082790 - 17 Apr 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2918

Abstract

We analyzed the longitudinal association between dynamic balance and throwing skill with academic performance and whether waist circumference mediated these relationships. The current one-year longitudinal study followed 1020 first (mean age 7.87 ± 0.34 years) through fifth grade (mean age 11.87 ± 0.37 [...] Read more.

We analyzed the longitudinal association between dynamic balance and throwing skill with academic performance and whether waist circumference mediated these relationships. The current one-year longitudinal study followed 1020 first (mean age 7.87 ± 0.34 years) through fifth grade (mean age 11.87 ± 0.37 years) children, measured twice in 2010 and 2011. Dynamic balance and precision throw were measures of motor competence. Waist circumference was measured with a measuring tape at the umbilicus level. Academic performance was assessed by a combined score of standardized Danish language and math tests. Structural equation modeling was used for analysis. All coefficients are standardized. Balance was associated with academic performance when both sexes were combined (β = 0.126, 95% CI: 0.074 to 0.179), and waist circumference partially mediated the relationship (β = 0.021, 95% CI: 0.008 to 0.034). For boys, balance was associated with academic performance, but waist circumference did not mediate the association. For girls, balance presented direct, mediated (via waist circumference), and total associations with academic performance. Dynamic balance is an important gross motor function that was longitudinally related to academic performance, and waist circumference partially mediated the relationship. Precision throw was not found to be associated with academic performance in both sexes combined or when analyzed separately. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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17 pages, 504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Individual, Family, and Environmental Correlates of Motor Competence in Young Children: Regression Model Analysis of Data Obtained from Two Motor Tests

by Donna Niemistö, Taija Finni, Marja Cantell, Elisa Korhonen and Arja Sääkslahti

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(7), 2548; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072548 - 8 Apr 2020

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8042

Abstract

Physical activity and motor competence (MC) have been considered to be closely related and prevent childhood obesity. The aim of the study was two-fold: to examine MC measured with two different tools in relation to individual, family, and environmental correlates and to investigate [...] Read more.

Physical activity and motor competence (MC) have been considered to be closely related and prevent childhood obesity. The aim of the study was two-fold: to examine MC measured with two different tools in relation to individual, family, and environmental correlates and to investigate gender differences in MC. The Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) was administered to three- to seven-year-old children (n = 945), while the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) was also used for five- to seven-year-old children (n = 444). The parent questionnaire (n = 936) included questions about individual (e.g., participation in organized sports), family (e.g., parents’ education level), and environmental (e.g., access to sports facilities) correlates. The children’s temperament was assessed using the Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory (CCTI) questionnaire. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and linear mixed-effects regression models. The regression models explained 57% and 38% of the variance in TGMD-3 and KTK, respectively. Individual correlates, including older age, more frequent participation in sports, and specific temperament traits of activity and attention span-persistence, were the strongest predictors for better MC. Small gender differences were found in both assessment tools, albeit in a different manner. In conclusion, socioecological correlates of MC in young children are multidimensional, and individual correlates appear to be the most important predictors of MC. Importantly, the correlates can differ according to the MC assessment tools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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12 pages, 1176 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Infant Motor Milestones and Childhood Overweight: Trends over Two Decades in A Large Twin Cohort

by Silvia I. Brouwer, Ronald P. Stolk, Meike Bartels, Toos C.E.M. van Beijsterveld, Dorret I. Boomsma and Eva Corpeleijn

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(7), 2366; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072366 - 31 Mar 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6577

Abstract

Background: Poor motor skill competence may influence energy balance with childhood overweight as a result. Our aim was to investigate whether the age of motor milestone achievement has changed over the past decades and whether this change may contribute to the increasing trend [...] Read more.

Background: Poor motor skill competence may influence energy balance with childhood overweight as a result. Our aim was to investigate whether the age of motor milestone achievement has changed over the past decades and whether this change may contribute to the increasing trend observed in childhood overweight. Methods: Motor skill competence was assessed in children from the Young Netherlands Twin Register born between 1987 and 2007. Follow-up ranged from 4 up to 10 years. Weight and height were assessed at birth, 6 months, 14 months, and 2, 4, 7, and 10 years. Results: Babies born in later cohorts achieved their motor milestones ‘crawling’, ‘standing’, and ‘walking unassisted’ later compared to babies born in earlier cohorts (N = 18,514, p < 0.001). The prevalence of overweight at age 10 was higher in later cohorts (p = 0.033). The increase in overweight at age 10 was not explained by achieving motor milestones at a later age and this persisted after adjusting for gestational age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Conclusion: Comparing children born in 1987 to those born in 2007, we conclude that children nowadays achieve their motor milestones at a later age. This does not however, explain the increasing trend in childhood overweight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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12 pages, 1008 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Fitness in Upper Austrian Children Living in Urban and Rural Areas: A Cross-Sectional Analysis with More Than 18,000 Children

by Clemens Drenowatz, Franz Hinterkörner and Klaus Greier

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(3), 1045; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17031045 - 7 Feb 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3543

Abstract

Physical fitness is an important component in the development and health of children and adolescents. Given the equivocal results of previous research regarding the influence of the living environment on physical fitness, this study examined differences in physical fitness in urban and rural [...] Read more.

Physical fitness is an important component in the development and health of children and adolescents. Given the equivocal results of previous research regarding the influence of the living environment on physical fitness, this study examined differences in physical fitness in urban and rural elementary school children in Upper Austria. A total of 18,168 (51% male) children between 6 and 11 years of age participated in anthropometric assessments and completed eight fitness tests that assessed cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular power, speed, agility, flexibility, and ball handling skills during a single test session in the school’s gymnasium. Urban living environment was associated with higher body weight (p = 0.01) and lower physical fitness (p < 0.01), except for flexibility, which was better in urban children (p < 0.01) and upper body strength (no difference), even after accounting for differences in body weight. Furthermore, it was shown that urban–rural differences in physical fitness are more pronounced in normal weight children and that these differences increase with age. These results highlight the potential of the living environment for the promotion of an active lifestyle that enhances physical fitness. The availability of safe spaces that facilitate unstructured and structured physical activity, as well as active transportation provide viable options for the promotion of physical fitness in children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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16 pages, 652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of a Fundamental Motor Skill-Based Afterschool Program on Children’s Physical and Cognitive Health Outcomes

by Joonyoung Lee, Tao Zhang, Tsz Lun (Alan) Chu, Xiangli Gu and Ping Zhu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(3), 733; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030733 - 23 Jan 2020

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 5888

Abstract

Globally, more than half of school-aged children do not engage in the recommended 60 minutes of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Given that developing sufficient fundamental motor skills (FMS) competence during early elementary school years is important for a child’s physical [...] Read more.

Globally, more than half of school-aged children do not engage in the recommended 60 minutes of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Given that developing sufficient fundamental motor skills (FMS) competence during early elementary school years is important for a child’s physical and cognitive development, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an 8-week FMS-based afterschool program on physical and cognitive health outcomes among elementary children. Participants were 31 K–2 students (19 girls, 12 boys; Mage = 6.65 ± 0.98) from three public elementary schools in the southwestern United States who were assigned to the intervention group (FMS-based afterschool program; n = 20) or the control group (traditional afterschool program; n = 11). A 2 × 2 repeated measures MANOVA showed significant changes in FMS competence and MVPA between the intervention and the control group over time. However, no significant changes were found in cognitive functioning. The 8-week FMS-based afterschool program showed significant improvements in FMS competence and MVPA, compared to a traditional afterschool program. This finding suggests that structured FMS-focused strategies (e.g., fun games and goal setting) can be a critical component when implementing a physical activity program to enhance children’s motor skills and physical activity behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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9 pages, 322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Making a Difference in PE Lessons: Using a Low Organized Games Approach to Teach Fundamental Motor Skills in China

by Li Zhang and Peggy Cheung

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(23), 4618; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234618 - 21 Nov 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3576

Abstract

Background: Fundamental motor skills (FMS) is the foundational movement for children’s physical development. Physical Education (PE) lessons provide a unique opportunity for children to acquire these skills. The purposes of this study were to: (1) to describe the FMS performance of primary school [...] Read more.

Background: Fundamental motor skills (FMS) is the foundational movement for children’s physical development. Physical Education (PE) lessons provide a unique opportunity for children to acquire these skills. The purposes of this study were to: (1) to describe the FMS performance of primary school children in China; and (2) to examine the effect of a PE-based intervention on children’s FMS. Methods: The 12-week PE-based intervention was conducted using a low organized games (LOG) approach. Children’s FMS was measured by the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). Participants were 560 children aged between 6–9 years old (grade one to three) from two primary schools in Chongqing, China. They were grouped into intervention group (with LOG program PE; n = 282) or control group (with regular PE; n = 278). Results: The results revealed significant interaction effect between group and grade on the locomotor skill score changes (F_(1,554) = 22.31, p < 0.000), and object control score change (F_(1,554) = 627.1, p < 0.000). There was no significant interaction effect between the intervention group and gender on locomotor skill (F_(1,554) = 1.49, p = 0.223) and object control skill significant (F_(1,554) = 743, p = 0.389). Conclusions: The present study supported the application of LOG approach in PE lesson as an effective intervention to enhance children’s FMS in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

21 pages, 857 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact on Physical Fitness of the Chinese CHAMPS: A Clustered Randomized Controlled Trial

by Zhixiong Zhou, Shiyu Li, Jun Yin, Quan Fu, Hong Ren, Tao Jin, Jiahua Zhu, Jeffrey Howard, Tianwen Lan and Zenong Yin

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(22), 4412; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224412 - 11 Nov 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5805

Abstract

Background: School physical activity (PA) policy, physical education curriculum, teacher training, knowledge of physical fitness, and parental support are among the key issues underlying the declining trend of physical fitness in children and adolescents. The Chinese CHAMPS was a multi-faceted intervention program to [...] Read more.

Background: School physical activity (PA) policy, physical education curriculum, teacher training, knowledge of physical fitness, and parental support are among the key issues underlying the declining trend of physical fitness in children and adolescents. The Chinese CHAMPS was a multi-faceted intervention program to maximize the opportunities for moderate and vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and increase physical fitness in middle school students. The purpose of the study was to test whether the levels of modification in school physical education policy and curriculum incrementally influenced the changes in cardiorespiratory fitness and other physical fitness outcomes. Methods: This 8-month study was a clustered randomized controlled trial using a 2 × 2 factorial design. The participants were 680 7th grade students (mean age = 12.66 years) enrolled in 12 middle schools that were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions: school physical education intervention (SPE), afterschool program intervention (ASP), SPE+ASP, and control. Targeted behaviors of the Chinese CHAMPS were the student’s sedentary behavior and MVPA. The study outcomes were assessed by a test battery of physical fitness at the baseline and posttest. Sedentary behavior and MVPA were measured in randomly selected students using observations and accelerometry. Results: The terms contrasting the pooled effect of SPE, ASP, and SPE+ASP vs. Control, the pooled effect of SPE and SPE+ASP vs. ASP only, and the effect of SPE+ASP vs. ASP on CRF and other physical fitness outcomes were all significant after adjusting for covariates, supporting the study hypothesis. Process evaluation demonstrated high fidelity of the intervention in the targeted students’ behaviors. Conclusions: Chinese CHAMPS demonstrated the impact of varying the amount of MVPA and vigorous physical activity (VPA) on the physical fitness in middle school students in support of the need to increase the opportunity for PA in schools and to introduce high-intensity exercises in school-based PA programs. Modification of school policy, quality of physical education curriculum, and teacher training were important moderators of the improvement in physical fitness. (Trial registration: ChiCTR-IOR-14005388, the Childhood Health; Activity and Motor Performance Study). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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10 pages, 319 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Associated with Physical Fitness among Overweight and Non-Overweight Austrian Secondary School Students

by Gerhard Ruedl, Nikolaus Greier, Martin Niedermeier, Markus Posch, Vera Prünster, Martin Faulhaber and Martin Burtscher

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(21), 4117; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214117 - 25 Oct 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3138

Abstract

The aim of the study was to evaluate factors associated with physical fitness (PF) among overweight and non-overweight Austrian secondary school students. PF was measured using the German motor test (DMT) 6–18 and students were asked about sex, migration background, weekly leisure time [...] Read more.

The aim of the study was to evaluate factors associated with physical fitness (PF) among overweight and non-overweight Austrian secondary school students. PF was measured using the German motor test (DMT) 6–18 and students were asked about sex, migration background, weekly leisure time physical activity and daily electronic media use. In total 560 adolescents (56.6% female) with a mean age of 15.4 ± 1.4 years and a mean body mass index (BMI) of 22.5 ± 4.2 kg/m² were evaluated with 130 (23.2%) students classified as overweight or obese. For the total cohort, results of the multiple linear regression analysis (R² = 0.34) revealed that a younger age (β = −0.16), no migration background (β = 0.13), a lower BMI (β = −0.29), a higher weekly leisure time physical activity (β = 0.34) and a lower daily electronic media use (β = −0.15) were associated with increased PF. Separate regression analyses for non-overweight and overweight students showed similar regression coefficients except for BMI. In conclusion, the positive influence of modifiable factors such as lower BMI, higher self-reported weekly leisure time sports activity and lower self-reported daily electronic media use should be considered already at young ages to increase physical fitness in overweight and non-overweight youth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

Review

Jump to: Research, Other

17 pages, 623 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Secular Trends in Physical Fitness of Children and Adolescents: A Review of Large-Scale Epidemiological Studies Published after 2006

by Tanja Eberhardt, Claudia Niessner, Doris Oriwol, Lydia Buchal, Annette Worth and Klaus Bös

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(16), 5671; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165671 - 5 Aug 2020

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 4912

Abstract

Physical fitness (PF) of children and adolescents is an important resource for their future health. Population-based studies, however, rarely report secular changes of PF, although monitoring of these is crucial to deriving information for adequate interventions. This review aims to report trends in [...] Read more.

Physical fitness (PF) of children and adolescents is an important resource for their future health. Population-based studies, however, rarely report secular changes of PF, although monitoring of these is crucial to deriving information for adequate interventions. This review aims to report trends in PF of children and adolescents. A literature search was conducted in PubMed in July 2019. Cohort studies published in English allowing statements to be made on trends in PF by comparing youth between the ages of four and 18 years were included. The review identified 24 studies from 16 countries meeting the inclusion criteria, with an overall sample size of more than 860,000 children and adolescents. Through a standardized quality assessment tool, we classified two studies as strong, 21 as moderate, and only one as weak. We analyzed specific secular trends separately for the five different dimensions: endurance, strength, speed, flexibility, and coordination. The majority of studies report a decline of PF over time; however, a few studies report conflicting results. Performance in endurance, strength, and flexibility decreased over time, whereas there was no consistent trend reported for speed and coordination. Overall, there is no international standard on examining and reporting changes or secular trends in PF of children and adolescents, and comparability of studies is limited due to heterogeneous conditions of conducting and analyzing PF tests. Consequently, standardized and consistent international monitoring should be implemented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

15 pages, 369 KiB

Open AccessProtocol

Well-Being, Obesity and Motricity Observatory in Childhood and Youth (WOMO): A Study Protocol

by María Mendoza-Muñoz, José Carmelo Adsuar, Jorge Pérez-Gómez, Laura Muñoz-Bermejo, Miguel Ángel Garcia-Gordillo and Jorge Carlos-Vivas

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(6), 2129; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062129 - 23 Mar 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4299

Abstract

Background: Childhood obesity is one of the greatest public health problems facing advanced societies, and Spain is one of the countries with the highest incidence. There are many studies that monitor at the national level, but given the lack of specificity, lack of [...] Read more.

Background: Childhood obesity is one of the greatest public health problems facing advanced societies, and Spain is one of the countries with the highest incidence. There are many studies that monitor at the national level, but given the lack of specificity, lack of updating and scarcity of epidemiological data on overweight, obesity, physical condition and well-being of children and adolescents in Extremadura, it seems necessary to create a Well-being, Obesity and Motricity Observatory in Childhood and Youth (WOMO) in Extremadura in order to follow up on the evolution of this problem and to propose strategies to combat it. Therefore, this project aims (1) to obtain information on the physical condition, body composition and well-being of children and youth in Extremadura every year and (2) to evaluate the relationship between obesity, overweight, physical condition, well-being, self-perceived physical fitness, physical activity adherence, physical literacy, health-related quality of life (HRQoL), happiness and satisfaction with life, connection with nature, barriers to sports practice, self-concept and bullying in children and youth. Methods: An annual monitoring cross-sectional and follow-up study will be performed. Primary outcome measures will be (1) personal data and anthropometric measurements, (2) family and school information, (3) physical condition, (4) obesity and overweight level, and (5) well-being. Secondary outcome measures will be (1) self-perceived physical fitness, (2) physical activity adherence, (3) physical literacy, (4) HRQoL, (5) happiness and satisfaction with life, (6) connection with nature, (7) barriers to sports practice, (8) self-concept and (9) bullying. Discussion: This project will provide valuable information to adopt appropriate strategies to reduce the level of overweight and obesity in children and youth. Furthermore, orientations will be given to transfer the results obtained to the business sector or to the public sector to evaluate or change the policies adopted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Competence and Physical Fitness in the Promotion of an Active and Healthy Lifestyle in Children and Adolescents)

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