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Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Chemical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2019) | Viewed by 69324

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Dr. Luís C. Coelho

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INESC TEC—Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science and Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
Interests: optical sensing; optical fiber flowmeter; optical fiber sensors; gas sensing; spectral; biosensor
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. José Manuel M. M. de Almeida

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1. CAP/INESC TEC—Technology and Science and FCUP—Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
2. Department of Physics, School of Sciences and Technology, University de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
Interests: porto optical sensors; integrated optics; spectroscopy and biophysics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Sensors based on optical fiber technology have been around for a long time, nonetheless, are constantly object of dynamic and fruitful fundamental and applied research, with a variety of new applications and developments. In this sense, we invite you to submit manuscripts for the upcoming Special Issue dedicated to all aspects relevant to optical fiber sensing. Full papers, communications, and reviews are welcome.

The purpose of this Special Issue is to collect advances in fundamental research, development of technologies, as well as innovative applications of optical fiber sensors, including the different sensor platforms and configurations, sensing mechanisms and applications. Reviews must offer a critical overview of the state-of-the-art on fundamentals, technologies, and applications pertinent to optical fiber sensors.

Topics include, but are not limited to, are the following:

Physical, chemical and biological sensors
Sensors based on colorimetry, evanescent wave and infrared spectroscopies
Plasmonic based sensors (SPR, LSPR, LRSPR, SERS, among others)
Interferometers and polarimetric configurations (such as FP cavities, MMI, Michelson, Mach-Zehnder, Sagnac,)
Micro and nano fabrication, including: gratings (FBG, LPFG), tapers, etched configurations
Functionalization methods and thin films coatings (Including noble metals, oxides and graphene)
Special fibers (photonic crystal fibers, D-type, etc)
Theoretical and simulation studies
Multiplexing of several parameters
Sensor networking and distributed sensing
Applications including, but not limited to: agri-food, aquaculture, mechanical, civil, pharmaceutical, oil and gas industries, human and animal health monitoring, environment monitoring, harsh environments, food processing and monitoring, medical instrumentation.

Dr. Luís Coelho
Prof. José Manuel Almeida
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Physical sensors, chemical sensors and biosensors
Colorimetry, evanescent wave and infrared spectroscopies
Plasmonic based sensors
Optical fiber interferometers
Micro and nano fabrication
Functionalization methods
Special fibers
Theoretical and simulation studies
Multiplexing of several parameters
Sensor networking and distributed sensing
Sensor applications

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Published Papers (14 papers)

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18 pages, 4478 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Perrogator: A Portable Energy-Efficient Interrogator for Dynamic Monitoring of Wavelength-Based Sensors in Wearable Applications

by Camilo A. R. Diaz, Arnaldo Gomes Leal-Junior, Letícia M. Avellar, Paulo F. C. Antunes, Maria J. Pontes, Carlos A. Marques, Anselmo Frizera and Moisés R. N. Ribeiro

Sensors 2019, 19(13), 2962; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19132962 - 5 Jul 2019

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 5802

Abstract

In this paper, we report the development of a portable energy-efficient interrogator (Perrogator) for wavelength-based optical sensors. The interrogator is based on a compact solution encompassing a white light source and the spectral convolution between the sensor and a tunable filter, which is acquired by a photodetector, where a microcontroller has two functions: (i) To control the filter tuning and to (ii) acquire the photodetector signal. Then, the data is sent to a single-board computer for further signal processing. Furthermore, the employed single-board computer has a Wi-Fi module, which can be used to send the sensors data to the cloud. The proposed approach resulted in an interrogator with a resolution as high as 3.82 pm (for 15.64 nm sweeping range) and maximum acquisition frequency of about 210 Hz (with lower resolution ~15.30 pm). Perrogator was compared with a commercial fiber Bragg grating (FBG) interrogator for strain measurements and good agreement between both devices was found (1.226 pm/µε for the commercial interrogator and 1.201 pm/µε for the proposed approach with root mean square error of 0.0144 and 0.0153, respectively), where the Perrogator has the additional advantages of lower cost, higher portability and lower energy consumption. In order to demonstrate such advantages in conjunction with the high acquisition frequency allowed us to demonstrate two wearable applications using the proposed interrogation device over FBG and Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) sensors. In the first application, an FBG-embedded smart textile for knee angle assessment was used to analyze the gait of a healthy person. Due to the capability of reconstructing the FBG spectra, it was possible to employ a technique based on the FBG wavelength shift and reflectivity to decouple the effects of the bending angle and axial strain on the FBG response. The measurement of the knee angle as well as the estimation of the angular and axial displacements on the grating that can be correlated to the variations of the knee center of rotation were performed. In the second application, a FPI was embedded in a chest band for simultaneous measurement of breath and heart rates, where good agreement (error below 5%) was found with the reference sensors in all analyzed cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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9 pages, 2721 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Picoliter Cuvette inside an Optical Fiber to Track Gold Nanoparticle Aggregation for Measurement of Biomolecules

by Masahiko Shiraishi, Kazuhiro Watanabe and Shoichi Kubodera

Sensors 2019, 19(13), 2859; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19132859 - 27 Jun 2019

Viewed by 3232

Abstract

This study demonstrated a measurement approach for biomolecules at the picoliter scale, using a newly developed picoliter cuvette inside an optical fiber constructed via near-ultraviolet femtosecond laser drilling. The sensing capacity was estimated to be within 0.4–1.2 pL due to an optical path length of 3–5 microns, as measured by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The picoliter cuvette exhibited a change in the optical extinction spectrum after addition of biomolecules such as L-cysteine, in conjunction with a gold nanoparticle (GNP) dispersion solution, following a simple measurement configuration involving a small white light source and a compact spectrometer. A linear attenuation of the spectral dip near a wavelength of 520 nm was observed as the L-cysteine concentration was increased at 4 wt% of the GNP mass concentration. The measurement resolution of the concentration using the picoliter cuvette was evaluated at 0.125 mM. The experimental results showed the difference in aggregation processes caused by a different concentration of GNPs. Moreover, they revealed the ability of the picoliter cuvette to verify whether the concentration of GNPs in the liquid sample correspondingly determines homogeneous or inhomogeneous GNP aggregation, as supported by SEM observation and numerical calculations based on Mie theory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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14 pages, 3351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Fiber Gratings Immunoassays

by Médéric Loyez, Maxime Lobry, Ruddy Wattiez and Christophe Caucheteur

Sensors 2019, 19(11), 2595; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19112595 - 7 Jun 2019

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 4013

Abstract

Optical fibers are of growing interest for biosensing, especially for point-of-care and biomedical assays. Their intrinsic properties bestow them sought-after assets for the detection of low concentrations of analytes. Tilted fiber Bragg gratings (TFBGs) photo-inscribed in the core of telecommunication-grade optical fibers are known to be highly-sensitive refractometers. In this work, we present different strategies to use them for label-free immunoassays. Bare, gold-sputtered, gold-electroless-plated (ELP) and hybrid configurations are biofunctionalized with antibodies, aiming at the detection of cancer biomarkers. We discuss the relative performances of the tested configurations and show that each leads to singular key features, which therefore drives their selection as a function of the target application. The most sensitive configuration presents a limit of detection of 10⁻¹² g/mL in laboratory settings and was successfully used ex vivo in freshly resected lung tissues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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13 pages, 2938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Turn-On Fluorescence-Based Fibre Optic Sensor for the Detection of Mercury

by T. Hien Nguyen, Tong Sun and Kenneth T. V. Grattan

Sensors 2019, 19(9), 2142; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19092142 - 9 May 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7504

Abstract

The design, development, and evaluation of an optical fibre sensor for the detection of Hg²⁺ in aqueous media are discussed in detail in this paper. A novel fluorescent polymeric material for Hg²⁺ detection, based on a coumarin derivative (acting as the fluorophore) and an azathia crown ether moiety (acting as the mercury ion receptor), has been synthesized. The fluorophore was covalently immobilized onto the fibre surface by polymerisation using the ion imprinting technique and exhibited a significant increase in fluorescence intensity in response to Hg²⁺ via a photoinduced electron transfer (PET) mechanism. The sensor provided a response over a concentration range of 0–28 µM with an acceptable response rate of around 11 min and a recovery rate of around 30 min in a Tris-EDTA buffer solution. A detection limit of 0.15 µM was obtained with a possibility of improvement by changing the thickness of the polymer layer and using a more sensitive detector. High-quality performance is seen through a high selectivity for Hg²⁺ over other metal ions, excellent photo-stability and reversibility which was also demonstrated, making this type of sensor potentially well suited for in-situ monitoring of mercury in the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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16 pages, 2024 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Incoherent Optical Frequency-Domain Reflectometry Based on Homodyne Electro-Optic Downconversion for Fiber-Optic Sensor Interrogation

by Juan Clement, Haroldo Maestre, Germán Torregrosa and Carlos R. Fernández-Pousa

Sensors 2019, 19(9), 2075; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19092075 - 4 May 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4469

Abstract

Fiber-optics sensors using interrogation based on incoherent optical frequency-domain reflectometry (I-OFDR) offer benefits such as the high stability of interference in the radio-frequency (RF) domain and the high SNR due to narrowband RF detection. One of the main impairments of the technique, however, is the necessity of high-frequency detectors and vector network analyzers (VNA) in systems requiring high resolution. In this paper, we report on two C-band implementations of an I-OFDR architecture based on homodyne electro-optic downconversion enabling detection without VNA and using only low-bandwidth, high-sensitivity receivers, therefore alleviating the requirements of conventional I-OFDR approaches. The systems are based on a pair of modulators that are synchronized to perform modulation and homodyne downconversion at a reference frequency of 25.5 kHz. In the first system, we attain centimeter resolution with a sensitivity down to −90 dB using the modulation frequency range comprised between 3.2 and 14.2 GHz. In the second, we measured, for the first time using this approach, Rayleigh backscattering traces in standard single mode fiber with resolution of 6 m and a sensitivity of −83 dB by use of the 10.1–30.1 MHz range. These results show the feasibility of these simple, homodyne downconversion I-OFDR systems as compact interrogators for distributed or quasi-distributed optical fiber sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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12 pages, 3445 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Strain Transfer Mechanism of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor for Extra Large Strain Monitoring

by Li Sun, Chuang Li, Chunwei Zhang, Tianqi Liang and Zihao Zhao

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1851; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081851 - 18 Apr 2019

Cited by 133 | Viewed by 5290

Abstract

This research focuses on a desensitization method to develop a wide-range FBG sensor for extra-large strain monitoring, which is an essential requirement in large scale infrastructures or for some special occasions. Under appropriate hypotheses, the strain transfer distribution of wide-range FBG sensor based on the shear-lag theory is conducted to improve the accuracy of extra-large strain measurements. It is also discussed how the elastic modulus of adhesive layer affects the strain transfer rate. Two prototypes in different monitoring ranges are designed and fabricated by two layers of steel pipe encapsulation. The presented theoretical model is verified by experimental results. Moreover, it is demonstrated that experimentation in regards to the calibration of the wide-range FBG sensor, improved the amplification coefficient up to 2.08 times and 3.88 times, respectively. The static errors are both calculated and analyzed in this experiment. The wide-range FBG strain sensor shows favourable linearity and stability, which is an excellent property of sensors for extra-large strain monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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13 pages, 4604 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Encapsulation of Fiber Optic Sensors in 3D Printed Packages for Use in Civil Engineering Applications: A Preliminary Study

by Richard Scott, Miodrag Vidakovic, Sanjay Chikermane, Brett McKinley, Tong Sun, Pradipta Banerji and Kenneth Grattan

Sensors 2019, 19(7), 1689; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19071689 - 9 Apr 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5245

Abstract

Fiber optic sensors have considerable potential for measuring strains in the challenging environment posed by today’s civil engineering applications. Their long-term reliability and stability are particularly important attributes for assessing, with confidence, effects such as cracking and response to normal (and abnormal) loads. However, given the fragile nature of the bare fiber, the sensors must be packaged to achieve adequate robustness but the resulting increased cost of installation can frequently limit the number of sensors which can be installed or their use may have to be ruled out altogether due to these financial constraints. There is thus potential for the development of a more affordable type of packaging and this paper describes work undertaken to produce a cost-effective and easy-to-use technique for encapsulating fiber optic sensors in resin, taking advantage of 3D printing techniques which are widely available and at low cost. This approach can be used to produce a robust, inexpensive packaged sensor system which is seen as being suitable to be extended to a wider range of uses including installation in concrete structures prior to casting. To evaluate this approach, several such 3D printed package types and geometries are described and their behavior is assessed from a programme of laboratory trials, the results of which are presented in this paper. This proof-of-concept testing has demonstrated the considerable potential which 3D printed packages have and the scope for further development and consequent use in civil engineering applications. Areas showing promise and potential, which have been identified from the work undertaken, are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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15 pages, 3392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Gamma-Ray Irradiation on the Growth of Au Nano-Particles Embedded in the Germano-Silicate Glass Cladding of the Silica Glass Fiber and its Surface Plasmon Resonance Response

by Seongmin Ju and Won-Taek Han

Sensors 2019, 19(7), 1666; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19071666 - 8 Apr 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3605

Abstract

The effect of γ-ray irradiation on the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensing capability of refractive index (n = 1.418–1.448) of the silica glass optical fiber comprised of germano-silicate glass cladding embedded with Au nano-particles (NPs) was investigated. As the γ-ray irradiation increased from 1 h to 3 h with the dose rate of 1190 Gy/h, the morphology of the Au NPs and the SPR spectrum were found to change. The average diameter of Au NPs increased with the aspect ratio from 1 to 2, and the nano-particles became grown to the clusters. The SPR band wavelength shifted towards a longer wavelength with the increase of total dose of γ-ray irradiation regardless of the corresponding refractive indices. The SPR sensitivities (wavelength/refractive index unit, nm/RIU) also increased from 407 nm/RIU to 3553 nm/RIU, 1483 nm/RIU, and 2335 nm/RIU after the γ-ray irradiation at a total dose of 1190 Gy, 2380 Gy, and 3570 Gy, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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14 pages, 5151 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Cost Interrogation System for Long-Period Fiber Gratings Applied to Remote Sensing

by P.S.S. dos Santos, P.A.S. Jorge, José M.M.M. de Almeida and L. Coelho

Sensors 2019, 19(7), 1500; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19071500 - 28 Mar 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4033

Abstract

We present a portable and low-cost system for interrogation of long-period fiber gratings (LPFGs) costing around a 30th of the price of a typical setup using an optical spectrum analyzer and a broadband light source. The unit is capable of performing real-time monitoring or as a stand-alone data-logger. The proposed technique uses three thermally modulated fiber-coupled laser diodes, sweeping a few nanometers around their central wavelength. The light signal is then modulated by the LPFG and its intensity is acquired by a single photo-detector. Through curve-fitting algorithms the sensor transmission spectrum is reconstructed. Testing and validation were accomplished by inducing variations in the spectral features of an LPFG through changes either in external air temperature from 22 to 425 °C or in refractive index (RI) of the surrounding medium from 1.3000 to 1.4240. A dynamic resolution between 3.5 and 1.9 °C was achieved, in temperatures from 125 to 325 °C. In RI measurements, maximum wavelength and optical power deviations of 2.75 nm and 2.86 dB, respectively, were obtained in the range from 1530 to 1570 nm. The worse RI resolution obtained was

3.47 \times 10^{- 3}

. The interrogation platform was then applied in the detection of iron corrosion, expressing wavelength peak values within 1.12 nm from the real value in the region between 1530 and 1570 nm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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11 pages, 1290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Separation of Enantiomeric Impurities in Chiral Molecules by a Self-Referential Weak Measurement System

by Yang Xu, Lixuan Shi, Tian Guan, Suyi Zhong, Xuesi Zhou, Dongmei Li, Cuixia Guo, Yuxuan Yang, Xiangnan Wang, Zhangyan Li, Yonghong He, Luyuan Xie and Zonghan Gan

Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3788; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18113788 - 6 Nov 2018

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3059

Abstract

We propose a self-referential fast detection scheme for a frequency domain weak measurement system for the detection of enantiomeric impurities in chiral molecules. In a transmissive weak measurement system, the optical rotation (OR) is used to modify the pre-selected polarization state and the post-selection polarization state. We obtained the sum and difference of the optical rotations produced by the sample and the standard by rotating the quarter wave plate in the system. Then, we estimate the ratio of chiral molecules to enantiomeric impurities using the ratio of the central wavelength shifts caused by the addition and subtraction states described above. In this paper, our system has an optical resolution of 1.88 × 10⁻⁵°. At the same time, we completed the detection of the ratio of the two substances in the mixture of L-proline and D-proline in different proportions, which proved that our system can quickly detect the content of enantiomeric impurities in chiral molecules. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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14 pages, 2913 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Parameter Sensing Device to Detect Liquid Layers Using Long-Period Fiber Gratings

by Zhihui Pan, Ying Huang and Hai Xiao

Sensors 2018, 18(9), 3094; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18093094 - 14 Sep 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3617

Abstract

Insoluble liquids show layers such as water and oil. The detection of the exact interface locations and the level changes for layered liquids are of paramount importance for chemistry purifications, liquid storage in reservoirs, oil transportation, and chemical engineering. However, accurately measuring liquid layers is challenging. This paper introduces a multi-parameter sensing device based on a long-period fiber grating (LPFG) sensor simultaneously detecting boundary and level changes of layered liquids. Laboratory experiments demonstrated that the sensor device would respond to the liquid interface change as a sharp and sudden resonant wavelength change, while it would show a gradual and steady resonant wavelength change to the level changes of layered liquids. The lab experiments also showed that the sensor device has a higher sensitivity when a higher LPFG cladding mode is used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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11 pages, 2851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simple and Low-Cost Optical Fiber Intensity-Based Configuration for Perfluorinated Compounds in Water Solution

by Nunzio Cennamo, Girolamo D’Agostino, Filipa Sequeira, Francesco Mattiello, Gianni Porto, Adriano Biasiolo, Rogério Nogueira, Lúcia Bilro and Luigi Zeni

Sensors 2018, 18(9), 3009; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18093009 - 8 Sep 2018

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5183

Abstract

We present a very simple approach for the detection of the Perfluorinated Alkylated Substances (PFAs) in water solution. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) are the most extensively investigated perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water because human exposition can occur through different pathways, even if the dietary intake seems to be their main route of exposure. The developed sensor is based on a specific Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP) receptor deposited on a simple D-shaped Plastic Optical Fiber (POF) platform. This novel chemical sensor has been characterized using a very simple and low-cost experimental setup based on an LED and two photodetectors. This optical sensor system is an alternative method to monitor the presence of contaminants with an MIP receptor, instead of a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor in D-shaped POFs. For the sake of comparison, the results obtained exploiting the same MIP for PFAs on a classic SPR-POF sensor have been reported. The experimental results have shown that the actual limit of detection of this new configuration was about 0.5 ppb. It is similar to the one obtained by the configuration based on an SPR-POF with the same MIP receptor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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Review

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20 pages, 4956 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Methods for Fibre-Optic Distributed Chemical Sensing

by Xin Lu, Peter James Thomas and Jon Oddvar Hellevang

Sensors 2019, 19(13), 2876; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19132876 - 28 Jun 2019

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 8565

Abstract

Chemical sensing is of great importance in many application fields, such as medicine, environmental monitoring, and industrial process control. Distributed fibre-optic sensing received significant attention because of its unique feature to make spatially resolved measurements along the entire fibre. Distributed chemical sensing (DCS) is the combination of these two techniques and offers potential solutions to real-world applications that require spatially dense chemical measurements covering large length scales. This paper presents a review of the working principles, current status, and the emerging trends within DCS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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20 pages, 6379 KiB

Open AccessReview

New Trends in the Simulation of Nanosplasmonic Optical D-Type Fiber Sensors

by Ariel Guerreiro, Diego Felipe Santos and José Manuel Baptista

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1772; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081772 - 13 Apr 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4048

Abstract

This article presents a review of the numerical techniques employed in simulating plasmonic optical sensors based on metal-dielectric nanostructures, including examples, ranging from conventional D-type fiber sensors, to those based on photonic crystal D-type fibers and incorporating metamaterials, nanowires, among other new materials and components, results and applications. We start from the fundamental physical processes, such as optical and plasmonic mode coupling, and discuss the implementation of the numerical model, optical response customization and their impact in sensor performance. Finally, we examine future perspectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2018–2019)

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