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Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2024) | Viewed by 24606

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Nadya Vasileva Dencheva

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IPC-Institute for Polymers and Composites, Department of Polymer Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Azurem, 4800-058 Guimaraes, Portugal
Interests: polymer chemistry; activated anionic polymerization; reactive microencapsulatioin; hybrid polymer powders; molecular imprinting; enzyme immobilization and compartmentalization; polymer-assisted multienzyme systems; biocatalysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Zlatan Denchev

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Guest Editor

IPC-Institute for Polymers and Composites, Department of Polymer Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Azurem, 4800-058 Guimaraes, Portugal
Interests: polymer chemistry; reactive microencapsulation; reactive processing; polymer micro- and nanocomposites; polymer crystallization; synchrotron wide- and small-angle X-ray scattering of polymers; spectroscopy of polymers; mechanical testing of polymer composites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Numerous commodities and advanced materials of industrial importance used for structural or functional applications are composed of polymers as their basic constituent. Generally, polymer-based materials (PBMs) contain two or more phases or components with properly chosen morphologies and specific interfacial bonding. The aim of this combination is to achieve the desired set of properties necessary for a certain area of application. Examples could be all types of polymer composites, in which a polymer matrix is mechanically reinforced by organic or inorganic, macro- or microsized, variously shaped structures. Furthermore, polymer hybrids characterized by an interaction between their constituents at the submicron and molecular levels exist, thereby producing properties not existing in either of them. PBMs may be based on natural, synthetic or recycled materials, as well as on conjugates between polymers and biologically active molecules, e.g., proteins, enzymes, DNA, and RNA, among others. The areas of application of PBMs are abundant and vast, stretching from self-cleaning, self-healing, conductive, magnetic, and energy-shielding polymers to polymer-supported biocatalysts, functional polymer hydrogels, and drug-delivery and food-stabilizing systems.

Recent advances in polymerization chemistry, polymer assembly, and conventional and non-conventional polymer processing techniques have resulted in a great number of PBMs with tailored properties and potential applications at various scales. This is achieved by careful control of the morphology and the structure–properties relationship, requiring advanced structural characterization.

The aim of this Special Issue of Molecules is to present a selection of research papers and reviews exemplifying the new trends in the synthesis, characterization and application of PBMs. Potential topics include, but are not limited to:

Synthesis of polymer-based materials with tailored properties;
Structure–properties relationship in polymer-based materials;
Advanced characterization of polymer-based materials;
Non-conventional processing of polymer-based materials;
Polymer-based materials with natural and/or biodegradable constituents;
Polymer-based materials as supports for bioactive molecules;
Applications of polymer-based materials in biology, medicine or food industries;
Stimuli-responsive polymer-based materials;
Polymer-based materials in engineering and electronics.

Dr. Nadya Vasileva Dencheva
Dr. Zlatan Denchev
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Molecules is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

synthetic, natural and sustainable polymer-based materials
polymer composites
polymer hybrids
multifunctional and smart polymer materials
structure-properties relationship in polymer systems
advanced characterization of polymer multiphase systems
polymer synthesis and reactive processing
polymer-based supports for bioactive molecules
applications of polymer-based materials
hydrophilic polymer systems

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Published Papers (14 papers)

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13 pages, 2179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smart and Efficient Synthesis of Cyclic Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)s by Ring Expansion RAFT (RE-RAFT) Polymerization and Analysis of Their Unique Temperature-Responsive Properties

by Jin Motoyanagi, Kenichi Bessho and Masahiko Minoda

Molecules 2024, 29(22), 5392; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29225392 - 15 Nov 2024

Viewed by 305

Abstract

Cyclic polymers have many interesting properties compared to their linear analogs, but there are very few examples of their synthesis. This is because most cyclic polymers have been synthesized by stepwise processes, including synthesizing homo- or hetero-telechelic end-functionalized precursor polymers and consecutive intramolecularly coupling of both ends of the polymers. This requires a complicated synthesis, and the product yields are very low because the target cyclic polymers are usually synthesized under highly dilute conditions, consequently, making it difficult to systematically analyze the properties of cyclic polymers. In the present research, we have synthesized cyclic polymers using a ring expansion polymerization method. Particularly, the ring expansion RAFT polymerization (RE-RAFT polymerization) that we have developed using a cyclic chain transfer agent is a smart method that can synthesize cyclic polymers very efficiently. In this paper, we successfully synthesized cyclic-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide), which is widely known as a thermo-responsive polymer, by RE-RAFT polymerization. Furthermore, we have compared the thermo-responsive properties of the cyclic-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)s with those of their linear analogs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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12 pages, 1287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness Evaluation of Silicone Oil Emulsion In Situ Polymerization for Dehydration of Waterlogged Wooden Artifacts

by Mengruo Wu, Xiangna Han, Zhiguo Zhang and Jiajun Wang

Molecules 2024, 29(20), 4971; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29204971 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 606

Abstract

Organosilicon materials have shown potential as dehydration agents for waterlogged wooden artifacts. These materials can polymerize under normal conditions to form polymers with favorable mechanical strength, antibacterial properties, and aging resistance. However, the insolubility of most organosilicon hindered their penetration into waterlogged wood, which may lead to an unwanted cracking. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and hydroxy-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS-OH) with low viscosity and moderate reactivity for dehydrating waterlogged wooden artifacts from the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck. Four surfactants ((3–aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES), alkyl polyoxyethylene ether (APEO), tri-methylstearylammonium chloride (STAC), and fatty alcohol polyoxyethylene ether (AEO)) and cosurfactant were employed to transform the two kinds of water-repellent silicone oils into eight groups of highly permeable oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions. Under the catalysis of a neutral catalyst, in situ polymerization occurred within the wood cells. Group P2-2 formulated with PDMS-OH and APEO showed the best efficiency in maintaining the dimensions of the wood during dehydration. The dehydrated wood exhibited a natural color and texture with a minimal volume shrinkage rate of 1.89%. The resulting polymer adhered uniformly to the cell walls, effectively reinforcing the wood cell structure. The weight percent gain of the wood was only 218%, and the pores of the cell lumen were well maintained for future retreatment. This method effectively controlled the sol–gel reaction process of the organosilicon and prevented damage to the wooden artifact during the dehydration process. Moreover, the dehydrated wood samples only experienced a low weight gain of 17% at 95% relative humidity (RH), indicating their great environmental stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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10 pages, 3088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solvent-Free Method of Polyacrylonitrile-Coated LLZTO Solid-State Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries

by Xuehan Wang, Kaiqi Zhang, Huilin Shen, Hao Zhang, Hongyan Yao, Zheng Chen and Zhenhua Jiang

Molecules 2024, 29(18), 4452; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29184452 - 19 Sep 2024

Viewed by 682

Abstract

Solid-state electrolytes (SSEs), particularly garnet-type Li_6.4La₃Zr_1.4Ta_0.6O₁₂ (LLZTO), offer high stability and a wide electrochemical window. However, their grain boundaries limit ionic conductivity, necessitating high-temperature sintering for improved performance. Yet, this process results in brittle electrolytes prone to fracture during manufacturing. To address these difficulties, solvent-free solid-state electrolytes with a polyacrylonitrile (PAN) coating on LLZTO particles are reported in this work. Most notably, the PAN-coated LLZTO (PAN@LLZTO) electrolyte demonstrates self-supporting characteristics, eliminating the need for high-temperature sintering. Importantly, the homogeneous polymeric PAN coating, synthesized via the described method, facilitates efficient Li⁺ transport between LLZTO particles. This electrolyte not only achieves an ionic conductivity of up to 2.11 × 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ but also exhibits excellent interfacial compatibility with lithium. Furthermore, a lithium metal battery incorporating 3% PAN@LLZTO-3%PTFE as the solid-state electrolyte and LiFePO₄ as the cathode demonstrates a remarkable specific discharge capacity of 169 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1 °C. The strategy of organic polymer-coated LLZTO provides the possibility of a green manufacturing process for preparing room-temperature sinter-free solid-state electrolytes, which shows significant cost-effectiveness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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10 pages, 4686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Injecting Sustainability into Epoxy-Based Composite Materials by Using Bio-Binder from Hydrothermal Liquefaction Processing of Microalgae

by Philip Agbo, Abhijeet Mali, Ajit D. Kelkar, Lijun Wang and Lifeng Zhang

Molecules 2024, 29(15), 3656; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29153656 - 1 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1069

Abstract

We report a transformative epoxy system with a microalgae-derived bio-binder from hydrothermal liquefaction processing (HTL). The obtained bio-binder not only served as a curing agent for conventional epoxy resin (e.g., EPON 862), but also acted as a modifying agent to enhance the thermal and mechanical properties of the conventional epoxy resin. This game-changing epoxy/bio-binder system outperformed the conventional epoxy/hardener system in thermal stability and mechanical properties. Compared to the commercial EPON 862/EPIKURE W epoxy product, our epoxy/bio-binder system (35 wt.% bio-binder addition with respect to the epoxy) increased the temperature of 60% weight loss from 394 °C to 428 °C and the temperature of maximum decomposition rate from 382 °C to 413 °C, while the tensile, flexural, and impact performance of the cured epoxy improved in all cases by up to 64%. Our research could significantly impact the USD 38.2 billion global market of the epoxy-related industry by not only providing better thermal and mechanical performance of epoxy-based composite materials, but also simultaneously reducing the carbon footprint from the epoxy industry and relieving waste epoxy pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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20 pages, 7005 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Additively Manufactured Carbon-Reinforced ABS Honeycomb Composite Structures and Property Prediction by Machine Learning

by Meelad Ranaiefar, Mrityunjay Singh and Michael C. Halbig

Molecules 2024, 29(12), 2736; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29122736 - 8 Jun 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1101

Abstract

The expansive utility of polymeric 3D-printing technologies and demand for high- performance lightweight structures has prompted the emergence of various carbon-reinforced polymer composite filaments. However, detailed characterization of the processing–microstructure–property relationships of these materials is still required to realize their full potential. In this study, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and two carbon-reinforced ABS variants, with either carbon nanotubes (CNT) or 5 wt.% chopped carbon fiber (CF), were designed in a bio-inspired honeycomb geometry. These structures were manufactured by fused filament fabrication (FFF) and investigated across a range of layer thicknesses and hexagonal (hex) sizes. Microscopy of material cross-sections was conducted to evaluate the relationship between print parameters and porosity. Analyses determined a trend of reduced porosity with lower print-layer heights and hex sizes compared to larger print-layer heights and hex sizes. Mechanical properties were evaluated through compression testing, with ABS specimens achieving higher compressive yield strength, while CNT-ABS achieved higher ultimate compressive strength due to the reduction in porosity and subsequent strengthening. A trend of decreasing strength with increasing hex size across all materials was supported by the negative correlation between porosity and increasing print-layer height and hex size. We elucidated the potential of honeycomb ABS, CNT-ABS, and ABS-5wt.% CF polymer composites for novel 3D-printed structures. These studies were supported by the development of a predictive classification and regression supervised machine learning model with 0.92 accuracy and a 0.96 coefficient of determination to help inform and guide design for targeted performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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13 pages, 7263 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Control of Pore Sizes in Epoxy Monoliths and Applications as Sheet-Type Adhesives in Combination with Conventional Epoxy and Acrylic Adhesives

by Yoshiyuki Kamo and Akikazu Matsumoto

Molecules 2024, 29(9), 2059; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29092059 - 29 Apr 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1031

Abstract

Materials with monolithic structures, such as epoxy monoliths, are used for a variety of applications, such as for column fillers in gas chromatography and HPLC, for separators in lithium-ion batteries, and for precursor polymers for monolith adhesion. In this study, we investigated the fabrication of epoxy monoliths using 1,3-bis(N,N-diglycidylaminomethyl)cyclohexane (TETRAD-C) as the tetrafunctional epoxy and 4,4′-methylenebis(cyclohexylamine) (BACM) as the amine curing agent to control pore diameters using polyethylene glycols (PEGs) of differing molecular weights as the porogenic agents. We fabricated an epoxy monolith with micron-order pores and high strength levels, and which is suitable for the precursors of composite materials in cases where smaller PEGs are used. We discussed the effects of the porous structures of monoliths on their physical properties, such as tensile strength, elongation, elastic modulus, and glass transition temperatures. For example, epoxy monoliths prepared in the presence of PEGs exhibited an elastic modulus less than 1 GPa at room temperature and Tg values of 175–187 °C, while the epoxy bulk thermoset produced without any porogenic solvent showed a high elastic modulus as 1.8 GPa, which was maintained at high temperatures, and a high Tg of 223 °C. In addition, the unique adhesion characteristics of epoxy monolith sheets are revealed as a result of the combinations made with commercial epoxy and acrylic adhesives. Epoxy monoliths that are combined with conventional adhesives can function as sheet-type adhesives purposed with avoiding problems when only liquid-type adhesives are used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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28 pages, 6794 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The New Elastomeric Compounds Made of Butyl Rubber Filled with Phyllosilicates, Characterized by Increased Barrier Properties and Hydrophobicity and Reduced Chemical Degradation

by Aleksandra Smejda-Krzewicka, Emilia Irzmańska, Konrad Mrozowski, Agnieszka Adamus-Włodarczyk, Natalia Litwicka, Krzysztof Strzelec and Małgorzata I. Szynkowska-Jóźwik

Molecules 2024, 29(6), 1306; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29061306 - 15 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1650

Abstract

The aim of the study was to produce new elastomeric materials containing butyl rubber (IIR) filled with silica and phyllosilicates (vermiculite, montmorillonite, perlite or halloysite tubes) with enhanced hydrophobicity and barrier properties and reduced chemical degradation. It was found that the filler type had a significant impact on the degree of cross-linking of butyl rubber and the properties of its vulcanizates. The highest degree of cross-linking and the highest mechanical strength were achieved for IIR composites filled with Arsil with perlite or halloysite tubes. The highest surface hydrophobicity (119°) was confirmed for the IIR vulcanizates with Arsil and montmorillonite. All tested samples showed high barrier properties because both the gas diffusion rate coefficient and the permeability coefficient reached low values. Both unfilled and filled IIR vulcanizates retained chemical resistance in contact with methanol for 480 min. Hour-long contact of a polar solvent (methanol) with each of the vulcanizates did not cause material degradation, while the presence of a non-polar solvent (n-heptane) worsened the mechanical parameters by up to 80%. However, the presence of fillers reduced the chemical degradation of vulcanizates (in the case of cured IIR filled with Arsil and halloysite tubes by 40% compared to the composite without fillers). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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25 pages, 9852 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Graphene Modification by Curcuminoids as an Effective Method to Improve the Dispersion and Stability of PVC/Graphene Nanocomposites

by Sławomir Wilczewski, Katarzyna Skórczewska, Jolanta Tomaszewska, Magdalena Osial, Agnieszka Dąbrowska, Kostiantyn Nikiforow, Piotr Jenczyk and Hubert Grzywacz

Molecules 2023, 28(8), 3383; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28083383 - 11 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1861

Abstract

A large amount of graphene-related research is its use as a filler for polymer composites, including thin nanocomposite films. However, its use is limited by the need for large-scale methods to obtain high–quality filler, as well as its poor dispersion in the polymer matrix. This work presents polymer thin-film composites based on poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) and graphene, whose surfaces were modified by curcuminoids. TGA, UV–vis, Raman spectroscopy, XPS, TEM, and SEM methods have confirmed the effectiveness of the graphene modification due to π–π interactions. The dispersion of graphene in the PVC solution was investigated by the turbidimetric method. SEM, AFM, and Raman spectroscopy methods evaluated the thin-film composite’s structure. The research showed significant improvements in terms of graphene’s dispersion (in solutions and PVC composites) following the application of curcuminoids. The best results were obtained for materials modified with compounds obtained from the extraction of the rhizome of Curcuma longa L. Modification of the graphene’s surface with these compounds also increased the thermal and chemical stability of PVC/graphene nanocomposites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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26 pages, 6101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of Novel Polymer-Assisted Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Nanoflowers and Their Application in Cascade Biocatalysis

by Joana F. Braz, Nadya V. Dencheva, Marc Malfois and Zlatan Z. Denchev

Molecules 2023, 28(2), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020839 - 14 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2061

Abstract

This study reports on the synthesis of novel bienzyme polymer-assisted nanoflower complexes (PANF), their morphological and structural characterization, and their effectiveness as cascade biocatalysts. First, highly porous polyamide 6 microparticles (PA6 MP) are synthesized by activated anionic polymerization in solution. Second, the PA6 MP are used as carriers for hybrid bienzyme assemblies comprising glucose oxidase (GOx) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Thus, four PANF complexes with different co-localization and compartmentalization of the two enzymes are prepared. In samples NF GH/PA and NF GH@PA, both enzymes are localized within the same hybrid flowerlike organic-inorganic nanostructures (NF), the difference being in the way the PA6 MP are assembled with NF. In samples NF G/PAiH and NF G@PAiH, only GOx is located in the NF, while HRP is preliminary immobilized on PA6 MP. The morphology and the structure of the four PANF complexes have been studied by microscopy, spectroscopy, and synchrotron X-ray techniques. The catalytic activity of the four PANF was assessed by a two-step cascade reaction of glucose oxidation. The PANF complexes are up to 2–3 times more active than the free GOx/HRP dyad. They also display enhanced kinetic parameters, superior thermal stability in the 40–60 °C range, optimum performance at pH 4–6, and excellent storage stability. All PANF complexes are active for up to 6 consecutive operational cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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18 pages, 4606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Biomass Mastication Assist the Downstreaming of Polyhydroxyalkanoates Produced from Mixed Microbial Cultures?

by Hiléia K.S. Souza, Mariana Matos, Maria A.M. Reis, José A. Covas and Loïc Hilliou

Molecules 2023, 28(2), 767; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020767 - 12 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1499

Abstract

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are natural polyesters which biodegrade in soils and oceans but have more than double the cost of comparable oil-based polymers. PHA downstreaming from its biomass represents 50% of its overall cost. Here, in an attempt to assist downstreaming, mastication of wet biomasses is tested as a new mechanical continuous biomass pretreatment with potential for industrial upscaling. Downstreaming conditions where both product recovery and purity are low due to the large amount of treated wet biomass (50% water) were targeted with the following process: extraction of 20 g in 100 mL solvent at 30 °C for 2 h, followed by 4.8 h digestion of 20 g in 0.3 M NaOH. Under the studied conditions, NaOH digestion was more effective than solvent extraction in recovering larger PHA amounts, but with less purity. A nearly 50% loss of PHA was seen during digestion after mastication. PHAs downstreamed by digestion with large amounts of impurities started to degrade at lower temperatures, but their melt elasticity was thermally stable at 170 °C. As such, these materials are attractive as fully PHA-compatible processing aids, reinforcing fillers or viscosity modifiers. On the other hand, wet biomass mastication before solvent extraction improves PHA purity and thermal stability as well as the melt rheology, which recovers the viscoelasticity measured with a PHA extracted from a dried biomass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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11 pages, 3458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluorine-Containing Flow Modifier for BN/PPS Composites Enabled by Low Surface Energy

by Bo Cao, Xiaodan Huang, Wenxiang Zhang and Peng Wu

Molecules 2022, 27(22), 8066; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27228066 - 20 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1520

Abstract

In this study, a fluorine-containing flow modifier (Si-DF) with low surface energy is successfully synthesized, which is applied to fabricate ideal electronic packaging materials (BN/PPS composites) with high thermal conductivity, excellent dielectric properties, processability, and toughness by conventional melt blending. Si-DPF is located at the interface between the BN fillers and the PPS matrix, which not only improves the dispersion of BN fillers but also strengthens the interaction. With the help of 5 wt% Si-DF, BN/PPS/Si-DF (70/25/5) still exhibits the high thermally conductive coefficient (3.985 W/m·K) and low dielectric constant (3.76 at 100 MHz) although BN fillers are loaded as high as 70 wt%. Moreover, the sample processes a lower stable torque value (2.5 N·m), and the area under the stress–strain curves is also increased. This work provides an efficient way to develop high-performance polymer-based composites with high thermally conductive coefficients and low dielectric constants for electronic packaging applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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32 pages, 12307 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polymer Composites in 3D/4D Printing: Materials, Advances, and Prospects

by Ayyaz Mahmood, Fouzia Perveen, Shenggui Chen, Tayyaba Akram and Ahmad Irfan

Molecules 2024, 29(2), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29020319 - 9 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4784

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM), commonly referred to as 3D printing, has revolutionized the manufacturing landscape by enabling the intricate layer-by-layer construction of three-dimensional objects. In contrast to traditional methods relying on molds and tools, AM provides the flexibility to fabricate diverse components directly from digital models without the need for physical alterations to machinery. Four-dimensional printing is a revolutionary extension of 3D printing that introduces the dimension of time, enabling dynamic transformations in printed structures over predetermined periods. This comprehensive review focuses on polymeric materials in 3D printing, exploring their versatile processing capabilities, environmental adaptability, and applications across thermoplastics, thermosetting materials, elastomers, polymer composites, shape memory polymers (SMPs), including liquid crystal elastomer (LCE), and self-healing polymers for 4D printing. This review also examines recent advancements in microvascular and encapsulation self-healing mechanisms, explores the potential of supramolecular polymers, and highlights the latest progress in hybrid printing using polymer–metal and polymer–ceramic composites. Finally, this paper offers insights into potential challenges faced in the additive manufacturing of polymer composites and suggests avenues for future research in this dynamic and rapidly evolving field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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29 pages, 21306 KiB

Open AccessReview

Synthesis and Applications of Hybrid Polymer Networks Based on Renewable Natural Macromolecules

by Dariya Getya and Ivan Gitsov

Molecules 2023, 28(16), 6030; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28166030 - 12 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1789

Abstract

Macromolecules obtained from renewable natural sources are gaining increasing attention as components for a vast variety of sustainable polymer-based materials. Natural raw materials can facilitate continuous-flow production due to their year-round availability and short replenishment period. They also open new opportunities for chemists and biologists to design and create “bioreplacement” and “bioadvantaged” polymers, where complex structures produced by nature are being modified, upgraded, and utilized to create novel materials. Bio-based macromonomers are expected not only to compete with but to replace some petroleum-based analogs, as well. The development of novel sustainable materials is an ongoing and very dynamic process. There are multiple strategies for transforming natural macromolecules into sophisticated value-added products. Some methods include chemical modification of macromolecules, while others include blending several components into one new system. One of the most promising approaches for incorporating renewable macromolecules into new products is the synthesis of hybrid networks based on one or more natural components. Each one has unique characteristics, so its incorporation into a network brings new sustainable materials with properties that can be tuned according to their end-use. This article reviews the current state-of-the-art and future potential of renewable natural macromolecules as sustainable building blocks for the synthesis and use of hybrid polymer networks. The most recent advancements and applications that involve polymers, such as cellulose, chitin, alginic acid, gellan gum, lignin, and their derivatives, are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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23 pages, 7248 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Synthesis and Polymer-Reinforced Mechanical Properties of SiO₂ Aerogels: A Review

by Wang Zhan, Le Chen, Qinghong Kong, Lixia Li, Mingyi Chen, Juncheng Jiang, Weixi Li, Fan Shi and Zhiyuan Xu

Molecules 2023, 28(14), 5534; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28145534 - 20 Jul 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3290

Abstract

Silica aerogels are considered as the distinguished materials of the future due to their extremely low thermal conductivity, low density, and high surface area. They are widely used in construction engineering, aeronautical domains, environmental protection, heat storage, etc. However, their fragile mechanical properties are the bottleneck restricting the engineering application of silica aerogels. This review briefly introduces the synthesis of silica aerogels, including the processes of sol–gel chemistry, aging, and drying. The effects of different silicon sources on the mechanical properties of silica aerogels are summarized. Moreover, the reaction mechanism of the three stages is also described. Then, five types of polymers that are commonly used to enhance the mechanical properties of silica aerogels are listed, and the current research progress is introduced. Finally, the outlook and prospects of the silica aerogels are proposed, and this paper further summarizes the methods of different polymers to enhance silica aerogels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polymer-Based Materials)

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