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Polymers
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Analysis and Characterization of Renewable Polymers
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Analysis and Characterization of Renewable Polymers

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Analysis and Characterization".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 24067

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Ioana Chiulan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Head of the "Evaluation of environmental quality and impact analysis" Department, National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection, Bucharest, Romania
Interests: biomaterials; environmental protection; water treatment; biomass and biochar
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The excessive use of polymer materials is widely considered to be one of the main causes of environmental pollution. Undoubtably, the long-term consequences are countless, and the cumulative effect of all pollutant sources will affect all planetary ecosystems as well as the human population for many generations. An increased interest in finding alternatives for preventing pollution has been generated worldwide, not only at the level of the scientific community, but also among other categories of the population. An appropriate environmental policy takes into consideration the replacement of fossil fuels with polymers from renewable sources. Unfortunately, the success of using polymer materials from biomass is not widely recognized, as some concerns about the biodegradability or biocompatibility of different products were reported. In this context, the structure–properties relationship in biodegradable and biocompatible polymers and composites is essential for material science and product engineering. The development of new materials that are able to prevent waste accumulation in the environment and provide human safety is a topic of particular interest.

The aim of this Special Issue is to gather the recent progress on the synthesis and characterization of polymers and composites from renewable resources for packaging applications, as well as advanced materials for the medical and pharmaceutical fields. Articles that highlight recent research on the characterization of monomers derived from lignocellulosic materials, or the synthesis of copolymers, blends and composites of lignocellulosic biomass and recycled polymers, are also welcomed.

Dr. Ioana Chiulan
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • renewable resources
  • sustainable polymers
  • biobased polymers
  • biodegradable polymers
  • polysaccharides
  • biocomposites
  • biodegradable composites
  • green polymer chemistry
  • environmental protection

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 4444 KiB  
Article
Opposite Roles of Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibers and Foaming Agent in Polyhydroxyalkanoate-Based Materials
by Mădălina Gabriela Oprică, Cătălina Diana Uşurelu, Adriana Nicoleta Frone, Augusta Raluca Gabor, Cristian-Andi Nicolae, Valentin Vasile and Denis Mihaela Panaitescu
Polymers 2022, 14(24), 5358; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14245358 - 7 Dec 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2538
Abstract
In this work, an economically feasible procedure was employed to produce poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)-based foams. Thermally expandable microspheres (TESs) were used as a blowing agent, while bacterial cellulose (BC) nanofibers served both as a reinforcing agent and as a means of [...] Read more.
In this work, an economically feasible procedure was employed to produce poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)-based foams. Thermally expandable microspheres (TESs) were used as a blowing agent, while bacterial cellulose (BC) nanofibers served both as a reinforcing agent and as a means of improving biocompatibility. PHBV was plasticized with acetyltributylcitrate to reduce the processing temperature and ensure the maximum efficiency of the TES agent. The morphological investigation results for plasticized PHBV foams showed well-organized porous structures characterized by a porosity of 65% and the presence of both large pores (>100 µm) and finer ones, with a higher proportion of pores larger than 100 µm being observed in the PHBV nanocomposite containing TESs and BC. The foamed structure allowed an increase in the water absorption capacity of up to 650% as compared to the unfoamed samples. TESs and BC had opposite effects on the thermal stability of the plasticized PHBV, with TESs decreasing the degradation temperature by about 17 °C and BC raising it by 3–4 °C. A similar effect was observed for the melting temperature. Regarding the mechanical properties, the TESs had a flexibilizing effect on plasticized PHBV, while BC nanofibers showed a stiffening effect. An in vitro cytotoxicity test showed that all PHBV compounds exhibited high cell viability. The addition of TESs and BC nanofibers to PHBV biocomposites enabled balanced properties, along with lower costs, making PHBV a more attractive biomaterial for engineering, packaging, or medical device applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis and Characterization of Renewable Polymers)
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16 pages, 3776 KiB  
Article
Sponges from Plasma Treated Cellulose Nanofibers Grafted with Poly(ethylene glycol)methyl Ether Methacrylate
by Ioana Chiulan, Denis Mihaela Panaitescu, Andrada Serafim, Elena Ruxandra Radu, Gabriela Ioniţă, Valentin Rădiţoiu, Augusta Raluca Gabor, Cristian-Andi Nicolae, Marius Ghiurea and Dora Domnica Baciu
Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4720; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214720 - 4 Nov 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2213
Abstract
In this work, cellulose nanofibers (CNF) were surface treated by plasma and grafted with poly(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate (PEGMMA) for increasing mechanical strength and hydrophobicity. The surface characteristics of the sponges were studied by scanning electron microscopy, micro-computed tomography, and Fourier transform infrared [...] Read more.
In this work, cellulose nanofibers (CNF) were surface treated by plasma and grafted with poly(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate (PEGMMA) for increasing mechanical strength and hydrophobicity. The surface characteristics of the sponges were studied by scanning electron microscopy, micro-computed tomography, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, which demonstrated successful surface modification. Plasma treatment applied to CNF suspension led to advanced defibrillation, and the resulting sponges (CNFpl) exhibited smaller wall thickness than CNF. The grafting of PEGMMA led to an increase in the wall thickness of the sponges and the number of larger pores when compared with the non-grafted counterparts. Sponges with increased hydrophobicity demonstrated by an almost 4 times increase in the water contact angle and better mechanical strength proved by 2.5 times increase in specific compression strength were obtained after PEGMMA grafting of plasma treated CNF. Cells cultivated on both neat and PEGMMA-grafted CNF sponges showed high viability (>99%). Remarkably, CNF grafted with PEGMMA showed better cell viability as compared with the untreated CNF sample; this difference is statistically significant (p < 0.05). In addition, the obtained sponges do not trigger an inflammatory response in macrophages, with TNF-α secretion by cells in contact with CNFpl, CNF-PEGMMA, and CNFpl-PEGMMA samples being lower than that observed for the CNF sample. All these results support the great potential of cellulose nanofibers surface treated by plasma and grafted with PEGMMA for biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis and Characterization of Renewable Polymers)
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19 pages, 8994 KiB  
Article
On Laminated Object Manufactured FDM-Printed ABS/TPU Multimaterial Specimens: An Insight into Mechanical and Morphological Characteristics
by S. Kumar, I. Singh, S. S. R. Koloor, D. Kumar and M. Y. Yahya
Polymers 2022, 14(19), 4066; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14194066 - 28 Sep 2022
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3333
Abstract
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) printing of commercial and reinforced filaments is a proven and well-explored method for the enhancement of mechanical properties. However, little has hitherto been reported on the multi-material components, fused or laminated together into a single specimen by using the [...] Read more.
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) printing of commercial and reinforced filaments is a proven and well-explored method for the enhancement of mechanical properties. However, little has hitherto been reported on the multi-material components, fused or laminated together into a single specimen by using the laminated object manufacturing (LOM) technique for sustainable/renewable polymers. TPU is one such durable and flexible, sustainable material exhibiting renewable and biocompatible properties that have been explored very less often in combination with the ABS polymer matrix in a single specimen, such as the LOM specimen. The current research work presents the LOM manufacturing of 3D-printed flexural specimens of two different, widely used polymers available viz. ABS and TPU and tested as per ASTM D790 standards. The specimens were made and laminated in three layers. They were grouped into two categories, namely ABS: TPU: ABS (ATA) and TPU: ABS: TPU (TAT), which are functionally graded, sandwiched structures of polymeric material. The investigation of the flexural properties, microscopic imaging, and porosity characteristics of the specimens was made for the above categories. The results of the study suggest that ATA-based samples held larger flexural strength than TAT laminated manufactured samples. A significant improvement in the peak elongation and break elongation of the samples was achieved and has shown a 187% increase in the break elongation. Similarly, for the TAT-based specimen, flexural strength was improved significantly from approximately 6.8 MPa to 13 MPa, which represents a nearly 92% increase in the flexural strength. The morphological testing using Tool Maker’s microscopic analysis and porosity analysis has supported the observed trends of mechanical behavior of ATA and TAT samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis and Characterization of Renewable Polymers)
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11 pages, 3165 KiB  
Article
Kinetics of Pectin Biopolymer Facial Erosion Characterized by Fluorescent Tracer Microfluidics
by Matthew W. Liao, Betty S. Liu, Joseph Sutlive, Willi L. Wagner, Hassan A. Khalil, Zi Chen, Maximilian Ackermann and Steven J. Mentzer
Polymers 2022, 14(18), 3911; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14183911 - 19 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1668
Abstract
Pectin is a plant-derived heteropolysaccharide that has been implicated in drug development, tissue engineering, and visceral organ repair. Pectin demonstrates remarkable biostability in a variety of physiologic environments but is biodegradable in water. To understand the dynamics of pectin biodegradation in basic environments, [...] Read more.
Pectin is a plant-derived heteropolysaccharide that has been implicated in drug development, tissue engineering, and visceral organ repair. Pectin demonstrates remarkable biostability in a variety of physiologic environments but is biodegradable in water. To understand the dynamics of pectin biodegradation in basic environments, we developed a microfluidics system that facilitated the quantitative comparison of pectin films exposed to facial erosion. Pectin biodegradation was assessed using fluorescein tracer embedded in pectin, trypan blue quenching of released fluorescence, and highly sensitive microfluorimetry. The microfluidic perfusate, delivered through 6 um-pore synthetic membrane interface, demonstrated nonlinear erosion of the pectin film; 75% of tracer was released in 28 h. The microfluidics system was used to identify potential modifiers of pectin erosion. The polyphenolic compound tannic acid, loaded into citrus pectin films, demonstrated a dose-dependent decrease in pectin erosion. Tannic acid had no detectable impact on the physical properties of citrus pectin including adhesivity and cohesion. In contrast, tannic acid weakened the burst strength and cohesion of pectins derived from soy bean and potato sources. We conclude that facial erosion may explain the biostability of citrus pectin on visceral organ surfaces as well as provide a useful method for identifying modifiers of citrus pectin biodegradation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis and Characterization of Renewable Polymers)
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16 pages, 3487 KiB  
Article
Design, Synthesis and Characterization of Vitrimers with Low Topology Freezing Transition Temperature
by Baiju P. Krishnan, Kay Saalwaechter, Vico K. B. Adjedje and Wolfgang H. Binder
Polymers 2022, 14(12), 2456; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14122456 - 16 Jun 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5301
Abstract
Vitrimers are crosslinked polymeric materials that behave like fluids when heated, regulated by the kinetics of internal covalent bond-exchange that occurs rapidly at or above the topology freezing transition temperature (Tv) of the vitrimer, making these materials readily reprocessable and [...] Read more.
Vitrimers are crosslinked polymeric materials that behave like fluids when heated, regulated by the kinetics of internal covalent bond-exchange that occurs rapidly at or above the topology freezing transition temperature (Tv) of the vitrimer, making these materials readily reprocessable and recyclable. We report two novel multiphase vitrimeric materials prepared by the cross-linking of two polymers, namely poly(triethylene glycol sebacate) and poly(2-hydroxyethyl acrylate), using zinc acetate or tin(II) 2-ethylhexanoate as catalysts, which exhibit significantly low Tv temperatures of 39 °C and 29 °C, respectively. The transesterification reactions allow rapid and pronounced stress relaxation at high temperatures, following the Arrhenius law. The lower Tv of these vitrimers could be attributable to the flexible long chains of these polymers and the significant excess of OH moieties present along the main chain of the polymer. The design of such multiphase vitrimers is not only useful for the practical application of vitrimers to reduce plastic waste but could also facilitate further development of functional polymer materials that can be reprocessed at low temperatures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis and Characterization of Renewable Polymers)
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17 pages, 2846 KiB  
Article
“Neptune Balls” Polysaccharides: Disentangling the Wiry Seagrass Detritus
by Lukas Pfeifer
Polymers 2021, 13(24), 4285; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13244285 - 7 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3438
Abstract
Each year, high amounts of dead seagrass material are washed ashore at beaches world-wide. In the Mediterranean region, the seagrass Posidonia oceanica is responsible for huge agglomerates of ball-like seagrass litter. As these are often removed due to touristic reasons, a reuse method [...] Read more.
Each year, high amounts of dead seagrass material are washed ashore at beaches world-wide. In the Mediterranean region, the seagrass Posidonia oceanica is responsible for huge agglomerates of ball-like seagrass litter. As these are often removed due to touristic reasons, a reuse method would be a step towards a more ecologically oriented society. In this study, the main polysaccharide components were analyzed, in order to propose possible usage options. To do this, different aqueous fractions were extracted, analyzed by classical carbohydrate analysis methods (GC-FID/MS, colorimetric assay and elemental analysis), and purified by ion-exchange chromatography, as well as selective precipitation with a detecting agent for highly glycosylated glycoproteins. The obtained purified fractions were analyzed in detail and a linkage-type analysis of the most promising extract was conducted via permethylation. Only low amounts of glycoproteins, as well as medium amounts of the characteristic apiogalacturonan were likely to be present, while xylan seemed to be the most abundant polysaccharide in most fractions. A partial structural proposal showed general accordance with land plant xylans, presenting reuse options in the field of biofuel and bioplastic generation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis and Characterization of Renewable Polymers)
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Review

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22 pages, 5575 KiB  
Review
Green Composites Based on Animal Fiber and Their Applications for a Sustainable Future
by Guravtar Singh Mann, Naved Azum, Anish Khan, Malik Abdul Rub, Md Imtaiyaz Hassan, Kisa Fatima and Abdullah M. Asiri
Polymers 2023, 15(3), 601; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030601 - 24 Jan 2023
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4276
Abstract
Global climate change is already affecting the environment, as glaciers are receding, ice on rivers and lakes is melting, plant and animal range`s have altering, and trees are blooming early. Therefore, focus has shifted towards sustainable materials. There is a growing desire for [...] Read more.
Global climate change is already affecting the environment, as glaciers are receding, ice on rivers and lakes is melting, plant and animal range`s have altering, and trees are blooming early. Therefore, focus has shifted towards sustainable materials. There is a growing desire for materials that have a unique combination of qualities that metals, polymers, and other materials cannot provide, therefore scientists are turning their focus to green composites. Green composites offer a wide range of uses in automotive, aerospace, and marine applications. Composites are multiphase resources with separate interfaces that contain chemically different materials. Composites are made up of a variety of materials that are distinct in nature, and they give a set of desirable features that are superior to those of their predecessors or parents. Natural fibers are less expensive, more readily available, rust-resistant, plentiful, nontoxic, and safe for human skin, eyes, and respiratory systems. Green composites are created by combining renewable fibers with polymers (matrix) to create a new class of composites known as “green composites.” This review includes studies on various animal-based fibers and their applications. In this article, recent advancements in the field of these fibers and their composites of fibers are also discussed. The physical, chemical, and mechanical properties are also discussed in this paper. Moreover, the benefits and drawbacks of using these fibers are also discussed in detail. Finally, the paper gives an outline of the topic. The results from composites constructed from each fiber are provided, along with appropriate references for more in-depth analysis studies. This review is specially performed to strengthen the knowledge bank of the young researchers working in the field of natural composites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis and Characterization of Renewable Polymers)
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