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Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications
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Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications

A special issue of Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing (ISSN 2504-4494).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2024 | Viewed by 24071

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Rossella Surace

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council (STIIMA-CNR), 70124 Bari, Italy
Interests: injection molding; micro manufacturing; polymer properties and processing; composites; polymeric foams; additive manufacturing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Vincenzo Bellantone

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council (STIIMA-CNR), 70124 Bari, Italy
Interests: injection molding; rheology; surface properties; metrological characterization; FEM simulation
Dr. Irene Fassi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council (STIIMA-CNR), 13900 Bari, Italy
Interests: micro manufacturing; micro robotics; micro assembly; micro EDM; micro injection molding
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Injection molding is a well-established manufacturing technology. The exploitation of high-performance materials and the recent design of components and devices in emerging fields of application open up new scenarios. This breakthrough seems particularly applicable to micro injection molding, the interest in which is rapidly growing thanks to the worldwide increasing demand for miniaturization.

Therefore, the aim of this SI is to collect scientific contributions on the recent advances in injection molding and process/materials interactions. In particular, analyses related to the following main topics will be appreciated: the process itself (process parameters influence, optimization, process modeling, simulation, artificial intelligence), materials and novel composites to be used (how their thermal and mechanical properties are modified by the process), characterization of products (metrology, quality control, monitoring), and fields of application (component performance with a special focus on sustainable and climate-neutral approaches, health-care, communications devices, optical components).

Dr. Rossella Surace
Dr. Vincenzo Bellantone
Dr. Irene Fassi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • injection molding
  • micro injection molding
  • materials/process interactions
  • structure/properties relationships
  • quality control

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 7127 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Embodied Energy of Different Grades of Injection-Molded Polypropylene
by Peng Gao, Zarek Nieduzak, Joshua Krantz, Margaret J. Sobkowicz and Davide Masato
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(4), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8040182 - 20 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1016
Abstract
This research investigates the correlation between polymer melt viscosity, tensile properties, and injection molding energy consumption for three grades of polypropylene: a virgin grade, a recycled grade, and a modified recycled grade. Cold runner and hot runner molds are considered. The experiments focus [...] Read more.
This research investigates the correlation between polymer melt viscosity, tensile properties, and injection molding energy consumption for three grades of polypropylene: a virgin grade, a recycled grade, and a modified recycled grade. Cold runner and hot runner molds are considered. The experiments focus on characterizing the thermal and mechanical energy drawn by the injection molding machine during the cycle. The data collected from the experiments are used to calculate the embodied energy as a function of the polymer viscosity and processing conditions. The analysis of the relationship between polymer rheology and processing provided guidelines for the molded parts’ embodied energy and mechanical characteristics. These guidelines and estimation techniques will support sustainable design for manufacturing practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications)
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21 pages, 6440 KiB  
Article
Transfer Learning-Based Artificial Neural Network for Predicting Weld Line Occurrence through Process Simulations and Molding Trials
by Giacomo Baruffa, Andrea Pieressa, Marco Sorgato and Giovanni Lucchetta
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(3), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8030098 - 9 May 2024
Viewed by 1478
Abstract
Optimizing process parameters to minimize defects remains an important challenge in injection molding (IM). Machine learning (ML) techniques offer promise in this regard, but their application often requires extensive datasets. Transfer learning (TL) emerges as a solution to this problem, leveraging knowledge from [...] Read more.
Optimizing process parameters to minimize defects remains an important challenge in injection molding (IM). Machine learning (ML) techniques offer promise in this regard, but their application often requires extensive datasets. Transfer learning (TL) emerges as a solution to this problem, leveraging knowledge from related tasks to enhance model training and performance. This study explores TL’s viability in predicting weld line visibility in injection-molded components using artificial neural networks (ANNs). TL techniques are employed to transfer knowledge between datasets related to different components. Furthermore, both source datasets obtained from simulations and experimental tests are used during the study. In order to use process simulations to obtain data regarding the presence of surface defects, it was necessary to correlate an output variable of the simulations with the experimental observations. The results demonstrate TL’s efficacy in reducing the data required for training predictive models, with simulations proving to be a cost-effective alternative to experimental data. TL from simulations achieves comparable predictive metric values to those of the non-pre-trained network, but with an 83% reduction in the required data for the target dataset. Overall, transfer learning shows promise in streamlining injection molding optimization and reducing manufacturing costs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications)
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15 pages, 3569 KiB  
Article
Experimental Uncertainty Evaluation in Optical Measurements of Micro-Injection Molded Products
by Vincenzo Bellantone, Rossella Surace and Irene Fassi
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8010021 - 26 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1679
Abstract
Optical measurements are increasingly widely used as preferential techniques to evaluate dimensional and surface quantities in micro-products. However, uncertainty estimation is more critical on micro-products than macro, and it needs careful attention for evaluating the obtained quality, the requested tolerance, and the correct [...] Read more.
Optical measurements are increasingly widely used as preferential techniques to evaluate dimensional and surface quantities in micro-products. However, uncertainty estimation is more critical on micro-products than macro, and it needs careful attention for evaluating the obtained quality, the requested tolerance, and the correct setting of experimental process settings. In this study, optical measurements characterized micro-injected products by linear and surface acquisition and considered all the sources contributing to uncertainties. The results show that the measure uncertainty could be underestimated if only the standard deviation on simple measurements is considered; this could cause a significant restriction of the estimated range covering the measured values. Furthermore, the findings confirm that the correct evaluation of the potential uncertainties contributes to accurately assessing the process behavior and improving product quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications)
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16 pages, 1683 KiB  
Article
Impact of Injection Molding Parameters on Material Acoustic Parameters
by Komeil Saeedabadi, Fabian Lickert, Henrik Bruus, Guido Tosello and Matteo Calaon
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2023, 7(6), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp7060222 - 6 Dec 2023
Viewed by 2082
Abstract
Understanding the relationship between injection molding parameters and the acoustic properties of polymers is crucial for optimizing the design and performance of acoustic-based polymer devices. In this work, the impact of injection molding parameters, such as the injection velocity and packing pressure, on [...] Read more.
Understanding the relationship between injection molding parameters and the acoustic properties of polymers is crucial for optimizing the design and performance of acoustic-based polymer devices. In this work, the impact of injection molding parameters, such as the injection velocity and packing pressure, on the acoustic parameters of polymers, namely the elastic moduli, is studied. The measurements lead to calculating material parameters, such as the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, that can be swiftly measured and determined thanks to this method. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) was used as the molding material, and using PMMA LG IG 840, the parts were simulated and injection molded, applying a ‘design of experiment’ (DOE) statistical method. The results indicated a correlation between the injection molding process parameters and the acoustic characteristics, such as the elastic moduli, and a specifically decreasing trend with increase in the injection velocity. Notably, a relative decrease in the Young’s modulus by 1% was observed when increasing the packing pressure from 90MPa to 120MPa. Similarly, a decrease in the Poisson’s ratio of 2.9% was observed when the injection velocity was increased from 16mm/s to 40mm/s. This method can be used to fine-tune the material properties according to the needs of a given application and to facilitate the characterization of different polymer acoustic properties essential for acoustic-based polymer devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications)
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22 pages, 15002 KiB  
Article
Time and Spatially Resolved Operando Small-Angle X-ray Scattering Measurements during Injection Moulding of Plastics
by Matteo Arioli, Anabela Paiva Massano, Daniel P. da Silva, Fábio A. Gameiro, Pedro Carreira, Marc Malfois, João Matias, Paula Pascoal-Faria, Artur Mateus and Geoffrey R. Mitchell
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2023, 7(5), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp7050176 - 29 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3120
Abstract
We recently introduced the possibility of performing operando small-angle X-ray scattering measurements using a novel industrially relevant injection moulding system for plastics. We show that useful time-resolving measurements can be performed with a time-cycle of 1 s and highlight the possible steps to [...] Read more.
We recently introduced the possibility of performing operando small-angle X-ray scattering measurements using a novel industrially relevant injection moulding system for plastics. We show that useful time-resolving measurements can be performed with a time-cycle of 1 s and highlight the possible steps to reduce this to 0.5 s. We show how we can use the transmission measurements to provide a time marker when plastic first enters the mould cavity in the region probed by the incident X-ray beam. We show the opportunities provided by this experimental stage mounted on the NCD-SWEET beamline at ALBA to probe the reproducibility of the injection moulding system on different scales. The design of the equipment allowed for the development of the structure and the morphology to be evaluated in different parts of mould cavity, and we evaluated any differences in a rectangular mould cavity. We identified future prospects for this equipment in terms of novel mould heating and cooling systems and the opportunities for quantitatively evaluating radical approaches to injection moulding technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications)
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16 pages, 3245 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Processing Conditions in the Performance of Purging Compounds for Polypropylene Injection Molding
by Miguel Carrasco, Jorge Guerrero, Miriam Lazo, Estephany Adrián, Jorge Alberto Medina-Perilla and Andrés Rigail-Cedeño
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2023, 7(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp7010031 - 26 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3481
Abstract
Purging is a fundamental process in the injection molding sector, aiding in color transition, material shifts, and the removal of contaminants. The purging compounds can be classified according to physical or chemical mechanisms and are affected by processing parameters, such as temperature, pressure, [...] Read more.
Purging is a fundamental process in the injection molding sector, aiding in color transition, material shifts, and the removal of contaminants. The purging compounds can be classified according to physical or chemical mechanisms and are affected by processing parameters, such as temperature, pressure, or soaking period. Despite some studies on the effect of processing parameters in purging action, an analysis of the rheological behavior and physico-chemical changes is still required for a deeper understanding of this type of system. This study explored shear viscosity, activation energy behavior in the torque rheometer, injection molding process, and energy consumption for two polyolefin-based purging compounds: one on polypropylene (PP) and another on polyethylene (PE). The results showed that the PP-based compound is a highly viscous material with low thermal sensibility and low energy consumption. The PE-based chemical compound, which includes an expanding and scrubbing agent, presented higher thermal sensitivity. Lower purging times and specific energy consumption were observed for the mechanical purge regardless of the processing temperature in the injection molding machine. However, torque and specific total mechanical energy differed due to viscosity and possible filler particle agglomeration. These findings demonstrated the influence of processing temperature on rheology and performance. Nonetheless, further studies regarding pressure, soaking time, and rheological modeling are recommended. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications)
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11 pages, 2269 KiB  
Article
Thermal Contact Resistance between Mold Steel and Additively Manufactured Insert for Designing Conformal Channels: An Experimental Study
by Andrews Souza, Paulina Capela, Vítor Lopes, Filipe Prior, Hélder Puga, Delfim Soares and José Teixeira
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2022, 6(5), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp6050099 - 13 Sep 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3119
Abstract
The focus of this research is on thermal contact resistance between a mold and its insert, specifically inserts made by additive manufacturing (AM). Using a thermal steady-state system and varying contact pressures (0, 50, 75, and 100 bars), we present experimental results of [...] Read more.
The focus of this research is on thermal contact resistance between a mold and its insert, specifically inserts made by additive manufacturing (AM). Using a thermal steady-state system and varying contact pressures (0, 50, 75, and 100 bars), we present experimental results of the thermal contact resistance at the contact interface between steel A (1.2344), obtained from an extruded rod, and steel B (1.2709), produced by laser powder bed fusion. Thermal tests were performed for unbonded and bonded configurations. Results showed that increasing the contact pressure allows the system equilibrium to be reached at lower temperatures. Furthermore, thermal tests showed that in the transition zone of the bonded configuration, a well-defined resistance is not formed between the two steel samples as it occurs in the unbonded configuration. For the unbonded configuration, the thermal contact resistance values decrease with increasing applied contact pressure, improving the system’s heat transfer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications)
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13 pages, 11362 KiB  
Article
Development and Production of Artificial Test Swarf to Examine Wear Behavior of Running Engine Components—Geometrically Derived Designs
by Patrick Brag, Volker Piotter, Klaus Plewa, Alexander Klein, Mirko Herzfeldt and Sascha Umbach
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2022, 6(5), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp6050100 - 13 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2004
Abstract
Subtractive manufacturing processes are usually accompanied by the occurrence of tiny flakes and swarf, which later on cause severe wear and damage, especially in moving components such as rolling or sliding bearings, pistons, etc. However, up until now, such detrimental effects have hardly [...] Read more.
Subtractive manufacturing processes are usually accompanied by the occurrence of tiny flakes and swarf, which later on cause severe wear and damage, especially in moving components such as rolling or sliding bearings, pistons, etc. However, up until now, such detrimental effects have hardly been investigated. One reason is the lack of a definition of a typical design of debris particle. Therefore, the main goal of the project described in this paper was to elaborate a draft that defines standardized test particles. It had to be evaluated whether test particles could be adequately reproduced and whether they would reveal significant damage potential. Taking into account future mass fabrication, Micro Powder Injection Molding (MicroPIM) was chosen as a production method. Five different 3D designs of geometrically defined test particles were developed. The maximum size of each design was 1167 mm in green state; however, all samples shrank in size during sintering. Specially tailored feedstocks containing 42CrMo4 steel powders were used and the related molding, debinding and sintering procedures were developed. All particle geometries and related mold inserts were developed using a commercial software routine for the layout of runner systems, gate locations and ejector positions. The damage potential of the test particles was evaluated based on trials using journal bearing and shift valve test rigs. Although only a moderate degree of damage potential could be ascertained up until now, it can be expected that the artificial swarf will enable standardized wear test procedures to be developed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications)
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12 pages, 3202 KiB  
Article
Crystallization and Aging Behavior of Polyetheretherketone PEEK within Rapid Tooling and Rubber Molding
by Karim Abbas, Nicolae Balc, Sebastian Bremen and Marco Skupin
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2022, 6(5), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp6050093 - 26 Aug 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3767
Abstract
In times of short product life cycles, additive manufacturing and rapid tooling are important methods to make tool development and manufacturing more efficient. High-performance polymers are the key to mold production for prototypes and small series. However, the high temperatures during vulcanization injection [...] Read more.
In times of short product life cycles, additive manufacturing and rapid tooling are important methods to make tool development and manufacturing more efficient. High-performance polymers are the key to mold production for prototypes and small series. However, the high temperatures during vulcanization injection molding cause thermal aging and can impair service life. The extent to which the thermal stress over the entire process chain stresses the material and whether it leads to irreversible material aging is evaluated. To this end, a mold made of PEEK is fabricated using fused filament fabrication and examined for its potential application. The mold is heated to 200 °C, filled with rubber, and cured. A differential scanning calorimetry analysis of each process step illustrates the crystallization behavior and first indicates the material resistance. It shows distinct cold crystallization regions at a build chamber temperature of 90 °C. At an ambient temperature above Tg, crystallization of 30% is achieved, and cold crystallization no longer occurs. Additional tensile tests show a decrease in tensile strength after ten days of thermal aging. The steady decrease in recrystallization temperature indicates degradation of the additives. However, the tensile tests reveal steady embrittlement of the material due to increasing crosslinking. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Injection Molding: Process, Materials and Applications)
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