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3266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping the Salinity Gradient in a Microfluidic Device with Schlieren Imaging

by Chen-li Sun, Shao-Tuan Chen and Po-Jen Hsiao

Sensors 2015, 15(5), 11587-11600; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150511587 - 20 May 2015

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 7188

Abstract

This work presents the use of the schlieren imaging to quantify the salinity gradients in a microfluidic device. By partially blocking the back focal plane of the objective lens, the schlieren microscope produces an image with patterns that correspond to spatial derivative of [...] Read more.

This work presents the use of the schlieren imaging to quantify the salinity gradients in a microfluidic device. By partially blocking the back focal plane of the objective lens, the schlieren microscope produces an image with patterns that correspond to spatial derivative of refractive index in the specimen. Since salinity variation leads to change in refractive index, the fluid mixing of an aqueous salt solution of a known concentration and water in a T-microchannel is used to establish the relation between salinity gradients and grayscale readouts. This relation is then employed to map the salinity gradients in the target microfluidic device from the grayscale readouts of the corresponding micro-schlieren image. For saline solution with salinity close to that of the seawater, the grayscale readouts vary linearly with the salinity gradient, and the regression line is independent of the flow condition and the salinity of the injected solution. It is shown that the schlieren technique is well suited to quantify the salinity gradients in microfluidic devices, for it provides a spatially resolved, non-invasive, full-field measurement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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1243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical Prediction of Experimental Jump and Pull-In Dynamics in a MEMS Sensor

by Laura Ruzziconi, Abdallah H. Ramini, Mohammad I. Younis and Stefano Lenci

Sensors 2014, 14(9), 17089-17111; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140917089 - 15 Sep 2014

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6735

Abstract

The present research study deals with an electrically actuated MEMS device. An experimental investigation is performed, via frequency sweeps in a neighbourhood of the first natural frequency. Resonant behavior is explored, with special attention devoted to jump and pull-in dynamics. A theoretical single [...] Read more.

The present research study deals with an electrically actuated MEMS device. An experimental investigation is performed, via frequency sweeps in a neighbourhood of the first natural frequency. Resonant behavior is explored, with special attention devoted to jump and pull-in dynamics. A theoretical single degree-of-freedom spring-mass model is derived. Classical numerical simulations are observed to properly predict the main nonlinear features. Nevertheless, some discrepancies arise, which are particularly visible in the resonant branch. They mainly concern the practical range of existence of each attractor and the final outcome after its disappearance. These differences are likely due to disturbances, which are unavoidable in practice, but have not been included in the model. To take disturbances into account, in addition to the classical local investigations, we consider the global dynamics and explore the robustness of the obtained results by performing a dynamical integrity analysis. Our aim is that of developing an applicable confident estimate of the system response. Integrity profiles and integrity charts are built to detect the parameter range where reliability is practically strong and where it becomes weak. Integrity curves exactly follow the experimental data. They inform about the practical range of actuality. We discuss the combined use of integrity charts in the engineering design. Although we refer to a particular case-study, the approach is very general. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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1063 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simple Fall Criteria for MEMS Sensors: Data Analysis and Sensor Concept

by Alwathiqbellah Ibrahim and Mohammad I. Younis

Sensors 2014, 14(7), 12149-12173; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140712149 - 8 Jul 2014

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6752

Abstract

This paper presents a new and simple fall detection concept based on detailed experimental data of human falling and the activities of daily living (ADLs). Establishing appropriate fall algorithms compatible with MEMS sensors requires detailed data on falls and ADLs that indicate clearly [...] Read more.

This paper presents a new and simple fall detection concept based on detailed experimental data of human falling and the activities of daily living (ADLs). Establishing appropriate fall algorithms compatible with MEMS sensors requires detailed data on falls and ADLs that indicate clearly the variations of the kinematics at the possible sensor node location on the human body, such as hip, head, and chest. Currently, there is a lack of data on the exact direction and magnitude of each acceleration component associated with these node locations. This is crucial for MEMS structures, which have inertia elements very close to the substrate and are capacitively biased, and hence, are very sensitive to the direction of motion whether it is toward or away from the substrate. This work presents detailed data of the acceleration components on various locations on the human body during various kinds of falls and ADLs. A two-degree-of-freedom model is used to help interpret the experimental data. An algorithm for fall detection based on MEMS switches is then established. A new sensing concept based on the algorithm is proposed. The concept is based on employing several inertia sensors, which are triggered simultaneously, as electrical switches connected in series, upon receiving a true fall signal. In the case of everyday life activities, some or no switches will be triggered resulting in an open circuit configuration, thereby preventing false positive. Lumped-parameter model is presented for the device and preliminary simulation results are presented illustrating the new device concept. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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811 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticle Humidity Microsensors Integrated with Circuitry on-a-Chip

by Yu-Chih Hu, Ching-Liang Dai and Cheng-Chih Hsu

Sensors 2014, 14(3), 4177-4188; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140304177 - 3 Mar 2014

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 10005

Abstract

A humidity microsensor integrated with a readout circuit on-a-chip fabricated using the commercial 0.18 μm CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) process was presented. The integrated sensor chip consists of a humidity sensor and a readout circuit. The humidity sensor is composed of a [...] Read more.

A humidity microsensor integrated with a readout circuit on-a-chip fabricated using the commercial 0.18 μm CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) process was presented. The integrated sensor chip consists of a humidity sensor and a readout circuit. The humidity sensor is composed of a sensitive film and interdigitated electrodes. The sensitive film is titanium dioxide prepared by the sol-gel method. The titanium dioxide is coated on the interdigitated electrodes. The humidity sensor requires a post-process to remove the sacrificial layer and to coat the titanium dioxide. The resistance of the sensor changes as the sensitive film absorbs or desorbs vapor. The readout circuit is employed to convert the resistance variation of the sensor into the output voltage. The experimental results show that the integrated humidity sensor has a sensitivity of 4.5 mV/RH% (relative humidity) at room temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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2053 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrasonic Multiple-Access Ranging System Using Spread Spectrum and MEMS Technology for Indoor Localization

by Laurent Segers, Jelmer Tiete, An Braeken and Abdellah Touhafi

Sensors 2014, 14(2), 3172-3187; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140203172 - 18 Feb 2014

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 8465

Abstract

Indoor localization of persons and objects poses a great engineering challenge. Previously developed localization systems demonstrate the use of wideband techniques in ultrasound ranging systems. Direct sequence and frequency hopping spread spectrum ultrasound signals have been proven to achieve a high level of [...] Read more.

Indoor localization of persons and objects poses a great engineering challenge. Previously developed localization systems demonstrate the use of wideband techniques in ultrasound ranging systems. Direct sequence and frequency hopping spread spectrum ultrasound signals have been proven to achieve a high level of accuracy. A novel ranging method using the frequency hopping spread spectrum with finite impulse response filtering will be investigated and compared against the direct sequence spread spectrum. In the first setup, distances are estimated in a single-access environment, while in the second setup, two senders and one receiver are used. During the experiments, the micro-electromechanical systems are used as ultrasonic sensors, while the senders were implemented using field programmable gate arrays. Results show that in a single-access environment, the direct sequence spread spectrum method offers slightly better accuracy and precision performance compared to the frequency hopping spread spectrum. When two senders are used, measurements point out that the frequency hopping spread spectrum is more robust to near-far effects than the direct sequence spread spectrum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manufacture of Radio Frequency Micromachined Switches with Annealing

by Cheng-Yang Lin and Ching-Liang Dai

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1680-1690; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101680 - 17 Jan 2014

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6107

Abstract

The fabrication and characterization of a radio frequency (RF) micromachined switch with annealing were presented. The structure of the RF switch consists of a membrane, coplanar waveguide (CPW) lines, and eight springs. The RF switch is manufactured using the complementary metal oxide semiconductor [...] Read more.

The fabrication and characterization of a radio frequency (RF) micromachined switch with annealing were presented. The structure of the RF switch consists of a membrane, coplanar waveguide (CPW) lines, and eight springs. The RF switch is manufactured using the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process. The switch requires a post-process to release the membrane and springs. The post-process uses a wet etching to remove the sacrificial silicon dioxide layer, and to obtain the suspended structures of the switch. In order to improve the residual stress of the switch, an annealing process is applied to the switch, and the membrane obtains an excellent flatness. The finite element method (FEM) software CoventorWare is utilized to simulate the stress and displacement of the RF switch. Experimental results show that the RF switch has an insertion loss of 0.9 dB at 35 GHz and an isolation of 21 dB at 39 GHz. The actuation voltage of the switch is 14 V. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Ionic-Polymer-Metallic Composite Actuator for Reconfigurable Antennas in Mobile Devices

by Yi-Chen Lin, Chung-Yi Yu, Chung-Min Li, Chin-Heng Liu, Jiun-Peng Chen, Tah-Hsiung Chu and Guo-Dung John Su

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 834-847; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100834 - 6 Jan 2014

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 9530

Abstract

In this paper, a new application of an electro-active-polymer for a radio frequency (RF) switch is presented. We used an ionic polymer metallic composite (IPMC) switch to change the operating frequency of an inverted-F antenna. This switch is light in weight, small in [...] Read more.

In this paper, a new application of an electro-active-polymer for a radio frequency (RF) switch is presented. We used an ionic polymer metallic composite (IPMC) switch to change the operating frequency of an inverted-F antenna. This switch is light in weight, small in volume, and low in cost. In addition, the IPMC is suitable for mobile devices because of its driving voltage of 3 volts and thickness of 200 μm. The IPMC acts as a normally-on switch to control the operating frequency of a reconfigurable antenna in mobile phones. We experimentally demonstrated by network analysis that the IPMC switch could shift its operating frequency from 1.1 to 2.1 GHz, with return losses of than −10 dB at both frequencies. To minimize electrolysis and maximize the operation time in air, propylene carbonate electrolyte with lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄) was applied inside the IPMC. The results showed that when the IPMC was actuated over three months at 3.5 V, the tip displacement fell by less than 10%. Therefore, an IPMC actuator is a promising choice for application to a reconfigurable antenna. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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1049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Instability of Contact Resistance in MEMS and NEMS DC Switches under Low Force: the Role of Alien Films on the Contact Surface

by Haodong Qiu, Hong Wang and Feixiang Ke

Sensors 2013, 13(12), 16360-16371; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131216360 - 28 Nov 2013

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6247

Abstract

The metal contact is one of the most crucial parts in ohmic-contact microelectromechanical (MEMS) switches, as it determines the device performance and reliability. It has been observed that there is contact instability when the contact force is below a threshold value (minimum contact [...] Read more.

The metal contact is one of the most crucial parts in ohmic-contact microelectromechanical (MEMS) switches, as it determines the device performance and reliability. It has been observed that there is contact instability when the contact force is below a threshold value (minimum contact force). However, there has been very limited knowledge so far about the unstable electrical contact behavior under low contact force. In this work, the instability of Au-Au micro/nano-contact behavior during the initial stage of contact formation is comprehensively investigated for the first time. It has been found that the alien film on the contact surface plays a critical role in determining the contact behavior at the initial contact stage under low contact force. A strong correlation between contact resistance fluctuation at the initial contact stage and the presence of a hydrocarbon alien film on the contact surface is revealed. The enhancement of contact instability due to the alien film can be explained within a framework of trap-assisted tunneling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Defect Inspection of Flip Chip Solder Bumps Using an Ultrasonic Transducer

by Lei Su, Tielin Shi, Zhensong Xu, Xiangning Lu and Guanglan Liao

Sensors 2013, 13(12), 16281-16291; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131216281 - 27 Nov 2013

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 9215

Abstract

Surface mount technology has spurred a rapid decrease in the size of electronic packages, where solder bump inspection of surface mount packages is crucial in the electronics manufacturing industry. In this study we demonstrate the feasibility of using a 230 MHz ultrasonic transducer [...] Read more.

Surface mount technology has spurred a rapid decrease in the size of electronic packages, where solder bump inspection of surface mount packages is crucial in the electronics manufacturing industry. In this study we demonstrate the feasibility of using a 230 MHz ultrasonic transducer for nondestructive flip chip testing. The reflected time domain signal was captured when the transducer scanning the flip chip, and the image of the flip chip was generated by scanning acoustic microscopy. Normalized cross-correlation was used to locate the center of solder bumps for segmenting the flip chip image. Then five features were extracted from the signals and images. The support vector machine was adopted to process the five features for classification and recognition. The results show the feasibility of this approach with high recognition rate, proving that defect inspection of flip chip solder bumps using the ultrasonic transducer has high potential in microelectronics packaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Wireless MEMS-Based Inclinometer Sensor Node for Structural Health Monitoring

by Dae Woong Ha, Hyo Seon Park, Se Woon Choi and Yousok Kim

Sensors 2013, 13(12), 16090-16104; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131216090 - 26 Nov 2013

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 11256

Abstract

This paper proposes a wireless inclinometer sensor node for structural health monitoring (SHM) that can be applied to civil engineering and building structures subjected to various loadings. The inclinometer used in this study employs a method for calculating the tilt based on the [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a wireless inclinometer sensor node for structural health monitoring (SHM) that can be applied to civil engineering and building structures subjected to various loadings. The inclinometer used in this study employs a method for calculating the tilt based on the difference between the static acceleration and the acceleration due to gravity, using a micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS)-based accelerometer. A wireless sensor node was developed through which tilt measurement data are wirelessly transmitted to a monitoring server. This node consists of a slave node that uses a short-distance wireless communication system (RF 2.4 GHz) and a master node that uses a long-distance telecommunication system (code division multiple access—CDMA). The communication distance limitation, which is recognized as an important issue in wireless monitoring systems, has been resolved via these two wireless communication components. The reliability of the proposed wireless inclinometer sensor node was verified experimentally by comparing the values measured by the inclinometer and subsequently transferred to the monitoring server via wired and wireless transfer methods to permit a performance evaluation of the wireless communication sensor nodes. The experimental results indicated that the two systems (wired and wireless transfer systems) yielded almost identical values at a tilt angle greater than 1°, and a uniform difference was observed at a tilt angle less than 0.42° (approximately 0.0032° corresponding to 0.76% of the tilt angle, 0.42°) regardless of the tilt size. This result was deemed to be within the allowable range of measurement error in SHM. Thus, the wireless transfer system proposed in this study was experimentally verified for practical application in a structural health monitoring system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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854 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Characteristics of Micro-Beams Considering the Effect of Flexible Supports

by Zuo-Yang Zhong, Wen-Ming Zhang and Guang Meng

Sensors 2013, 13(12), 15880-15897; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131215880 - 25 Nov 2013

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7446

Abstract

Normally, the boundaries are assumed to allow small deflections and moments for MEMS beams with flexible supports. The non-ideal boundary conditions have a significant effect on the qualitative dynamical behavior. In this paper, by employing the principle of energy equivalence, rigorous theoretical solutions [...] Read more.

Normally, the boundaries are assumed to allow small deflections and moments for MEMS beams with flexible supports. The non-ideal boundary conditions have a significant effect on the qualitative dynamical behavior. In this paper, by employing the principle of energy equivalence, rigorous theoretical solutions of the tangential and rotational equivalent stiffness are derived based on the Boussinesq’s and Cerruti’s displacement equations. The non-dimensional differential partial equation of the motion, as well as coupled boundary conditions, are solved analytically using the method of multiple time scales. The closed-form solution provides a direct insight into the relationship between the boundary conditions and vibration characteristics of the dynamic system, in which resonance frequencies increase with the nonlinear mechanical spring effect but decrease with the effect of flexible supports. The obtained results of frequencies and mode shapes are compared with the cases of ideal boundary conditions, and the differences between them are contrasted on frequency response curves. The influences of the support material property on the equivalent stiffness and resonance frequency shift are also discussed. It is demonstrated that the proposed model with the flexible supports boundary conditions has significant effect on the rigorous quantitative dynamical analysis of the MEMS beams. Moreover, the proposed analytical solutions are in good agreement with those obtained from finite element analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Implementation of a Micromechanical Silicon Resonant Accelerometer

by Libin Huang, Hui Yang, Yang Gao, Liye Zhao and Jinxing Liang

Sensors 2013, 13(11), 15785-15804; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131115785 - 19 Nov 2013

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 8814

Abstract

The micromechanical silicon resonant accelerometer has attracted considerable attention in the research and development of high-precision MEMS accelerometers because of its output of quasi-digital signals, high sensitivity, high resolution, wide dynamic range, anti-interference capacity and good stability. Because of the mismatching thermal expansion [...] Read more.

The micromechanical silicon resonant accelerometer has attracted considerable attention in the research and development of high-precision MEMS accelerometers because of its output of quasi-digital signals, high sensitivity, high resolution, wide dynamic range, anti-interference capacity and good stability. Because of the mismatching thermal expansion coefficients of silicon and glass, the micromechanical silicon resonant accelerometer based on the Silicon on Glass (SOG) technique is deeply affected by the temperature during the fabrication, packaging and use processes. The thermal stress caused by temperature changes directly affects the frequency output of the accelerometer. Based on the working principle of the micromechanical resonant accelerometer, a special accelerometer structure that reduces the temperature influence on the accelerometer is designed. The accelerometer can greatly reduce the thermal stress caused by high temperatures in the process of fabrication and packaging. Currently, the closed-loop drive circuit is devised based on a phase-locked loop. The unloaded resonant frequencies of the prototype of the micromechanical silicon resonant accelerometer are approximately 31.4 kHz and 31.5 kHz. The scale factor is 66.24003 Hz/g. The scale factor stability is 14.886 ppm, the scale factor repeatability is 23 ppm, the bias stability is 23 μg, the bias repeatability is 170 μg, and the bias temperature coefficient is 0.0734 Hz/°C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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2557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Robust Nonlinear Observer for Real-Time Attitude Estimation Using Low-Cost MEMS Inertial Sensors

by José Fermi Guerrero-Castellanos, Heberto Madrigal-Sastre, Sylvain Durand, Lizeth Torres and German Ardul Muñoz-Hernández

Sensors 2013, 13(11), 15138-15158; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131115138 - 6 Nov 2013

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 8103

Abstract

This paper deals with the attitude estimation of a rigid body equipped with angular velocity sensors and reference vector sensors. A quaternion-based nonlinear observer is proposed in order to fuse all information sources and to obtain an accurate estimation of the attitude. It [...] Read more.

This paper deals with the attitude estimation of a rigid body equipped with angular velocity sensors and reference vector sensors. A quaternion-based nonlinear observer is proposed in order to fuse all information sources and to obtain an accurate estimation of the attitude. It is shown that the observer error dynamics can be separated into two passive subsystems connected in “feedback”. Then, this property is used to show that the error dynamics is input-to-state stable when the measurement disturbance is seen as an input and the error as the state. These results allow one to affirm that the observer is “robustly stable”. The proposed observer is evaluated in real-time with the design and implementation of an Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) based on low-cost MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) Inertial Measure Unit (IMU) and magnetic sensors and a 16-bit microcontroller. The resulting estimates are compared with a high precision motion system to demonstrate its performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication and Characterization of CMOS-MEMS Magnetic Microsensors

by Chen-Hsuan Hsieh, Ching-Liang Dai and Ming-Zhi Yang

Sensors 2013, 13(11), 14728-14739; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131114728 - 29 Oct 2013

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8747

Abstract

This study investigates the design and fabrication of magnetic microsensors using the commercial 0.35 μm complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process. The magnetic sensor is composed of springs and interdigitated electrodes, and it is actuated by the Lorentz force. The finite element method [...] Read more.

This study investigates the design and fabrication of magnetic microsensors using the commercial 0.35 μm complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process. The magnetic sensor is composed of springs and interdigitated electrodes, and it is actuated by the Lorentz force. The finite element method (FEM) software CoventorWare is adopted to simulate the displacement and capacitance of the magnetic sensor. A post-CMOS process is utilized to release the suspended structure. The post-process uses an anisotropic dry etching to etch the silicon dioxide layer and an isotropic dry etching to remove the silicon substrate. When a magnetic field is applied to the magnetic sensor, it generates a change in capacitance. A sensing circuit is employed to convert the capacitance variation of the sensor into the output voltage. The experimental results show that the output voltage of the magnetic microsensor varies from 0.05 to 1.94 V in the magnetic field range of 5–200 mT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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1419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accelerometer-Based Event Detector for Low-Power Applications

by József Smidla and Gyula Simon

Sensors 2013, 13(10), 13978-13997; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131013978 - 16 Oct 2013

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6993

Abstract

In this paper, an adaptive, autocovariance-based event detection algorithm is proposed, which can be used with micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) accelerometer sensors to build inexpensive and power efficient event detectors. The algorithm works well with low signal-to-noise ratio input signals, and its computational complexity [...] Read more.

In this paper, an adaptive, autocovariance-based event detection algorithm is proposed, which can be used with micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) accelerometer sensors to build inexpensive and power efficient event detectors. The algorithm works well with low signal-to-noise ratio input signals, and its computational complexity is very low, allowing its utilization on inexpensive low-end embedded sensor devices. The proposed algorithm decreases its energy consumption by lowering its duty cycle, as much as the event to be detected allows it. The performance of the algorithm is tested and compared to the conventional filter-based approach. The comparison was performed in an application where illegal entering of vehicles into restricted areas was detected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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1236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Spherically-Shaped PZT Thin Film Ultrasonic Transducer with an Acoustic Impedance Gradient Matching Layer Based on a Micromachined Periodically Structured Flexible Substrate

by Guo-Hua Feng and Wei-Fan Liu

Sensors 2013, 13(10), 13543-13559; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131013543 - 9 Oct 2013

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 11448

Abstract

This paper presents the microfabrication of an acoustic impedance gradient matching layer on a spherically-shaped piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer. The acoustic matching layer can be designed to achieve higher acoustic energy transmission and operating bandwidth. Also included in this paper are a theoretical analysis [...] Read more.

This paper presents the microfabrication of an acoustic impedance gradient matching layer on a spherically-shaped piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer. The acoustic matching layer can be designed to achieve higher acoustic energy transmission and operating bandwidth. Also included in this paper are a theoretical analysis of the device design and a micromachining technique to produce the novel transducer. Based on a design of a lead titanium zirconium (PZT) micropillar array, the constructed gradient acoustic matching layer has much better acoustic transmission efficiency within a 20–50 MHz operation range compared to a matching layer with a conventional quarter-wavelength thickness Parylene deposition. To construct the transducer, periodic microcavities are built on a flexible copper sheet, and then the sheet forms a designed curvature with a ball shaping. After PZT slurry deposition, the constructed PZT micropillar array is released onto a curved thin PZT layer. Following Parylene conformal coating on the processed PZT micropillars, the PZT micropillars and the surrounding Parylene comprise a matching layer with gradient acoustic impedance. By using the proposed technique, the fabricated transducer achieves a center frequency of 26 MHz and a −6 dB bandwidth of approximately 65%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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4343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Electronic Sensor Reliability by Robust Outlier Screening

by Manuel J. Moreno-Lizaranzu and Federico Cuesta

Sensors 2013, 13(10), 13521-13542; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131013521 - 9 Oct 2013

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 10330

Abstract

Electronic sensors are widely used in different application areas, and in some of them, such as automotive or medical equipment, they must perform with an extremely low defect rate. Increasing reliability is paramount. Outlier detection algorithms are a key component in screening latent [...] Read more.

Electronic sensors are widely used in different application areas, and in some of them, such as automotive or medical equipment, they must perform with an extremely low defect rate. Increasing reliability is paramount. Outlier detection algorithms are a key component in screening latent defects and decreasing the number of customer quality incidents (CQIs). This paper focuses on new spatial algorithms (Good Die in a Bad Cluster with Statistical Bins (GDBC SB) and Bad Bin in a Bad Cluster (BBBC)) and an advanced outlier screening method, called Robust Dynamic Part Averaging Testing (RDPAT), as well as two practical improvements, which significantly enhance existing algorithms. Those methods have been used in production in Freescale^® Semiconductor probe factories around the world for several years. Moreover, a study was conducted with production data of 289,080 dice with 26 CQIs to determine and compare the efficiency and effectiveness of all these algorithms in identifying CQIs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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992 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Micro-Force Sensor with Slotted-Quad-Beam Structure for Measuring the Friction in MEMS Bearings

by Huan Liu, Shuming Yang, Yulong Zhao, Zhuangde Jiang, Yan Liu and Bian Tian

Sensors 2013, 13(10), 13178-13191; https://doi.org/10.3390/s131013178 - 30 Sep 2013

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8874

Abstract

Presented here is a slotted-quad-beam structure sensor for the measurement of friction in micro bearings. Stress concentration slots are incorporated into a conventional quad-beam structure to improve the sensitivity of force measurements. The performance comparison between the quad-beam structure sensor and the slotted-quad-beam [...] Read more.

Presented here is a slotted-quad-beam structure sensor for the measurement of friction in micro bearings. Stress concentration slots are incorporated into a conventional quad-beam structure to improve the sensitivity of force measurements. The performance comparison between the quad-beam structure sensor and the slotted-quad-beam structure sensor are performed by theoretical modeling and finite element (FE) analysis. A hollow stainless steel probe is attached to the mesa of the sensor chip by a tailor-made organic glass fixture. Concerning the overload protection of the fragile beams, a glass wafer is bonded onto the bottom of sensor chip to limit the displacement of the mesa. The calibration of the packaged device is experimentally performed by a tri-dimensional positioning stage, a precision piezoelectric ceramic and an electronic analytical balance, which indicates its favorable sensitivity and overload protection. To verify the potential of the proposed sensor being applied in micro friction measurement, a measurement platform is established. The output of the sensor reflects the friction of bearing resulting from dry friction and solid lubrication. The results accord with the theoretical modeling and demonstrate that the sensor has the potential application in measuring the micro friction force under stable stage in MEMS machines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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1750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Fork Z-Axis Quartz Micromachined Gyroscope

by Lihui Feng, Ke Zhao, Yunan Sun, Jianmin Cui, Fang Cui and Aiying Yang

Sensors 2013, 13(9), 12482-12496; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130912482 - 17 Sep 2013

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8122

Abstract

A novel multi-fork z-axis gyroscope is presented in this paper. Different from traditional quartz gyroscopes, the lateral electrodes of the sense beam can be arranged in simple patterns; as a result, the fabrication is simplified. High sensitivity is achieved by the multi-fork design. [...] Read more.

A novel multi-fork z-axis gyroscope is presented in this paper. Different from traditional quartz gyroscopes, the lateral electrodes of the sense beam can be arranged in simple patterns; as a result, the fabrication is simplified. High sensitivity is achieved by the multi-fork design. The working principles are introduced, while the finite element method (FEM) is used to simulate the modal and sensitivity. A quartz fork is fabricated, and a prototype is assembled. Impedance testing shows that the drive frequency and sense frequency are similar to the simulations, and the quality factor is approximately 10,000 in air. The scale factor is measured to be 18.134 mV/(°/s) and the nonlinearity is 0.40% in a full-scale input range of ±250 °/s. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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1197 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fast Thermal Calibration of Low-Grade Inertial Sensors and Inertial Measurement Units

by Xiaoji Niu, You Li, Hongping Zhang, Qingjiang Wang and Yalong Ban

Sensors 2013, 13(9), 12192-12217; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130912192 - 12 Sep 2013

Cited by 96 | Viewed by 12388

Abstract

The errors of low-cost inertial sensors, especially Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) ones, are highly dependent on environmental conditions such as the temperature. Thus, there is a need for the development of accurate and reliable thermal compensation models to reduce the impact of such [...] Read more.

The errors of low-cost inertial sensors, especially Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) ones, are highly dependent on environmental conditions such as the temperature. Thus, there is a need for the development of accurate and reliable thermal compensation models to reduce the impact of such thermal drift of the sensors. Since the conventional thermal calibration methods are typically time-consuming and costly, an efficient thermal calibration method to investigate the thermal drift of a full set of gyroscope and accelerometer errors (i.e., biases, scale factor errors and non-orthogonalities) over the entire temperature range in a few hours is proposed. The proposed method uses the idea of the Ramp method, which removes the time-consuming process of stabilizing the sensor temperature, and addresses its inherent problems with several improvements. We change the temperature linearly for a complete cycle and take a balanced strategy by making comprehensive use of the sensor measurements during both heating and cooling processes. Besides, an efficient 8-step rotate-and-static scheme is designed to further improve the calibration accuracy and efficiency. Real calibration tests showed that the proposed method is suitable for low-grade IMUs and for both lab and factory calibration due to its efficiency and sufficient accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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797 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GPS/MEMS INS Data Fusion and Map Matching in Urban Areas

by Hone-Jay Chu, Guang-Je Tsai, Kai-Wei Chiang and Thanh-Trung Duong

Sensors 2013, 13(9), 11280-11288; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130911280 - 23 Aug 2013

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 10141

Abstract

This paper presents an evaluation of the map-matching scheme of an integrated GPS/INS system in urban areas. Data fusion using a Kalman filter and map matching are effective approaches to improve the performance of navigation system applications based on GPS/MEMS IMUs. The study [...] Read more.

This paper presents an evaluation of the map-matching scheme of an integrated GPS/INS system in urban areas. Data fusion using a Kalman filter and map matching are effective approaches to improve the performance of navigation system applications based on GPS/MEMS IMUs. The study considers the curve-to-curve matching algorithm after Kalman filtering to correct mismatch and eliminate redundancy. By applying data fusion and map matching, the study easily accomplished mapping of a GPS/INS trajectory onto the road network. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the algorithms in controlling the INS drift error and indicate the potential of low-cost MEMS IMUs in navigation applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polycarbonate as an Elasto-Plastic Material Model for Simulation of the Microstructure Hot Imprint Process

by Birutė Narijauskaitė, Arvydas Palevičius, Rimvydas Gaidys, Giedrius Janušas and Rokas Šakalys

Sensors 2013, 13(9), 11229-11242; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130911229 - 22 Aug 2013

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 8869

Abstract

The thermal imprint process of polymer micro-patterning is widely applied in areas such as manufacturing of optical parts, solar energy, bio-mechanical devices and chemical chips. Polycarbonate (PC), as an amorphous polymer, is often used in thermoforming processes because of its good replication characteristics. [...] Read more.

The thermal imprint process of polymer micro-patterning is widely applied in areas such as manufacturing of optical parts, solar energy, bio-mechanical devices and chemical chips. Polycarbonate (PC), as an amorphous polymer, is often used in thermoforming processes because of its good replication characteristics. In order to obtain replicas of the best quality, the imprint parameters (e.g., pressure, temperature, time, etc.) must be determined. Therefore finite element model of the hot imprint process of lamellar periodical microstructure into PC has been created using COMSOL Multiphysics. The mathematical model of the hot imprint process includes three steps: heating, imprinting and demolding. The material properties of amorphous PC strongly depend on the imprint temperature and loading pressure. Polycarbonate was modelled as an elasto-plastic material, since it was analyzed below the glass transition temperature. The hot imprint model was solved using the heat transfer and the solid stress-strain application modes with thermal contact problem between the mold and polycarbonate. It was used for the evaluation of temperature and stress distributions in the polycarbonate during the hot imprint process. The quality of the replica, by means of lands filling ratio, was determined as well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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1044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Capacitive MEMS Accelerometer Structure Parameters for Human Body Dynamics Measurements

by Vincas Benevicius, Vytautas Ostasevicius and Rimvydas Gaidys

Sensors 2013, 13(9), 11184-11195; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130911184 - 22 Aug 2013

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 11172

Abstract

Due to their small size, low weight, low cost and low energy consumption, MEMS accelerometers have achieved great commercial success in recent decades. The aim of this research work is to identify a MEMS accelerometer structure for human body dynamics measurements. Photogrammetry was [...] Read more.

Due to their small size, low weight, low cost and low energy consumption, MEMS accelerometers have achieved great commercial success in recent decades. The aim of this research work is to identify a MEMS accelerometer structure for human body dynamics measurements. Photogrammetry was used in order to measure possible maximum accelerations of human body parts and the bandwidth of the digital acceleration signal. As the primary structure the capacitive accelerometer configuration is chosen in such a way that sensing part measures on all three axes as it is 3D accelerometer and sensitivity on each axis is equal. Hill climbing optimization was used to find the structure parameters. Proof-mass displacements were simulated for all the acceleration range that was given by the optimization problem constraints. The final model was constructed in Comsol Multiphysics. Eigenfrequencies were calculated and model’s response was found, when vibration stand displacement data was fed into the model as the base excitation law. Model output comparison with experimental data was conducted for all excitation frequencies used during the experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measurement of Phase Difference for Micromachined Gyros Driven by Rotating Aircraft

by Zengping Zhang, Fuxue Zhang and Wei Zhang

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 11051-11068; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130811051 - 21 Aug 2013

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7920

Abstract

This paper presents an approach for realizing a phase difference measurement of a new gyro. A silicon micromachined gyro was mounted on rotating aircraft for aircraft attitude control. Aircraft spin drives the silicon pendulum of a gyro rotating at a high speed so [...] Read more.

This paper presents an approach for realizing a phase difference measurement of a new gyro. A silicon micromachined gyro was mounted on rotating aircraft for aircraft attitude control. Aircraft spin drives the silicon pendulum of a gyro rotating at a high speed so that it can sense the transverse angular velocity of the rotating aircraft based on the gyroscopic precession principle when the aircraft has transverse rotation. In applications of the rotating aircraft single channel control system, such as damping in the attitude stabilization loop, the gyro signal must be kept in sync with the control signal. Therefore, the phase difference between both signals needs to be measured accurately. Considering that phase difference is mainly produced by both the micromachined part and the signal conditioning circuit, a mathematical model has been established and analyzed to determine the gyro’s phase frequency characteristics. On the basis of theoretical analysis, a dynamic simulation has been done for a case where the spin frequency is 15 Hz. Experimental results with the proposed measurement method applied to a silicon micromachined gyro driven by a rotating aircraft demonstrate that it is effective in practical applications. Measured curve and numerical analysis of phase frequency characteristic are in accordance, and the error between measurement and simulation is only 5.3%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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879 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bandwidth Optimization Design of a Multi Degree of Freedom MEMS Gyroscope

by Chaowei Si, Guowei Han, Jin Ning and Fuhua Yang

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10550-10560; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810550 - 14 Aug 2013

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7404

Abstract

A new robust multi-degree of freedom (multi-DOF) MEMS gyroscope is presented in this paper. The designed gyroscope has its bandwidth and amplification factor of the sense mode adjusted more easily than the previous reported multi-DOF MEMS gyroscopes. Besides, a novel spring system with [...] Read more.

A new robust multi-degree of freedom (multi-DOF) MEMS gyroscope is presented in this paper. The designed gyroscope has its bandwidth and amplification factor of the sense mode adjusted more easily than the previous reported multi-DOF MEMS gyroscopes. Besides, a novel spring system with very small coupling stiffness is proposed, which helps achieve a narrow bandwidth and a high amplification factor for a 2-DOF vibration system. A multi-DOF gyroscope with the proposed weak spring system is designed, and simulations indicate that when the operating frequency is set at 12.59 kHz, the flat frequency response region of the sense mode can be designed as narrow as 80 Hz, and the amplification factor of the sense mode at the operating frequency is up to 91, which not only protects the amplification factor from instability against process and temperature variations, but also sacrifices less performance. An experiment is also carried out to demonstrate the validity of the design. The multi-DOF gyroscope with the proposed weak coupling spring system is capable of achieving a good tradeoff between robustness and the performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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3504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison between Different Error Modeling of MEMS Applied to GPS/INS Integrated Systems

by Alex G. Quinchia, Gianluca Falco, Emanuela Falletti, Fabio Dovis and Carles Ferrer

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9549-9588; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809549 - 24 Jul 2013

Cited by 177 | Viewed by 18433

Abstract

Advances in the development of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) have made possible the fabrication of cheap and small dimension accelerometers and gyroscopes, which are being used in many applications where the global positioning system (GPS) and the inertial navigation system (INS) integration is carried [...] Read more.

Advances in the development of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) have made possible the fabrication of cheap and small dimension accelerometers and gyroscopes, which are being used in many applications where the global positioning system (GPS) and the inertial navigation system (INS) integration is carried out, i.e., identifying track defects, terrestrial and pedestrian navigation, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), stabilization of many platforms, etc. Although these MEMS sensors are low-cost, they present different errors, which degrade the accuracy of the navigation systems in a short period of time. Therefore, a suitable modeling of these errors is necessary in order to minimize them and, consequently, improve the system performance. In this work, the most used techniques currently to analyze the stochastic errors that affect these sensors are shown and compared: we examine in detail the autocorrelation, the Allan variance (AV) and the power spectral density (PSD) techniques. Subsequently, an analysis and modeling of the inertial sensors, which combines autoregressive (AR) filters and wavelet de-noising, is also achieved. Since a low-cost INS (MEMS grade) presents error sources with short-term (high-frequency) and long-term (low-frequency) components, we introduce a method that compensates for these error terms by doing a complete analysis of Allan variance, wavelet de-nosing and the selection of the level of decomposition for a suitable combination between these techniques. Eventually, in order to assess the stochastic models obtained with these techniques, the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) of a loosely-coupled GPS/INS integration strategy is augmented with different states. Results show a comparison between the proposed method and the traditional sensor error models under GPS signal blockages using real data collected in urban roadways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Radiosonde Using a Humidity Sensor Array with a Platinum Resistance Heater and Multi-Sensor Data Fusion

by Yunbo Shi, Yi Luo, Wenjie Zhao, Chunxue Shang, Yadong Wang and Yinsheng Chen

Sensors 2013, 13(7), 8977-8996; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130708977 - 12 Jul 2013

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 10942

Abstract

This paper describes the design and implementation of a radiosonde which can measure the meteorological temperature, humidity, pressure, and other atmospheric data. The system is composed of a CPU, microwave module, temperature sensor, pressure sensor and humidity sensor array. In order to effectively [...] Read more.

This paper describes the design and implementation of a radiosonde which can measure the meteorological temperature, humidity, pressure, and other atmospheric data. The system is composed of a CPU, microwave module, temperature sensor, pressure sensor and humidity sensor array. In order to effectively solve the humidity sensor condensation problem due to the low temperatures in the high altitude environment, a capacitive humidity sensor including four humidity sensors to collect meteorological humidity and a platinum resistance heater was developed using micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) technology. A platinum resistance wire with 99.999% purity and 0.023 mm in diameter was used to obtain the meteorological temperature. A multi-sensor data fusion technique was applied to process the atmospheric data. Static and dynamic experimental results show that the designed humidity sensor with platinum resistance heater can effectively tackle the sensor condensation problem, shorten response times and enhance sensitivity. The humidity sensor array can improve measurement accuracy and obtain a reliable initial meteorological humidity data, while the multi-sensor data fusion technique eliminates the uncertainty in the measurement. The radiosonde can accurately reflect the meteorological changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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527 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Harvesting Thermoelectric Generators Manufactured Using the Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Process

by Ming-Zhi Yang, Chyan-Chyi Wu, Ching-Liang Dai and Wen-Jung Tsai

Sensors 2013, 13(2), 2359-2367; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130202359 - 8 Feb 2013

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 8997

Abstract

This paper presents the fabrication and characterization of energy harvesting thermoelectric micro generators using the commercial complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process. The micro generator consists of 33 thermocouples in series. Thermocouple materials are p-type and n-type polysilicon since they have a large [...] Read more.

This paper presents the fabrication and characterization of energy harvesting thermoelectric micro generators using the commercial complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process. The micro generator consists of 33 thermocouples in series. Thermocouple materials are p-type and n-type polysilicon since they have a large Seebeck coefficient difference. The output power of the micro generator depends on the temperature difference in the hot and cold parts of the thermocouples. In order to increase this temperature difference, the hot part of the thermocouples is suspended to reduce heat-sinking. The micro generator needs a post-CMOS process to release the suspended structures of hot part, which the post-process includes an anisotropic dry etching to etch the sacrificial oxide layer and an isotropic dry etching to remove the silicon substrate. Experiments show that the output power of the micro generator is 9.4 mW at a temperature difference of 15 K. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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Review

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2836 KiB

Open AccessReview

Tunable Micro- and Nanomechanical Resonators

by Wen-Ming Zhang, Kai-Ming Hu, Zhi-Ke Peng and Guang Meng

Sensors 2015, 15(10), 26478-26566; https://doi.org/10.3390/s151026478 - 16 Oct 2015

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 16318

Abstract

Advances in micro- and nanofabrication technologies have enabled the development of novel micro- and nanomechanical resonators which have attracted significant attention due to their fascinating physical properties and growing potential applications. In this review, we have presented a brief overview of the resonance [...] Read more.

Advances in micro- and nanofabrication technologies have enabled the development of novel micro- and nanomechanical resonators which have attracted significant attention due to their fascinating physical properties and growing potential applications. In this review, we have presented a brief overview of the resonance behavior and frequency tuning principles by varying either the mass or the stiffness of resonators. The progress in micro- and nanomechanical resonators using the tuning electrode, tuning fork, and suspended channel structures and made of graphene have been reviewed. We have also highlighted some major influencing factors such as large-amplitude effect, surface effect and fluid effect on the performances of resonators. More specifically, we have addressed the effects of axial stress/strain, residual surface stress and adsorption-induced surface stress on the sensing and detection applications and discussed the current challenges. We have significantly focused on the active and passive frequency tuning methods and techniques for micro- and nanomechanical resonator applications. On one hand, we have comprehensively evaluated the advantages and disadvantages of each strategy, including active methods such as electrothermal, electrostatic, piezoelectrical, dielectric, magnetomotive, photothermal, mode-coupling as well as tension-based tuning mechanisms, and passive techniques such as post-fabrication and post-packaging tuning processes. On the other hand, the tuning capability and challenges to integrate reliable and customizable frequency tuning methods have been addressed. We have additionally concluded with a discussion of important future directions for further tunable micro- and nanomechanical resonators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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8108 KiB

Open AccessReview

Design, Fabrication and Failure Analysis of Stretchable Electrical Routings

by Hong Hocheng and Chao-Ming Chen

Sensors 2014, 14(7), 11855-11877; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140711855 - 4 Jul 2014

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 11213

Abstract

Stretchable microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) possess higher mechanical deformability and adaptability than devices based on conventional solid and flexible substrates, hence they are particularly desirable for biomedical, optoelectronic, textile and other innovative applications. The stretchability performance can be evaluated by the failure strain of [...] Read more.

Stretchable microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) possess higher mechanical deformability and adaptability than devices based on conventional solid and flexible substrates, hence they are particularly desirable for biomedical, optoelectronic, textile and other innovative applications. The stretchability performance can be evaluated by the failure strain of the embedded routing and the strain applied to the elastomeric substrate. The routings are divided into five forms according to their geometry: straight; wavy; wrinkly; island-bridge; and conductive-elastomeric. These designs are reviewed and their resistance-to-failure performance is investigated. The failure modeling, numerical analysis, and fabrication of routings are presented. The current review concludes with the essential factors of the stretchable electrical routing for achieving high performance, including routing angle, width and thickness. The future challenges of device integration and reliability assessment of the stretchable routings are addressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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1901 KiB

Open AccessReview

Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting Solutions

by Renato Caliò, Udaya Bhaskar Rongala, Domenico Camboni, Mario Milazzo, Cesare Stefanini, Gianluca De Petris and Calogero Maria Oddo

Sensors 2014, 14(3), 4755-4790; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140304755 - 10 Mar 2014

Cited by 356 | Viewed by 33993

Abstract

This paper reviews the state of the art in piezoelectric energy harvesting. It presents the basics of piezoelectricity and discusses materials choice. The work places emphasis on material operating modes and device configurations, from resonant to non-resonant devices and also to rotational solutions. [...] Read more.

This paper reviews the state of the art in piezoelectric energy harvesting. It presents the basics of piezoelectricity and discusses materials choice. The work places emphasis on material operating modes and device configurations, from resonant to non-resonant devices and also to rotational solutions. The reviewed literature is compared based on power density and bandwidth. Lastly, the question of power conversion is addressed by reviewing various circuit solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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