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Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2024 | Viewed by 18065

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Bruno Emanuel Nogueira Figueira

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Guest Editor

Departamento de Desporto e Saúde, Escola de Saúde e Desenvolvimento Humano, Universidade de Évora, 7004-516 Évora, Portugal
Interests: performance analysis in team sports; internal and external load

Dr. Diogo Alexandre Martins Coutinho

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Guest Editor

Department of Sports Sciences, Exercise and Health, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal
Interests: performance analysis in team sports; decision-making; movement variability; youth training intervention
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Bruno Gonçalves

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Guest Editor

Departamento de Desporto e Saúde, Escola de Saúde e Desenvolvimento Humano, Universidade de Évora, 7004-516 Évora, Portugal
Interests: sports science; sport performance; sport training; elite sport; physical education; complex system; collective behaviour

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, performance analysis in team sports has focused on a quest for reliable information that will help to optimise the training process and ultimately the competitive outcome. With this in mind, technology has been used to monitor and control the physical and physiological demands of players in both training and competition. Similarly, players’ technical actions and movement patterns have been analysed to provide a holistic perspective of performance. However, technological development is an ongoing and systematic process that produces new sensors almost daily to collect data, advanced metrics to analyse the information, and powerful visualisation techniques to display the information. This results in a huge untapped potential for improving sports performance. This Special Issue will offer a review of the existing literature, focusing on studies that address the use of sensors to measure team sport performance and the influence of lifestyle habits on player performance.

All types of studies will be considered, including original research, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, validation studies, and conceptual articles.

Potential topics to be covered include:

Tracking of player movement patterns (e.g., sensors that track player position in both training and competition);
Analysis of technical and tactical behaviour in team sports using sensors (e.g., approaches for tracking and interpreting player performance);
Sensors that enable tracking of physical and physiological performance in team sports (e.g., systems that track players’ external and internal load);
Wearable sensors that capture health-related variables (e.g., heart rate, blood, sweat, and interstitial fluid);
Biomechanical sensors that analyse movement in team sports (e.g., motion analysis);
Original studies using sensors to compare player behaviour in team sports (e.g., use of sensors to compare player performance under different conditions during training or competition);
Validation studies investigating new sensors for performance analysis (e.g., validation of systems for recording player behaviour);
Statements and reviews synthesising expert knowledge (e.g., conceptual papers, systematic reviews).

Dr. Bruno Emanuel Nogueira Figueira
Dr. Diogo Alexandre Martins Coutinho
Dr. Bruno Gonçalves
Guest Editors

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

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Keywords

technical and tactical behaviour
physical and physiological analysis
movement patterns
talent identification technology
training and game monitoring
wearable sensors
motion analysis
motion tracking
sensor validation

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

11 pages, 996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysing Physical Performance Indicators Measured with Electronic Performance Tracking Systems in Men’s Beach Volleyball Formative Stages

by Joaquín Martín Marzano-Felisatti, Rafael Martínez-Gallego, José Pino-Ortega, Antonio García-de-Alcaraz, Jose Ignacio Priego-Quesada and José Francisco Guzmán Luján

Sensors 2024, 24(23), 7524; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24237524 - 25 Nov 2024

Viewed by 254

Abstract

Sports performance initiation is of significant interest in sports sciences, particularly in beach volleyball (BV), where players usually combine indoor and BV disciplines in the formative stages. This research aimed to apply an electronic performance tracking system to quantify the physical-conditional performance of young male BV players during competition, considering age group (U15 or U19), sport specialisation (indoor or beach) and the set outcome (winner or loser). Thirty-two young male players, categorised by age and sport specialisation, were analysed during 40 matches using electronic performance tracking systems (Wimu PRO^TM). Data collected were the set duration, total and relative distances covered, and number and maximum values in acceleration and deceleration actions. U19 players and BV specialists, compared to their younger and indoor counterparts, covered more distance (719.25 m/set vs. 597.85 m/set; 719.25 m/set vs. 613.15 m/set) and exhibited higher intensity in terms of maximum values in acceleration (4.09 m/s² vs. 3.45 m/s²; 3.99 m/s² vs. 3.65 m/s²) and deceleration (−5.05 m/s² vs. −4.41 m/s²). More accelerations (557.50 n/set vs. 584.50 n/set) and decelerations (561.50 n/set vs. 589.00 n/set) were found in indoor players. Additionally, no significant differences were found in variables regarding the set outcome. These findings suggest that both age and specialisation play crucial roles in determining a great physical-conditional performance in young players, displaying a higher volume and intensity in external load metrics, whereas indoor players seem to need more accelerations and decelerations in a BV adaptation context. These insights highlight the age development and sport specialisation in young volleyball and BV athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports)

9 pages, 467 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of a Congested Match Schedule (Due to the COVID-19 Lockdown) on Creatine Kinase (CK) in Elite Football Players Using GPS Tracking Technology

by Jorge Garcia-Unanue, Antonio Hernandez-Martin, David Viejo-Romero, Samuel Manzano-Carrasco, Javier Sanchez-Sanchez, Leonor Gallardo and Jose Luis Felipe

Sensors 2024, 24(21), 6917; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24216917 - 28 Oct 2024

Viewed by 624

Abstract

The aim was to analyse the consequences of a congested schedule (due to the COVID-19 lockdown) on creatine kinase (CK) in elite football players using GPS tracking technology. A total of 17 elite football players were monitored in training and competition with a global positioning system. Variables including total distance, high-intensity distance, and distance acceleration and deceleration were analysed. Different measurements of serum creatine kinase (CK) concentration were performed on match day (MD) and at 24 h (MD+1), 48 h (MD+2), and 72 h (MD+3) after each match to study the muscle damage of each individual player caused during the match. The results showed a significant increase in physical demands in training (in relative terms regarding the match) at MD+3 compared to MD+1 and MD+2. Furthermore, at +72 h, CK decreases to a value almost the same as that before MD. On the other hand, the players with lower demands for high-intensity actions in the match showed a higher reduction in the concentration of CK at MD+3 compared to MD+1 and MD+2 (p < 0.05). It became evident that players with high-intensity demand and a high number of accelerations and decelerations need more time to assimilate the match load and can remain in a state of muscle fatigue for up to 3 days. In addition, a congested schedule can lead to a state of chronic fatigue in elite football players, limiting physical performance and possibly increasing the potential risk of injury for football players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports)

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10 pages, 507 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neuromuscular Load in Professional Women’s Handball: Segmentation of the Player Load and the Impacts at Group and Individual Level

by Antonio Antúnez, Pablo López-Sierra, Helena Vila-Suárez and Sergio J. Ibáñez

Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5750; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175750 - 4 Sep 2024

Viewed by 543

Abstract

Handball is a team sport characterised by physical interaction with other opponents. This interaction produces a high load on the players that can manifest itself in various ways, from discomfort to prolonged injuries due to tears caused by excessive load. In order to establish correct protocols for application in women’s teams, context- and gender-specific reference data must be available. For this reason, the present research aims to find out how women’s teams in European competitions prepare for decisive matches during the match week, analysing the load in a segmented way and the level of specificity that should be achieved in training. Ex post facto research was used in which a total of 17 players belonging to a women’s first division handball team in Spain participated. The variables player load and impacts extracted from the use of Wimu ProTM inertial devices were analysed. The results showed a high neuromuscular load in players at this competitive level, especially in the variable impacts, reaching values per session of up to 1000 impacts. The individuality analyses show that the load varies significantly depending on the subject, which is why it is considered essential to establish protocols for strength work and load control in the most specific way possible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports)

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18 pages, 3392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Variations in Positional Performance across Age Groups and during Matches in Youth Association Football Competitions

by Quanchen Liu, Zhuhang Huang, Diogo Coutinho, Xiaobin Wei, Tao An and Bruno Gonçalves

Sensors 2024, 24(14), 4536; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24144536 - 13 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1010

Abstract

This study aimed to explore how positional performance varies across different youth age groups and during matches in football competitions. The study encompassed 160 male outfield youth football players (n = 80, under-13, U13; n = 80, under-15, U15) who belonged to the starting line-up and played the entire first half of each match. The players’ positional data were gathered through the global positional system for each of the eight matches performed by each age group. The frequency of near-in-phase synchronization based on speed displacements, spatial exploration index, and the distance to the nearest teammate and opponent were used as variables. Additionally, each match half was segmented into three equal parts to assess changes over time and used as a period factor along with age group. The results indicated that U13 players showed a significant decrease (from small to large ES) in synchronization speed and spatial exploration index throughout the first half of the match, along with a decrease in the distance to the nearest opponent. In contrast, U15 players exhibited most changes during the third segment of the half, with a decrease in speed synchronization and spatial exploration, but an increase in the distance and regularity to the nearest opponent. Comparing both age groups revealed significant differences in speed synchronization across the entire half of the match and within each segmented period (from small to large ES), with U13 consistently showing higher values. The study highlights that long durations in 11 vs. 11 matches might not provide an appropriate learning environment in the U13 age group. Conversely, the U15 group displayed better capacity for tactical adjustments over time, suggesting a higher level of tactical maturity. Overall, these findings emphasize the importance of adapting youth football training and competition structures to the developmental needs and capabilities of different age groups to optimize learning and performance outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports)

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12 pages, 483 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Data-Processing Methods on Acceleration Summary Metrics of GNSS Devices in Elite Australian Football

by Susanne Ellens, David L. Carey, Paul B. Gastin and Matthew C. Varley

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4383; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134383 - 5 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 731

Abstract

This study aimed to measure the differences in commonly used summary acceleration metrics during elite Australian football games under three different data processing protocols (raw, custom-processed, manufacturer-processed). Estimates of distance, speed and acceleration were collected with a 10-Hz GNSS tracking technology device from fourteen matches of 38 elite Australian football players from one team. Raw and manufacturer-processed data were exported from respective proprietary software and two common summary acceleration metrics (number of efforts and distance within medium/high-intensity zone) were calculated for the three processing methods. To estimate the effect of the three different data processing methods on the summary metrics, linear mixed models were used. The main findings demonstrated that there were substantial differences between the three processing methods; the manufacturer-processed acceleration data had the lowest reported distance (up to 184 times lower) and efforts (up to 89 times lower), followed by the custom-processed distance (up to 3.3 times lower) and efforts (up to 4.3 times lower), where raw data had the highest reported distance and efforts. The results indicated that different processing methods changed the metric output and in turn alters the quantification of the demands of a sport (volume, intensity and frequency of the metrics). Coaches, practitioners and researchers need to understand that various processing methods alter the summary metrics of acceleration data. By being informed about how these metrics are affected by processing methods, they can better interpret the data available and effectively tailor their training programs to match the demands of competition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports)

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9 pages, 545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Do Elite Basketball Players Maintain Peak External Demands throughout the Entire Game?

by Hugo Salazar, Filip Ujakovic, Jernej Plesa, Alberto Lorenzo and Enrique Alonso-Pérez-Chao

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4318; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134318 - 3 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1302

Abstract

Consideration of workload intensity and peak demands across different periods of basketball games contributes to understanding the external physical requirements of elite basketball players. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the average intensity and peak demands encountered by players throughout game quarters. PlayerLoad per minute and PlayerLoad at three different time samples (30 s, 1 min, and 3 min) were used as workload metrics. A total of 14 professional elite male basketball players were monitored during 30 official games to investigate this. A linear mixed model and Cohen’s d were employed to identify significant differences and quantify the effect sizes among game quarters. The results showed a significant, moderate effect in PlayerLoad per minute between Q1 vs. Q4, and a small effect between Q2 and Q3 vs. Q4. Furthermore, a small to moderate decline was observed in external peak values for PlayerLoad across game quarters. Specifically,, a significant decrease was found for the 3 min time window between Q1 and other quarters. The findings from the present study suggest that professional basketball players tend to experience fatigue or reduced physical output as the game progresses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports)

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13 pages, 1100 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Determinants of Sprinting and Change of Direction in Elite Female Field Hockey Players

by Alejandro Bustamante-Garrido, Mikel Izquierdo, Bianca Miarka, Ariel Cuartero-Navarrete, Jorge Pérez-Contreras, Esteban Aedo-Muñoz and Hugo Cerda-Kohler

Sensors 2023, 23(18), 7663; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23187663 - 5 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2759

Abstract

Profile determination in field hockey is critical to determining athletes’ physical strengths and weaknesses, and is key in planning, programming, and monitoring training. This study pursued two primary objectives: (i) to provide descriptive data on sprinting, deceleration, and change of direction (COD) abilities and (ii) to elucidate the mechanical variables that influence sprint and COD performance in elite female field hockey players. Using radar and time-gate technology, we assessed performance and mechanical data from 30 m sprinting, deceleration, and COD tests for 26 elite female hockey players. A machine learning approach identified mechanical variables related to sprint and COD performance. Our findings offer a framework for athlete categorization and the design of performance-enhancing training strategies at the international level. Two pivotal mechanical variables—relative maximum horizontal force (F0) and maximum velocity (Vmax)—predominantly influence the times across all tested distances. However, the force–velocity profile (FVP) and horizontal deceleration do not influence the variance in the COD test outcomes. These insights can guide the design, adjustment, and monitoring of training programs, assisting coaches in decision making to optimize performance and mitigate injury risks for female hockey players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports)

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9 pages, 1983 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Reliability of Maximal Strength and Peak Rate of Force Development in a Portable Nordic Hamstrings Exercise Device

by Júlio A. Costa, Konstantinos Spyrou, António Sancho, Joana F. Reis and João Brito

Sensors 2023, 23(12), 5452; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23125452 - 9 Jun 2023

Viewed by 2109

Abstract

The Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) is a very popular exercise used to improve eccentric strength and prevent injuries. The aim of this investigation was to assess the reliability of a portable dynamometer that measures maximal strength (MS) and rate of force development (RFD) during the NHE. Seventeen physically active participants (34.8 ± 4.1 years; n = 2 women and n = 15 men) participated. Measurements occurred on two different days separated by 48–72 h. Test–retest reliability was calculated for bilateral MS and RFD. No significant test–retest differences were observed in NHE (test–retest [95% CI, confidence interval]) for MS [−19.2 N (−67.8; 29.4); p = 0.42] and RFD [−70.4 N·s⁻¹ (−178.4; 37.8); p = 0.19]. MS showed high reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] [95% CI], =0.93 [0.80–0.97] and large within-subject correlation between test and retest [r = 0.88 (0.68; 0.95)]. RFD displayed good reliability [ICC = 0.76 (0.35; 0.91)] and moderate within-subject correlation between test and retest [r = 0.63 (0.22; 0.85)]. Bilateral MS and RFD displayed a coefficient of variation of 3.4% and 4.6%, respectively, between tests. The standard error of measurement and the minimal detectable change for MS was 44.6 arbitrary units (a.u.) and 123.6 a.u., and 104.6 a.u. and 290.0 a.u. for peak RFD. This study shows that MS and RFD can be measured for NHE using a portable dynamometer. However, not all exercises are suitable to apply to determine RFD, so caution must be taken when analyzing RFD during NHE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports)

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9 pages, 845 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Repeated Sprint Ability, Countermovement Jump and Thermography in Elite Football Players

by Carlos Majano, Jorge García-Unanue, Antonio Hernandez-Martin, Javier Sánchez-Sánchez, Leonor Gallardo and Jose Luis Felipe

Sensors 2023, 23(2), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020631 - 5 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3770

Abstract

Football is a very demanding sport which requires players to exert maximum effort, producing fatigue and eventually injuries. Thermography can be used to detect fatigue and prevent its consequences through thermal asymmetries in the bilateral body areas; however, its adequacy for elite footballers has not been widely studied. Therefore, the objective of the present investigation was to determine the suitability of thermography to detect fatigue in male football players. For this reason, twenty participants were gathered into a pair of subgroups (low [<0.2 °C] vs. high thermal asymmetry [≥0.2 °C]) based on a thermography session of the lower limbs (thighs, calves, and hamstrings). After the thermography session, players performed CMJs before and after an RSA test (6 × 30 m/20″). A mixed two-way analysis of variance and Bonferroni post hoc pairwise comparisons were undertaken to analyse the results. No significant differences (p > 0.05) were found in any of the RSA test variables between low and high thermal asymmetry groups for thighs and calves. On the other hand, the low thermal asymmetry hamstring group reported a smaller percentage difference in sprints for the first sprint (%Diff) and a larger percentage difference in sprints two and three with respect to the best sprint (%Best). For CMJs, the low thermal asymmetry hamstring group reported significantly higher values post-RSA test, indicating better performance. Accordingly, thermography can provide information about performance in CMJ and RSA tests through hamstring asymmetries over 0.2 °C. Meanwhile, larger asymmetries than 0.2 °C in calves and thighs do not seem to be related to performance in these tests; therefore, coaches should consider if it is optimal to align players with high hamstring asymmetries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports)

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12 pages, 735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Optical Tracking to Tactical Performance via Voronoi Diagrams: Team Formation and Players’ Roles Constrain Interpersonal Linkages in High-Level Football

by Nelson Caldeira, Rui J. Lopes, Dinis Fernandes and Duarte Araujo

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010273 - 27 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3248

Abstract

Football performance behaviour relies on the individual and collective perceptual attunement to the opportunities for action (affordances) available in a given competitive environment. Such perception–action coupling is constrained by players’ spatial dominance. Aiming to understand the influence of team formation and players’ roles in their dynamic interaction (interpersonal linkages), Voronoi diagrams were used to assess the differences in players’ spatial dominance resulting from their interactions according to ball-possession status in high-performance football. Notational (i.e., team formation, players’ role, and ball-possession status) and positional data (from optical sensors) from ten matches of the men’s French main football league were analysed. Voronoi diagrams were computed from players’ positional data for both teams. Probability density functions of the players’ Voronoi cell areas were then computed and compared, using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, for the different variables (i.e., team formation, player role, and ball-possession status) and their classes. For these variables, the players’ Voronoi cell areas presented statistical differences, which were sensitive to team formation classes (i.e., defenders, midfielders, and forwards) and relative pitch location (interior or exterior in the effective play space). Differences were also found between players with similar roles when in different team formations. Our results showed that team formation and players’ roles constrain their interpersonal linkages, resulting in different spatial dominance patterns. Using positional data captured by optical sensors, Voronoi diagrams can be computed into compound variables, which are meaningful for understanding the match and thus offer information to the design representative training tasks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Performance Analysis in Team Sports)

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