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Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies

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A special issue of Pharmaceutics (ISSN 1999-4923). This special issue belongs to the section "Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2023) | Viewed by 16412

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Guofeng You

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Guest Editor

Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, 160 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
Interests: drug transporters; post-translational regulation; transporter-mediated drug disposition

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Drug transporters are the gatekeepers for cells in many organs such as brain, liver, intestine, kidney and placenta, controlling the flux of drugs into and out of the cells, and therefore crucially influence the absorption, distribution and elimination of drugs in the body. Various factors such as genetic and environmental factors, disease states, drug-drug interactions, and post-translational modification can lead to alterations in the expression and activity of the drug transporters, possibly impacting the therapeutic outcomes. The articles featured in this theme issue are contributed by experts in the drug transport field and are examples of the focused efforts in drug transport research, particularly on the regulation of the drug transporters and their roles in therapeutic strategies. Understanding the contribution of drug transporters in drug disposition will provide significant insights into the approaches of maximizing therapeutic efficacy and minimizing drug-related toxicity.

Prof. Dr. Guofeng You
Guest Editor

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Keywords

drug transporters
regulation of drug transporters
transporter-mediated drug disposition

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 128 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Preface to Special Issue: Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies

by Guofeng You

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(3), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16030425 - 20 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1081

Abstract

Drug transporters are membrane proteins, mediating, across cell membranes, the absorption, distribution, and excretion of a diverse array of endogenous and exogenous substances such as nutrients, metabolites, toxins, and drugs [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies)

Research

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13 pages, 1177 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dysregulation of the mRNA Expression of Human Renal Drug Transporters by Proinflammatory Cytokines in Primary Human Proximal Tubular Epithelial Cells

by Yik Pui Tsang, Tianran Hao, Qingcheng Mao, Edward J. Kelly and Jashvant D. Unadkat

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(2), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16020285 - 16 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1800

Abstract

Proinflammatory cytokines, which are elevated during inflammation or infections, can affect drug pharmacokinetics (PK) due to the altered expression or activity of drug transporters and/or metabolizing enzymes. To date, such studies have focused on the effect of cytokines on the activity and/or mRNA expression of hepatic transporters and drug-metabolizing enzymes. However, many antibiotics and antivirals used to treat infections are cleared by renal transporters, including the basal organic cation transporter 2 (OCT2), organic anion transporters 1 and 3 (OAT1 and 3), the apical multidrug and toxin extrusion proteins 1 and 2-K (MATE1/2-K), and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 and 4 (MRP2/4). Here, we determined the concentration-dependent effect of interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) on the mRNA expression of human renal transporters in freshly isolated primary human renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTECs, n = 3–5). PTECs were exposed to either a cocktail of cytokines, each at 0.01, 0.1, 1, or 10 ng/mL or individually at the same concentrations. Exposure to the cytokine cocktail for 48 h was found to significantly downregulate the mRNA expression, in a concentration-dependent manner, of OCT2, the organic anion transporting polypeptides 4C1 (OATP4C1), OAT4, MATE2-K, P-glycoprotein (P-gp), and MRP2 and upregulate the mRNA expression of the organic cation/carnitine transporter 1 (OCTN1) and MRP3. OAT1 and OAT3 also appeared to be significantly downregulated but only at 0.1 and 10 ng/mL, respectively, without a clear concentration-dependent trend. Among the cytokines, IL-1β appeared to be the most potent at down- and upregulating the mRNA expression of the transporters. Taken together, our results demonstrate for the first time that proinflammatory cytokines transcriptionally dysregulate renal drug transporters in PTECs. Such dysregulation could potentially translate into changes in transporter protein abundance or activity and alter renal transporter-mediated drug PK during inflammation or infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies)

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23 pages, 2861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Trans-Inhibition of OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 by Calcineurin and/or PPIase Inhibitors and Global Identification of OATP1B1/3-Associated Proteins

by John T. Powell, Ruhul Kayesh, Alexandra Ballesteros-Perez, Khondoker Alam, Pascaline Niyonshuti, Erik J. Soderblom, Kai Ding, Chao Xu and Wei Yue

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(1), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16010063 - 31 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1640

Abstract

Organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) 1B1 and OATP1B3 are key determinants of drug–drug interactions (DDIs). Various drugs including the calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) cyclosporine A (CsA) exert preincubation-induced trans-inhibitory effects upon OATP1B1 and/or OATP1B3 (abbreviated as OATP1B1/3) by unknown mechanism(s). OATP1B1/3 are phosphoproteins; calcineurin, which dephosphorylates and regulates numerous phosphoproteins, has not previously been investigated in the context of preincubation-induced trans-inhibition of OATP1B1/3. Herein, we compare the trans-inhibitory effects exerted on OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 by CsA, the non-analogous CNI tacrolimus, and the non-CNI CsA analogue SCY-635 in transporter-overexpressing human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 stable cell lines. Preincubation (10–60 min) with tacrolimus (1–10 µM) rapidly and significantly reduces OATP1B1- and OATP1B3-mediated transport up to 0.18 ± 0.03- and 0.20 ± 0.02-fold compared to the control, respectively. Both CsA and SCY-635 can trans-inhibit OATP1B1, with the inhibitory effects progressively increasing over a 60 min preincubation time. At each equivalent preincubation time, CsA has greater trans-inhibitory effects toward OATP1B1 than SCY-635. Preincubation with SCY-635 for 60 min yielded IC₅₀ of 2.2 ± 1.4 µM against OATP1B1, which is ~18 fold greater than that of CsA (0.12 ± 0.04 µM). Furthermore, a proteomics-based screening for protein interactors was used to examine possible proteins and processes contributing to OATP1B1/3 regulation and preincubation-induced inhibition by CNIs and other drugs. A total of 861 and 357 proteins were identified as specifically associated with OATP1B1 and OATP1B3, respectively, including various protein kinases, ubiquitin-related enzymes, the tacrolimus (FK506)-binding proteins FKBP5 and FKBP8, and several known regulatory targets of calcineurin. The current study reports several novel findings that expand our understanding of impaired OATP1B1/3 function; these include preincubation-induced trans-inhibition of OATP1B1/3 by the CNI tacrolimus, greater preincubation-induced inhibition by CsA compared to its non-CNI analogue SCY-635, and association of OATP1B1/3 with various proteins relevant to established and candidate OATP1B1/3 regulatory processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies)

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22 pages, 3636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Sex and Cross-Sex Hormone Treatment on Renal Monocarboxylate-Transporter Expression in Rats

by Hao Wei, Annie Lee, Qing Zhang and Melanie A. Felmlee

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(10), 2404; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15102404 - 29 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1440

Abstract

Proton- and sodium-dependent monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs/SMCTs) are determinants of renal clearance through the renal reabsorption of monocarboxylate substrates. Prior studies with intact females and males, ovariectomized females and castrated males have revealed the hormonal regulation of renal monocarboxylate-transporter expression, prompting investigation into the regulatory role of individual hormones. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the effect of exogenous sex and cross-sex hormones on renal MCT1, MCT4, CD147 and SMCT1 mRNA and membrane-bound protein expression. Ovariectomized (OVX) females and castrated (CST) male Sprague Dawley rats received estrogen and/or progesterone, testosterone, or a corresponding placebo treatment for 21 days prior to kidney collection. The quantitative measurement of mRNA and membrane-protein levels were conducted using qPCR and Western blot. Quantitative analysis revealed the combination estrogen/progesterone treatment reduced membrane MCT1 and 4 expression and increased SMCT1 expression, while testosterone administration increased MCT1 membrane-protein expression. Correlation analysis indicated that plasma 17β-estradiol was negatively correlated with MCT1 and MCT4 membrane expression, while testosterone was positively correlated. In contrast, SMCT1 membrane expression was positively correlated with 17β-estradiol and progesterone concentrations. MCT1, MCT4, CD147 and SMCT1 renal expression are significantly altered in response to female and male sex hormones following sex and cross-sex hormone treatment in OVX and CST rats. Further studies are needed to understand the complex role of sex hormones, sex hormone receptors and the impact of puberty on MCT/SMCT regulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies)

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14 pages, 1292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interaction of ALK Inhibitors with Polyspecific Organic Cation Transporters and the Impact of Substrate-Dependent Inhibition on the Prediction of Drug–Drug Interactions

by Yik Pui Tsang, Antonio Jesús López Quiñones, Letícia Salvador Vieira and Joanne Wang

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(9), 2312; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15092312 - 13 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1382

Abstract

Small molecules targeting aberrant anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) are active against ALK-positive non-small-cell lung cancers and neuroblastoma. Several targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have been shown to interact with polyspecific organic cation transporters (pOCTs), raising concerns about potential drug–drug interactions (DDIs). The purpose of this study was to assess the interaction of ALK inhibitors with pOCTs and the impact of substrate-dependent inhibition on the prediction of DDIs. Inhibition assays were conducted in transporter-overexpressing cells using meta-iodobenzylguanidine (mIBG), metformin, or 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) as the substrate. The half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) of brigatinib and crizotinib for the substrates tested were used to predict their potential for in vivo transporter mediated DDIs. Here, we show that the inhibition potencies of brigatinib and crizotinib on pOCTs are isoform- and substrate-dependent. Human OCT3 (hOCT3) and multidrug and toxin extrusion protein 1 (hMATE1) were highly sensitive to inhibition by brigatinib and crizotinib for all three tested substrates. Apart from hMATE1, substrate-dependent inhibition was observed for all other transporters with varying degrees of dependency; hOCT1 inhibition showed the greatest substrate dependency, with differences in IC₅₀ values of up to 22-fold across the tested substrates, followed by hOCT2 and hMATE2-K, with differences in IC₅₀ values of up to 16- and 12-fold, respectively. Conversely, hOCT3 inhibition only showed a moderate substrate dependency (IC₅₀ variance < 4.8). Among the substrates used, metformin was consistently shown to be the most sensitive substrate, followed by mIBG and MPP+. Pre-incubation of ALK inhibitors had little impact on their potencies toward hOCT2 and hMATE1. Our results underscore the complexity of the interactions between substrates and the inhibitors of pOCTs and have important implications for the clinical use of ALK inhibitors and their DDI predictions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies)

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12 pages, 2948 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Double-Leucine Motifs Affect Internalization, Stability, and Function of Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptide 1B1

by Xuyang Wang, Jieru Chen, Jiujiu Huang and Mei Hong

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(9), 2279; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15092279 - 4 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1039

Abstract

Organic anion transporting polypeptide 1B1 (OATP1B1) is specifically expressed at the basolateral membrane of human hepatocytes and plays important roles in the uptake of various endogenous and exogenous compounds including many drugs. The proper functioning of OATP1B1, hence, is essential for the bioavailability of various therapeutic agents and needs to be tightly regulated. Dileucine-based signals are involved in lysosomal targeting, internalization, and trans-Golgi network to endosome transporting of membrane proteins. In the current study, we analyzed the 3 intracellular and 13 transmembrane dileucine motifs (DLMs) within the sequence of OATP1B1. It was found that the simultaneous replacement of I332 and L333 with alanine resulted in a significantly reduced level of the mature form of OATP1B1. The cell surface expression of I332A/L333A could be partially rescued by MG132, as well as agents that prevent clathrin-dependent protein internalization, suggesting that this dileucine motif may be involved in the endocytosis of OATP1B1. On the other hand, I376/L377 and I642/L643, which are localized at transmembrane helices (TM) 8 and 12, respectively, are involved in the interaction of the transporter with its substrates. I642A/L643A exhibited a significantly decreased protein level compared to that of the wild-type, implying that the motif is important for maintaining the stability of OATP1B1 as well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies)

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18 pages, 3569 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Dysregulation of Amino Acid Transporters in a Rat Model of TLR7-Mediated Maternal Immune Activation

by Eliza R. McColl, Jeffrey T. Henderson and Micheline Piquette-Miller

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(7), 1857; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15071857 - 1 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1892

Abstract

Maternal immune activation (MIA) during pregnancy is linked to neurodevelopmental disorders in humans. Similarly, the TLR7 agonist imiquimod alters neurodevelopment in rodents. While the mechanisms underlying MIA-mediated neurodevelopmental changes are unknown, they could involve dysregulation of amino acid transporters essential for neurodevelopment. Therefore, we sought to determine the nature of such transporter changes in both imiquimod-treated rats and human placentas during infection. Pregnant rats received imiquimod on gestational day (GD)14. Transporter expression was measured in placentas and fetal brains via qPCR (GD14.5) and immunoblotting (GD16). To monitor function, fetal brain amino acid levels were measured by HPLC on GD16. Gene expression in the cortex of female fetal brains was further examined by RNAseq on GD19. In human placentas, suspected active infection was associated with decreased ASCT1 and SNAT2 protein expression. Similarly, in imiquimod-treated rats, ASCT1 and SNAT2 protein was also decreased in male placentas, while EAAT2 was decreased in female placentas. CAT3 was increased in female fetal brains. Consistent with this, imiquimod altered amino acid levels in fetal brains, while RNAseq demonstrated changes in expression of several genes implicated in autism. Thus, imiquimod alters amino acid transporter levels in pregnant rats, and similar changes occur in human placentas during active infection. This suggests that changes in expression of amino acid transporters may contribute to effects mediated by MIA toward altered neurodevelopment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies)

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Graphical abstract

13 pages, 2518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine, as Proteasome Inhibitors, Upregulate the Expression and Activity of Organic Anion Transporter 3

by Zhengxuan Liang and Guofeng You

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(6), 1725; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15061725 - 14 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1082

Abstract

Organic anion transporter 3 (OAT3), at the basolateral membrane of kidney proximal tubule cells, facilitates the elimination of numerous widely used drugs. Earlier investigation from our laboratory revealed that ubiquitin conjugation to OAT3 leads to OAT3 internalization from the cell surface, followed by degradation in the proteasome. In the current study, we examined the roles of chloroquine (CQ) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), two well-known anti-malarial drugs, in their action as proteasome inhibitors and their effects on OAT3 ubiquitination, expression, and function. We showed that in cells treated with CQ and HCQ, the ubiquitinated OAT3 was considerably enhanced, which correlated well with a decrease in 20S proteasome activity. Furthermore, in CQ- and HCQ-treated cells, OAT3 expression and OAT3-mediated transport of estrone sulfate, a prototypical substrate, were significantly increased. Such increases in OAT3 expression and transport activity were accompanied by an increase in the maximum transport velocity and a decrease in the degradation rate of the transporter. In conclusion, this study unveiled a novel role of CQ and HCQ in enhancing OAT3 expression and transport activity by preventing the degradation of ubiquitinated OAT3 in proteasomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies)

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Review

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19 pages, 1275 KiB

Open AccessReview

Transporter-Mediated Cellular Distribution of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors as a Potential Resistance Mechanism in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia

by Noor E. Verhagen, Jan B. Koenderink, Nicole M. A. Blijlevens, Jeroen J. W. M. Janssen and Frans G. M. Russel

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(11), 2535; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15112535 - 26 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1881

Abstract

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a hematologic neoplasm characterized by the expression of the BCR::ABL1 oncoprotein, a constitutively active tyrosine kinase, resulting in uncontrolled growth and proliferation of cells in the myeloid lineage. Targeted therapy using tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) such as imatinib, nilotinib, dasatinib, bosutinib, ponatinib and asciminib has drastically improved the life expectancy of CML patients. However, treatment resistance occurs in 10–20% of CML patients, which is a multifactorial problem that is only partially clarified by the presence of TKI inactivating BCR::ABL1 mutations. It may also be a consequence of a reduction in cytosolic TKI concentrations in the target cells due to transporter-mediated cellular distribution. This review focuses on drug-transporting proteins in stem cells and progenitor cells involved in the distribution of TKIs approved for the treatment of CML. Special attention will be given to ATP-binding cassette transporters expressed in lysosomes, which may facilitate the extracytosolic sequestration of these compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies)

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15 pages, 1927 KiB

Open AccessReview

Molecular Insights to the Structure-Interaction Relationships of Human Proton-Coupled Oligopeptide Transporters (PepTs)

by Yining Luo, Jingchun Gao, Xukai Jiang, Ling Zhu, Qi Tony Zhou, Michael Murray, Jian Li and Fanfan Zhou

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(10), 2517; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15102517 - 23 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2053

Abstract

Human proton-coupled oligopeptide transporters (PepTs) are important membrane influx transporters that facilitate the cellular uptake of many drugs including ACE inhibitors and antibiotics. PepTs mediate the absorption of di- and tri-peptides from dietary proteins or gastrointestinal secretions, facilitate the reabsorption of peptide-bound amino acids in the kidney, and regulate neuropeptide homeostasis in extracellular fluids. PepT1 and PepT2 have been the most intensively investigated of all PepT isoforms. Modulating the interactions of PepTs and their drug substrates could influence treatment outcomes and adverse effects with certain therapies. In recent studies, topology models and protein structures of PepTs have been developed. The aim of this review was to summarise the current knowledge regarding structure-interaction relationships (SIRs) of PepTs and their substrates as well as the potential applications of this information in therapeutic optimisation and drug development. Such information may provide insights into the efficacy of PepT drug substrates in patients, mechanisms of drug–drug/food interactions and the potential role of PepTs targeting in drug design and development strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Transporters: Regulation and Roles in Therapeutic Strategies)

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