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Microorganisms
Special Issues
Immune Modulation to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Infection
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Immune Modulation to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Infection

A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Microbiology and Immunology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 March 2025 | Viewed by 12265

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Fabio Fiorino

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Medicine and Surgery, LUM University Giuseppe Degennaro, Casamassima, BA, Italy
Interests: immune response to SARS-CoV-2; murine models of infection with Salmonella and Streptococcus pneumoniae; vaccination in mice; T-cell priming; mucosal vaccination; memory cells

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

SARS-CoV-2 infected more than 6 million people worldwide, with different clinical outcomes. Continuous new challenges are emerging for the rapid mutations in the viral genome. Scientists are working hard to search for appropriate advanced therapies to treat COVID-19 and investigate new safe and effective vaccines capable of efficiently prevent the infection.

Until now, different vaccines have been licensed sooner and others are under investigation. Although the vaccination strongly reduced severe illness, and new findings and research continuously expand our knowledge about COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 infection, it is critical to investigate the type and the timing of immune response generated using licensed and/or new experimental vaccines, and new efficient approaches based on different delivery systems or route of vaccination.

The Special Issue “Immune Modulation to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Infection” aims to assemble a collection of original research articles and reviews that explore, in pre-clinical and clinical studies, the innate and adaptive immune response elicited by infection with SARS-CoV-2, or induced by different type of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. Research works evaluating the modulation of the immune response to vaccination and/or infection, studying the type, the magnitude, the quality, and the persistence of the immune response, are welcomed.

Dr. Fabio Fiorino
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Microorganisms is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • COVID-19
  • SARS-CoV-2
  • infection
  • immune response
  • antibody response
  • memory cells
  • vaccine
  • vaccine delivery
  • route of immunization
  • immune persistence

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 25514 KiB  
Article
Phenotypic Timeline Kinetics, Integrative Networks, and Performance of T- and B-Cell Subsets Associated with Distinct Clinical Outcome of Severe COVID-19 Patients
by Gabriela de Oliveira, Ismael Artur Costa-Rocha, Nani Oliveira-Carvalho, Tâmilla Mayane Alves Fidelis dos Santos, Ana Carolina Campi-Azevedo, Vanessa Peruhype-Magalhães, Vitor Hugo Simões Miranda, Roberta Oliveira Prado, Agnes Antônia Sampaio Pereira, Clarice Carvalho Alves, Joaquim Pedro Brito-de-Sousa, Laise Rodrigues Reis, Christiane Costa-Pereira, Camila Pacheco Silveira Martins da Mata, Vanessa Egídio Silveira Almeida, Liliane Martins dos Santos, Gregório Guilherme Almeida, Lis Ribeiro do Valle Antonelli, Jordana Grazziela Coelho-dos-Reis, Andréa Teixeira-Carvalho and Olindo Assis Martins-Filhoadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Microorganisms 2024, 12(11), 2272; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12112272 - 9 Nov 2024
Viewed by 653
Abstract
The present study aimed to evaluate the kinetics of the phenotypic profile and integrative networks of T/B-cells in severe COVID-19 patients, categorized according to disease outcome, during the circulation of the B.1.1.28 and B.1.1.33 SARS-CoV-2 strains in Brazil. Peripheral blood obtained at distinct [...] Read more.
The present study aimed to evaluate the kinetics of the phenotypic profile and integrative networks of T/B-cells in severe COVID-19 patients, categorized according to disease outcome, during the circulation of the B.1.1.28 and B.1.1.33 SARS-CoV-2 strains in Brazil. Peripheral blood obtained at distinct time points (baseline/D0; D7; D14-28) was used for ex vivo flow cytometry immunophenotyping. The data demonstrated a decrease at D0 in the frequency of CD3+ T-cells and CD4+ T-cells and an increase in B-cells with mixed activation/exhaustion profiles. Higher changes in B-cell and CD4+ T-cells at D7 were associated with discharge/death outcomes, respectively. Regardless of the lower T/B-cell connectivity at D0, distinct profiles from D7/D14-28 revealed that, while discharge was associated with increasing connectivity for B-cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells death was related to increased connectivity involving B-cells, but with lower connections mediated by CD4+ T-cells. The CD4+CD38+ and CD8+CD69+ subsets accurately classified COVID-19 vs. healthy controls throughout the kinetic analysis. Binary logistic regression identified CD4+CD107a+, CD4+T-bet+, CD8+CD69+, and CD8+T-bet+ at D0 and CD4+CD45RO+CD27+ at D7 as subsets associated with disease outcomes. Results showed that distinct phenotypic timeline kinetics and integrative networks of T/B-cells are associated with COVID-19 outcomes that may subsidize the establishment of applicable biomarkers for clinical/therapeutic monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Modulation to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Infection)
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6 pages, 202 KiB  
Communication
Analysis of Cell Immunity for Children Infected with SARS-CoV-2 and Those Vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2 Using T-SPOT®.COVID
by Tomohiro Oishi, Yuto Yasui, Atsushi Kato, Satoko Ogita, Takahiro Eitoku, Hideo Enoki and Takashi Nakano
Microorganisms 2024, 12(5), 975; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12050975 - 13 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1067
Abstract
Cellular immunity is critical for the regulation of viral diseases, including coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and is generally considered immature in childhood. However, the details of cellular immunity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection among children are unclear. We assessed [...] Read more.
Cellular immunity is critical for the regulation of viral diseases, including coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and is generally considered immature in childhood. However, the details of cellular immunity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection among children are unclear. We assessed cellular immunity in eight children post-vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 and 11 children after SARS-CoV-2 infection using the T-SPOT®.COVID assay for the spike (S) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins. In the vaccinated group, the T-SPOT®.COVID assay for the S protein yielded positive results in seven children. In the post-infection group, the assay for the N protein was positive for 5 of 11 children, with 3 of these 5 children requiring hospitalization, including 2 who needed mechanical ventilation. The T-SPOT®.COVID assay is thus valuable for assessing cellular immunity against SARS-CoV-2, and most children infected with SARS-CoV-2 may not develop such immunity unless the disease severity is significant. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Modulation to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Infection)
18 pages, 1860 KiB  
Article
Immune Response after Anti-SARS-CoV-2 mRNA Vaccination in Relation to Cellular Immunity, Vitamin D and Comorbidities in Hemodialysis Patients
by Egle Dalinkeviciene, Brigita Gradauskiene, Sandra Sakalauskaite, Kristina Petruliene, Ruta Vaiciuniene, Inga Skarupskiene, Daina Bastyte, Jolanta Sauseriene, Leonas Valius, Inga Arune Bumblyte and Edita Ziginskiene
Microorganisms 2024, 12(5), 861; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12050861 - 25 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1445
Abstract
In the global threat of SARS-CoV-2, individuals undergoing maintenance dialysis represent a vulnerable population with an increased risk of severe COVID-19 outcomes. Therefore, immunization against SARS-CoV-2 is an essential component of healthcare strategy for these patients. Existing data indicate that they tend to [...] Read more.
In the global threat of SARS-CoV-2, individuals undergoing maintenance dialysis represent a vulnerable population with an increased risk of severe COVID-19 outcomes. Therefore, immunization against SARS-CoV-2 is an essential component of healthcare strategy for these patients. Existing data indicate that they tend to exhibit a reduced immune response to vaccines compared to the general population. Our study aimed to assess both humoral and cellular immune responses following two doses of an anti-SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine, an ability to maintain adequate antibody titers over time, and potential relations with vitamin D, comorbidities and other factors in hemodialysis patients based on a single center experience. A total of 41/45 patients (91.1%) responded to the second dose of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine. The titer of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG class antibodies and levels of T cells three to four weeks after vaccination were lower in dialysis patients than in healthy controls. Antibodies titer in dialysis patients had a positive correlation with B lymphocytes and was related to cardiovascular diseases. The level of CD4+ cells had a negative correlation with hemodialysis vintage, as did the vitamin D level with post-vaccination seroconversion and decline in anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies titer during six months after vaccination. Hemodialysis patients had decreased amounts of CD4+ and CD8+ cells and lower levels of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies than healthy controls. Therefore, chronic hemodialysis could lead to diminished cellular immunity and humoral immune response to the anti-SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination and reduced protection from COVID-19. Comorbidity in cardiovascular diseases was associated with a lower level of specific anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody titer. Vitamin D may be important in maintaining stable levels of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, while the duration of dialysis treatment could be one of the factors decreasing anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody titer and determining lower CD4+ cell counts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Modulation to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Infection)
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14 pages, 3678 KiB  
Article
Memory T Cells Discrepancies in COVID-19 Patients
by Hajir A. Al Saihati, Hosni A. M. Hussein, Ali A. Thabet, Ahmed A. Wardany, Sabry Y. Mahmoud, Eman S. Farrag, Taha I. A. Mohamed, Samah M. Fathy, Mohamed E. Elnosary, Ali Sobhy, Abdelazeem E. Ahmed, Ahmed M. El-Adly, Fareed S. El-Shenawy, Asmaa A. Elsadek, Amal Rayan, Zeinab Albadry M. Zahran, Omnia El-Badawy, Mohamed G. M. El-Naggar, Magdy M. Afifi and Asmaa M. Zahran
Microorganisms 2023, 11(11), 2737; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11112737 - 9 Nov 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1787
Abstract
The immune response implicated in Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pathogenesis remains to be fully understood. The present study aimed to clarify the alterations in CD4+ and CD8+ memory T cells’ compartments in SARS-CoV-2-infected patients, with an emphasis on various comorbidities affecting [...] Read more.
The immune response implicated in Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pathogenesis remains to be fully understood. The present study aimed to clarify the alterations in CD4+ and CD8+ memory T cells’ compartments in SARS-CoV-2-infected patients, with an emphasis on various comorbidities affecting COVID-19 patients. Peripheral blood samples were collected from 35 COVID-19 patients, 16 recovered individuals, and 25 healthy controls, and analyzed using flow cytometry. Significant alterations were detected in the percentage of CD8+ T cells and effector memory-expressing CD45RA CD8+ T cells (TEMRA) in COVID-19 patients compared to healthy controls. Interestingly, altered percentages of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, T effector (TEff), T naïve cells (TNs), T central memory (TCM), T effector memory (TEM), T stem cell memory (TSCM), and TEMRA T cells were significantly associated with the disease severity. Male patients had more CD8+ TSCMs and CD4+ TNs cells, while female patients had a significantly higher percentage of effector CD8+CD45RA+ T cells. Moreover, altered percentages of CD8+ TNs and memory CD8+CD45RO+ T cells were detected in diabetic and non-diabetic COVID-19 patients, respectively. In summary, this study identified alterations in memory T cells among COVID-19 patients, revealing a sex bias in the percentage of memory T cells. Moreover, COVID-19 severity and comorbidities have been linked to specific subsets of T memory cells which could be used as therapeutic, diagnostic, and protective targets for severe COVID-19. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Modulation to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Infection)
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12 pages, 596 KiB  
Article
Does Nirmatrelvir/Ritonavir Influence the Immune Response against SARS-CoV-2, Independently from Rebound?
by Francesca Panza, Fabio Fiorino, Gabiria Pastore, Lia Fiaschi, Mario Tumbarello, Donata Medaglini, Annalisa Ciabattini, Francesca Montagnani and Massimiliano Fabbiani
Microorganisms 2023, 11(10), 2607; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11102607 - 22 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1743
Abstract
Recurrence of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) symptoms and SARS-CoV-2 viral load relapse have been reported in people treated with nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (NM/r). However, little is understood about the etiology of this phenomenon. Our aim was to investigate the relation between the host’s immune response [...] Read more.
Recurrence of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) symptoms and SARS-CoV-2 viral load relapse have been reported in people treated with nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (NM/r). However, little is understood about the etiology of this phenomenon. Our aim was to investigate the relation between the host’s immune response and viral rebound. We described three cases of COVID-19 rebound that occurred after treatment with nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (group A). In addition, we compared spike-specific antibody response and plasma cytokine/chemokine patterns of the rebound cases with those of (i) control patients treated with nirmatrelvir/ritonavir who did not show rebound (group B), and (ii) subjects not treated with any anti-SARS-CoV-2 drug (group C). The anti-spike antibodies and plasma cytokines/chemokines were similar in groups A and B. However, we observed a higher anti-BA.2 spike IgG response in patients without antiviral treatment (group C) [geometric mean titer 210,807, 5.1- and 8.2-fold higher compared to group A (p = 0.039) and group B (p = 0.032)]. Moreover, the patients receiving antiviral treatment (groups A-B) showed higher circulating levels of platelet-derived growth factor subunit B (PDGF-BB) and vascular endothelial growth Factors (VEGF) and lower levels of interleukin-9 (IL-9), interleukine-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1 RA), and regulated upon activation normal T cell expressed and presumably secreted chemokine (RANTES) when compared to group C. In conclusion, we observed lower anti-spike IgG levels and different cytokine patterns in nirmatrelvir/ritonavir-treated patients compared to those not treated with anti-SARS-CoV-2 drugs. This suggests that early antiviral treatment, by reducing viral load and antigen presentation, could mitigate the immune response against SARS-CoV-2. The clinical relevance of such observation should be further investigated in larger populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Modulation to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Infection)
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Review

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22 pages, 1000 KiB  
Review
Association between Gut Microbiota and SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Vaccine Immunogenicity
by Ho Yu Ng, Wai K. Leung and Ka Shing Cheung
Microorganisms 2023, 11(2), 452; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11020452 - 10 Feb 2023
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4465
Abstract
Gut microbiota is increasingly recognized to play a pivotal role in various human physiological functions and diseases. Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, research has suggested that dysbiosis of the gut microbiota is also involved in the development and severity of COVID-19 symptoms by regulating [...] Read more.
Gut microbiota is increasingly recognized to play a pivotal role in various human physiological functions and diseases. Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, research has suggested that dysbiosis of the gut microbiota is also involved in the development and severity of COVID-19 symptoms by regulating SARS-CoV-2 entry and modulating inflammation. Previous studies have also suggested that gut microbiota and their metabolites could have immunomodulatory effects on vaccine immunogenicity, including influenza vaccines and oral rotavirus vaccines. In light of these observations, it is possible that gut microbiota plays a role in influencing the immune responses to COVID-19 vaccinations via similar mechanisms including effects of lipopolysaccharides, flagellin, peptidoglycan, and short-chain fatty acids. In this review, we give an overview of the current understanding on the role of the gut microbiota in COVID-19 manifestations and vaccine immunogenicity. We then discuss the limitations of currently published studies on the associations between gut microbiota and COVID-19 vaccine outcomes. Future research directions shall be focused on the development of microbiota-based interventions on improving immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccinations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Modulation to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Infection)
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