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Sports Sensors for Athlete Motion Tracking and Physiological Monitoring
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Sports Sensors for Athlete Motion Tracking and Physiological Monitoring

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Navigation and Positioning".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 1 January 2025 | Viewed by 5634

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Carlos D. Gómez-Carmona

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Guest Editor
1. Optimization of Training and Sports Performance (GOERD), Department of Didactics of Music Plastic and Body Expression, Faculty of Sport Science, University of Extremadura, 10071 Caceres, Spain
2. Biovetmed & Sportsci Research Group, Department of Physical Activity and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Murcia, 30720 San Javier, Spain
Interests: sports performance; technology; external and internal workload; training and competition context; individual and team sports; data mining
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. José Pino Ortega

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Biovetmed & Sportsci Research Group, Department of Physical Activity and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Murcia, 30720 San Javier, Spain
Interests: sports training; excise science; physical activity; tracking technology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Sergio José Ibáñez Godoy

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Guest Editor
Grupo de Optimización del Entrenamiento y Rendimiento Deportivo (GOERD), Facultad de Ciencias del Deporte, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
Interests: sports pedagogy: physical education, coach education; coaching science: sports, sports training, sports performance, performance analysis, notational analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Monitoring athlete performance and health has become increasingly important in competitive sports. Advances in sensor technologies over recent decades have enabled the more precise and comprehensive tracking of both internal and external metrics during training and competition. This Special Issue provides a timely overview of state-of-the-art sensing capabilities for sporting applications and an analysis of the data such systems generate. The papers within this collection examine the latest developments across a range of sensor types, including wearable devices and integrated smart equipment, used to measure critical internal load parameters such as heart rate, muscle oxygenation, blood lactate, etc. This Special Issue also covers recent innovations in external workload monitoring, from GPS tracking systems, radio frequency-based position trackers, accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers embedded in equipment and clothing to smartphone apps utilizing device’s cameras and sensors. Additionally, this Special Issue also focuses on optical systems like photocells, laser distance trackers, and video analysis to quantify biomechanics, speed, and distances covered at high resolutions. With sensor miniaturization and greater affordability improving accessibility, the papers in this Special Issue assess effective implementation, data management, and analysis techniques as well as the emerging trends pointing toward an ever more quantified future for athletes and sports medicine practitioners alike. Altogether, this collection offers valuable insights for research and practice relating to this modern frontier of sports performance optimization.

Dr. Carlos D. Gómez-Carmona
Prof. Dr. José Pino Ortega
Prof. Dr. Sergio José Ibáñez Godoy
Guest Editors

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • sport training
  • GPS tracking systems
  • radio frequency-based position trackers
  • athlete monitoring
  • athlete motion tracking
  • laser distance trackers
  • inertial measurement unit
  • video analysis
  • wearable devices
  • physical and physiological analysis

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 1291 KiB  
Article
Determining Validity and Reliability of an In-Field Performance Analysis System for Swimming
by Dennis-Peter Born, Marek Polach and Craig Staunton
Sensors 2024, 24(22), 7186; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24227186 - 9 Nov 2024
Viewed by 402
Abstract
To permit the collection of quantitative data on start, turn and clean swimming performances in any swimming pool, the aims of the present study were to (1) validate a mobile in-field performance analysis system (PAS) against the Kistler starting block equipped with force [...] Read more.
To permit the collection of quantitative data on start, turn and clean swimming performances in any swimming pool, the aims of the present study were to (1) validate a mobile in-field performance analysis system (PAS) against the Kistler starting block equipped with force plates and synchronized to a 2D camera system (KiSwim, Kistler, Winterthur, Switzerland), (2) assess the PAS’s interrater reliability and (3) provide percentiles as reference values for elite junior and adult swimmers. Members of the Swiss junior and adult national swimming teams including medalists at Olympic Games, World and European Championships volunteered for the present study (n = 47; age: 17 ± 4 [range: 13–29] years; World Aquatics Points: 747 ± 100 [range: 527–994]). All start and turn trials were video-recorded and analyzed using two methods: PAS and KiSwim. The PAS involves one fixed view camera recording overwater start footage and a sport action camera that is moved underwater along the side of the pool perpendicular to the swimming lane on a 1.55 m long monostand. From a total of 25 parameters determined with the PAS, 16 are also measurable with the KiSwim, of which 7 parameters showed satisfactory validity (r = 0.95–1.00, p < 0.001, %-difference < 1%). Interrater reliability was determined for all 25 parameters of the PAS and reliability was accepted for 21 of those start, turn and swimming parameters (ICC = 0.78–1.00). The percentiles for all valid and reliable parameters provide reference values for assessment of start, turn and swimming performance for junior and adult national team swimmers. The in-field PAS provides a mobile method to assess start, turn and clean swimming performance with high validity and reliability. The analysis template and manual included in the present article aid the practical application of the PAS in research and development projects as well as academic works. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Sensors for Athlete Motion Tracking and Physiological Monitoring)
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18 pages, 1029 KiB  
Article
Cardiovascular Response and Locomotor Demands of Elite Basketball Referees During International Tournament: A Within- and Between-Referee Analysis
by Haris Pojskić, Edin Užičanin, David Suárez-Iglesias and Alejandro Vaquera
Sensors 2024, 24(21), 6900; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24216900 - 28 Oct 2024
Viewed by 539
Abstract
There is little knowledge about within- and between-referee variation (WBRV) in cardiovascular responses (CVR) and locomotor game demands (LMD). Thus, the primary aim of this study was to assess the WBRV of CVR and LMD in male basketball referees during elite international games [...] Read more.
There is little knowledge about within- and between-referee variation (WBRV) in cardiovascular responses (CVR) and locomotor game demands (LMD). Thus, the primary aim of this study was to assess the WBRV of CVR and LMD in male basketball referees during elite international games in preparation [e.g., warm-up (WU) and re-warm-up (R-WU)] and active game phases. The secondary aim was to explore quarter-by-quarter differences in CVR and LMD. Thirty-five international male referees took part in this study (age, 40.4 ± 5.4 years; body height, 184.9 ± 5.7 cm; body weight, 85.1 ± 7.5 kg; BMI, 24.0 ± 1.7 kg × m−2; fat%, 18.8 ± 4.7% and VO2max, 50.4 ± 2.2 L × kg−1 × min−1. In total, 76 games (e.g., 228 officiating cases) were analyzed during the FIBA elite men’s competition. They officiated 4.5 games on average (range 3–9 games). Each referee used the Polar Team Pro system to measure CVR [e.g., heart rate (HR), time spent in different HR intensity categories] and LMD (e.g., distance covered, maximal and average velocity, and number of accelerations). Results showed that the referees had bigger WBRV during the active and preparation (e.g., W-U than R-WU) phase when variables of higher CVR and LMD intensity were observed (e.g., time spent at higher HR zones, distance covered in higher speed zones). The WBRV, CVR, and LMD were higher during WU than R-WU. Moreover, the referees had a lower CVR and LMD in the second half. In conclusion, the referees should establish and follow consistently a game-to-game preparation routine and attempt to spread their on-court preparation time equally within the crew. A half-time preparation routine should be improved to re-establish a sufficient activation level similar to that achieved in pre-game preparation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Sensors for Athlete Motion Tracking and Physiological Monitoring)
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16 pages, 3440 KiB  
Article
Towards Automatic Object Detection and Activity Recognition in Indoor Climbing
by Hana Vrzáková, Jani Koskinen, Sami Andberg, Ahreum Lee and Mary Jean Amon
Sensors 2024, 24(19), 6479; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24196479 - 8 Oct 2024
Viewed by 838
Abstract
Rock climbing has propelled from niche sport to mainstream free-time activity and Olympic sport. Moreover, climbing can be studied as an example of a high-stakes perception-action task. However, understanding what constitutes an expert climber is not simple or straightforward. As a dynamic and [...] Read more.
Rock climbing has propelled from niche sport to mainstream free-time activity and Olympic sport. Moreover, climbing can be studied as an example of a high-stakes perception-action task. However, understanding what constitutes an expert climber is not simple or straightforward. As a dynamic and high-risk activity, climbing requires a precise interplay between cognition, perception, and precise action execution. While prior research has predominantly focused on the movement aspect of climbing (i.e., skeletal posture and individual limb movements), recent studies have also examined the climber’s visual attention and its links to their performance. To associate the climber’s attention with their actions, however, has traditionally required frame-by-frame manual coding of the recorded eye-tracking videos. To overcome this challenge and automatically contextualize the analysis of eye movements in indoor climbing, we present deep learning-driven (YOLOv5) hold detection that facilitates automatic grasp recognition. To demonstrate the framework, we examined the expert climber’s eye movements and egocentric perspective acquired from eye-tracking glasses (SMI and Tobii Glasses 2). Using the framework, we observed that the expert climber’s grasping duration was positively correlated with total fixation duration (r = 0.807) and fixation count (r = 0.864); however, it was negatively correlated with the fixation rate (r = −0.402) and saccade rate (r = −0.344). The findings indicate the moments of cognitive processing and visual search that occurred during decision making and route prospecting. Our work contributes to research on eye–body performance and coordination in high-stakes contexts, and informs the sport science and expands the applications, e.g., in training optimization, injury prevention, and coaching. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Sensors for Athlete Motion Tracking and Physiological Monitoring)
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18 pages, 768 KiB  
Article
Variations in External and Internal Intensities and Impact of Maturational Age on Soccer Training Tasks
by Juan Manuel García-Ceberino, José Manuel Cantonero-Cobos, Cristina Conde and Eduardo José Fernández-Ozcorta
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5656; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175656 - 30 Aug 2024
Viewed by 661
Abstract
During peak height velocity, adjusting training intensity is crucial for optimizing performance and minimizing injury risk. This cross-sectional study compares external and internal intensities in different training tasks (analytical tasks, small-sided games, and training matches) and analyzes their effect on the maturation age [...] Read more.
During peak height velocity, adjusting training intensity is crucial for optimizing performance and minimizing injury risk. This cross-sectional study compares external and internal intensities in different training tasks (analytical tasks, small-sided games, and training matches) and analyzes their effect on the maturation age of young players. Fifty-five U-15 and U-16 boys from two soccer clubs in southwestern Spain were monitored using inertial movement units and heart rate monitors to report training intensities. Anthropometric data and birthdates were collected to estimate maturation age. The Friedman test and Durbin–Conover post hoc test identified specific differences between groups, and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients assessed variable impacts. Training matches showed significantly higher distance covered, maximum and average speed, and average heart rate compared to small-sided games and analytical tasks. High-intensity actions and sprints were significantly higher (p < 0.0001) during training matches compared to analytical tasks and during small-sided games compared to analytical tasks. Player load per minute was significantly highest (p < 0.05) during training matches, followed by small-sided games, and lowest in analytical tasks. Positive correlations between maturational age and high-intensity actions, accelerations, and decelerations indicated higher intensity (p < 0.05) in more mature players. A negative correlation between player load per minute and maturational age suggested more efficient intensity management in mature players. These findings highlight the importance of considering biological maturation and training task variability in youth athletes’ development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Sensors for Athlete Motion Tracking and Physiological Monitoring)
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11 pages, 4092 KiB  
Article
Using Resistance-Band Tests to Evaluate Trunk Muscle Strength in Chronic Low Back Pain: A Test–Retest Reliability Study
by Francisco Franco-López, Krzysztof Durkalec-Michalski, Jesús Díaz-Morón, Enrique Higueras-Liébana, Alejandro Hernández-Belmonte and Javier Courel-Ibáñez
Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4131; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134131 - 25 Jun 2024
Viewed by 1553
Abstract
Exercise is a front-line intervention to increase functional capacity and reduce pain and disability in people with low strength levels or disorders. However, there is a lack of validated field-based tests to check the initial status and, more importantly, to control the process [...] Read more.
Exercise is a front-line intervention to increase functional capacity and reduce pain and disability in people with low strength levels or disorders. However, there is a lack of validated field-based tests to check the initial status and, more importantly, to control the process and make tailored adjustments in load, intensity, and recovery. We aimed to determine the test–retest reliability of a submaximal, resistance-band test to evaluate the strength of the trunk stability muscles using a portable force sensor in middle-aged adults (48 ± 13 years) with medically diagnosed chronic low back pain and healthy peers (n = 35). Participants completed two submaximal progressive tests of two resistance-band exercises (unilateral row and Pallof press), consisting of 5 s maintained contraction, progressively increasing the load. The test stopped when deviation from the initial position by compensation movements occurred. Trunk muscle strength (CORE muscles) was monitored in real time using a portable force sensor (strain gauge). Results revealed that both tests were highly reliable (intra-class correlation [ICC] > 0.901) and presented low errors and coefficients of variation (CV) in both groups. In particular, people with low back pain had errors of 14–19 N (CV = 9–12%) in the unilateral row test and 13–19 N (CV = 8–12%) in the Pallof press. No discomfort or pain was reported during or after the tests. These two easy-to-use and technology-based tests result in a reliable and objective screening tool to evaluate the strength and trunk stability in middle-aged adults with chronic low back pain, considering an error of measurement < 20 N. This contribution may have an impact on improving the individualization and control of rehabilitation or physical training in people with lumbar injuries or disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Sensors for Athlete Motion Tracking and Physiological Monitoring)
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14 pages, 3558 KiB  
Article
Reliability and Validity of the Strain Gauge “GSTRENGTH” for Measuring Peak Force in the Isometric Belt Squat at Different Joint Angles
by Daniel Varela-Olalla, Carlos Balsalobre-Fernández, Blanca Romero-Moraleda and Sergio L. Jiménez-Sáiz
Sensors 2024, 24(10), 3256; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24103256 - 20 May 2024
Viewed by 1027
Abstract
Since isometric training is gaining popularity, some devices are being developed to test isometric force as an alternative to the more expensive force plates (FPs); thus, the aim of this study was to test the reliability and validity of “GSTRENGTH” for measuring PF [...] Read more.
Since isometric training is gaining popularity, some devices are being developed to test isometric force as an alternative to the more expensive force plates (FPs); thus, the aim of this study was to test the reliability and validity of “GSTRENGTH” for measuring PF in the isometric belt squat exercise. Five subjects performed 24 contractions at three different knee angles (90°, 105° and 120°) on two occasions (120 total cases). Peak force data were measured using FPs and a strain gauge (SG) and analyzed by Pearson’s product–moment correlation coefficient, ICCs, Cronbach’s alpha, a paired sample t-test and Bland–Altman plots. Perfect or almost perfect relationships (r: 0.999–1) were found with an almost perfect or perfect level of agreement (ICCs: 0.992–1; α: 0.998–1). The t-test showed significant differences for the raw data but not for the predictions by the equations obtained with the SG values. The Bland–Altman plots, when significant, showed trivial to moderate values for systematic bias in general. In conclusion, “GSTRENGTH” was shown to be a valid alternative to FPs for measuring PF. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Sensors for Athlete Motion Tracking and Physiological Monitoring)
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